WDP-88 World Bank Discussion Papers Africa Technical Department Senies Implementing Educational Policies in S-wvaziland Cisco Magalula Recent World Bank Discussion Papers No. 32 Tenancy in South Asia. Inderjit Singh No. 33 Land and Labor in South Asia. Indejit Singh No. 35 Global Trends in Real Exchange Rates. Adrian Wood No. 36 Income Distribution and Economic Development in Malawi: Some Historical Perspectives. Frederic L. Pryor No. 37 Income Distribution and Economic Development in Madagascar: Some Historical Perspectives. Frederic L. Pryor No. 38 Quality Controls of Traded Commodities and Services in Developing Countries. Simon Rottenberg and Bruce Yandle No. 39 Livestock Production in North Africa and the Middle East: Problems and Perspectives. John C. Glenn [Also available in French (39F)] No. 40 Nongovernmental Organizations and Local Development. Michael M. Cernea [Also available in Spanish (40S)] No. 41 Patterns of Development: 1950 to 1983. 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John Middleton and Terry Demsky No 52 The Market-Based Menu Approach in Action: The 1988 Brazil Financing Package. Ruben Lamdany No. D3 Pathways to Change: Improving the Quality of Education in Developing Countries. Adriaan Verspoor No. 54 Education Managersfor Business and Government. Samuel Paul, Jacob Levitsky, and John C. Ickis No. 55 Subsidies and Countervailing Measures: Critical Issuesfor the Uruguay Round. Bela Balassa, editor No. 56 Mianaging Public Expenditure: An Evolving World Bank Perspective. Robert M. Lacey No. 57 The Management of Common Property Natural Resources. Daniel W. Bromley and Michael M. Cernea No. 58 Making the Poor Creditworthy: A Case Study of the Integrated Rural Development Program in India. Robert Pulley No. 59 Improving Family Planning, Health, and Nutrition Outreach in India: Experiencefrom Some World Bank-Assisted Programs. Richard Heaver No. 60 Fighting Malnutrition: Evaluation of Brazilian Food and ANutrition Programs. Philip Musgrove (Continued on the inside back cover.) Implementing Educational Pol'iciles in S-waziland World Bank Discussion Papers Africa Technical Department Series Studies on Implementation of African Educational Policies No. 82 Why Educational Policies Can Fail: An Overview of Selected African Experiences No. 83 Comparative African Experiences in Implementing Educational Policies No. 84 Implementing Educational Policies in Ethiopia No. 85 Implementing Educ.-tional Policies in Kenya No. 86 Implementing Educational Policies in Tanzania No. 87 Implementing Educational Policies in Lesotho No. 88 Implementing Educational Policies in Swaziland No. 89 Implementing Educational Policies in Uganda No. 90 Implementing Educational Policies in Zambia No. 91 Implementing Educational Policies in Zimbabwe The set of studies on implementation of African educational policies was edited by Mr. George Psacharopoulos. Mr. Psacharopoulos wishes to acknowledge the help of Professor G. Eshiwani, who beyond being the author of the case study on Kenya (see No. 85) has coordinated the production of the other case studies in the region. 88 World Bank Discussion Papers Afiica Technical Department Series Implementing Educational Policies in Swaziland Cisco Magalula The World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright C 1990 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printingJuly 1990 Discussion Papers present results of country analysis or research that is circulated to encourage discussion and comment within the development community. To present these results with the least possible delay, the typescript of this paper has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. 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ISSN: 0259-210X Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Magalula, Cisco. Implementing educational policies in Swaziland / Cisco Magalula. p. cm.-(Studies on implementation of African educational policies, ISSN 0259-21OX) (World Bank discussion papers; 88. Africa Technical Department series) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-1585-4 1. Education and state-Swaziland. 2. Education-Swaziland- -History. I. Title. II. Series. III. Series: World Bank discussion papers; no. 88. IV. Series: World Bank discussion papers. Africa Technical Department series. LC95.S78M34 1990 379.6887-dc2O 90-40921 CIP FOREWORD The decades of the 1960s and 1970s witnessed dramatic quantitative growth in African education systems. Beyond expanding educational places, many African countries pronounced intentions to "reform" their educational systems, by adjusting the length of education cycles, altering the terms of access to educational opportunity, changing the curriculum content, or otherwise attempting to link the provision of education and training more closely to perceived requirements for national socio-economic development. Strong economic growth performances of most African economies encouraged optimistic perceptions of the ability of governments to fulfill educational aspirations which were set forth in educational policy pronouncements. Sadly, the adverse economic conditions of the 1980s, combined with population growth rates which are among the highest in the world meant that by the early 1980s, education enrollment growth stalled and the quality of education at all levels was widely regarded as having deteriorated. In recognition of the emerging crisis in African education, the World Bank undertook a major review to diagnose the problems of erosion of quality and stagnation of enrollments. Emerging from that work was a policy study, Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policies for Adiustment. Revitalization, and Expansion, which was issued in 1988. That study does not prescribe one set of education policies for all of Sub-Saharan Africa. Rather, it presents a framework within which countries may formulate strategies tailored to their own needs and circumstances. In fact, a central point which is stressed in the study is the need for each country to develop its own country-specific education strategy and policies, taking into account the country's unique circumstances, resource endowment and national cultural heritage. The crucial role of national strategies and policies cannot be over- emphasized. In recognition of the centrality of sound policies as a basis for progress, in 1987 the Bank's Education and Training Department (the relevant unit responsible for the policy, planning and research function at that time) commissioned a set of papers by African analysts on the comparative experiences of eight Anglophone Eastern and Southern African countries, each of which had developed and issued major education policy reforms or pronouncements. The papers give special attention to deficiencies in the design and/or implementation processes that account for the often-yawning gaps between policy intentions and outcomes. The lessons afforded by the eight African case studies, along with a broader- perspective assessment of educational policy implementation, are presented in the papers by George Psacharopoulos (the overall manager of the set of studies) and John Craig. The eight country case studies are presented in companion reports. By disseminating this set of studies on the implementation of African educational policies, it is hoped that the lessons of experience will be incorporated into the current efforts by African countries to design and implement national policies and programs to adjust, revitalize and selectively expand the education and training systems which prepare Africa's human resources, the true cornerstone of African development. Htans Wyss Director Technical Department Africa Region ABSTRACT At the time of independence from Britain in 1968, education in Swaziland was characterized by poor quality, uneven distribution of schools, high dropout and repeater rates, serious shortages of teachers, and inappropriate and highly academic curricula. This paper describes the status of present-day education in Swaziland in terms of the effect of government policies on the primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors. Because current trends in education are the cumulative result of policies followed since independence, the historical development of education policy is traced in quinquennials that correspond to each of the four post-independence five-year National Development Plans. The policies of the first three five-year periods are followed by an appraisal of the achievements and failures of the period with regard to policy objectives and policy procedures. The final chapter on the Fourth Plan (1984-88) lists priority areas for continued improvement-- improved teacher training, curriculum development, support to the sector from the Ministry of Education, and more systematic educational planning, monitoring, and evaluation. An annex includes the detailed recommendations of the National Review Commission Report of 1985. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................... 1 Basic Data ........................................................1 2. SWAZILAND'S EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY, POLICIES AND OBJECTIVES SINCE INDEPENDENCE ..................................... 3 3. EDUCATION AND TRAINING OBJECTIVES FOR THE PERIOD 1969-1973 ..................................... 5 4. ACHIEVEMENT AND FAILURES DURING THE FIRST NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN PERIOD 1969-1973 .................................8 5. EDUCATIONAL AND TRAINING DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES FOR THE PERIOD 1973-1978 ................................... 14 6. THE FIRST POST-INDEPENDENCE NATIONAL EDUCATION REVIEW COMMISSION: ITS CONCERNS, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........... 15 Primary Level .................................................... 16 Secondary Level .................................................. 19 Teacher Training ................................................. 21 Curricula Reform ................................................. 22 The Education (Consolidation) Order, 1975 ........................ 22 7. EDUCATIONAL AND TRAINING ACHIEVEMENT FACILITIES FOR THE PERIOD 1973-1978..............................................24 Primary Education .................................. 24 Secondary Education .................................. 29 Secondary Curriculum Development ................................. 32 Teacher Training .................................. 32 Non-formal Education .................................. 33 8. EDUCATION AND TRAINING DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES FOR THE PERIOD 1979-1983............................................. 34 9. ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES DURING THE THIRD NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN 1979-1983....................................... 38 Primary Education ...... 38 Secondary Education ...... 39 Teacher Training ...... 47 Curriculum Development ...... 48 Adult and Non-formal Education ...... 49 Special Education ...... 49 10.EDUCATION AND TRAINING DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND/OR OBJECTIVES FOR THE FOURTH-YEAR PERIOD 1984-1988 ...... 50 APPENDIX I ...... 53 Recommendations of the National Review Commission 1985 ...... 53 APPENDIX II ...... 67 Further Statistical Information ...... 67 REFERENCES ...... 70 1. INTRODUCTION The purpose of this paper is to relate the status of present-day educational development in Swaziland in so far as the policies of government have affected primary, secondary and tertiary education. An effective account of current trends in education requires that an historical account be given of the education policies that have been pursued since the time of Swaziland's political independence. With this end in view, this historical development has been considered in quinquennials that correlate with each of the four independence post-five-year National Development plans. The policies of each quinquennial are followed by an appraisal of the achievement and failures of the set objectives and procedures. The concluding chapter focuses its critical attention on three major policies on education which have dominated the lives of the majority of Swaziland's parents and youth. Basic Data The Kingdom of Swaziland gained political independence from Britain in 1968. It covers 1,7364 Km2 and is one of the smallest countries on the African continent. SiSwati is the one and only indigenous language. English, which is also the chief medium of instruction at all levels of formal education, is the second official language of the country. The last population census was taken in 1976, however, the estimated population of 1983, which was based on the 1976 growth rate of 3.42 per annum, was given as 644,298 persons. It was then expected that this population would double in 20 years and would have exceeded the one million mark by the year 2000 (see diagram 1.1). Approximately 462 of the entire population is composed of school-age children, of which the ratio of boys to girls is almost 50:50 from the primary level to junior secondary school, that is, during the first ten years of school; thereafter the enrollment of boys has a slight edge over the enrollment of girls (see diagram 1.2). The Ministry of Education is responsible for the control of all forms of formal education from primary school to University. It is also responsible for pre-school and special education as well as certain forms of adult and non-formal education. The formal sector begins at age 6, with primary school - 2 - frogm grades 1 to 7. A public examination, monitored by the Ministry of Education, selects those who qualify for the Swaziland Primary Certificate (SPC) and admission to secondary school. The next stage, secondary education, is dILvided into a three-year junior and a two-year senior secondary school. The jurior secondary school, from Form I to Form III, culminates in a public exal251nation, the Junior Certificate (JC), which is terminal and is monitored by a. local Examinations Council. The syllabi and examination (COSC)1 of the last two years of senior secondary or high school are controlled by the Cambridge Examination Syndicate in Britain. Thereafter, successful high school leavers may be admitted into such tertiary institutions such as Teacher Colleges or the University of Swaziland. In summary, the formal education oattern is as follows: .5A&eXjt tt No. of Years PFre-school unspecified unspecified Primary Grades 1 to 7 6 to 12 to 13 years 7 a.nior Secondary Forms 1 to 3 13 to 15 or 16 years 3 .'igh School Forms 4 to 5 16 to 17 or 18 years 2 .her College unspecified 2 (extended to 3 as of 1987) iniversity unspecified 4 (at least) sSee also Swaziland Educational Structure.) I Cambridge Overseas School Certificate. - 3 - 2. SWAZILAND'S EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY, POLICIES AND OBJECTIVES SINCE INDEPENDENCE Like most developing countries, immediately after obtaining Independence, Swaziland looked upon education as main factor in nation building and fulfillment of individual aspirations and needs. It is therefore not surprising to note that the educational policies drawn up immediately after Independence were based on social demands rather than economic factors. In prefacing the first post-independence National Development Plan (1969-1973), the first Prime Minister of Swaziland, Prince Makhosini DlamT,i, stated, "The plan is a program of socio-economic action aimed primarily at improving the living conditions of the mass of the people of Swaziland" (p.i). Consequently, the government of Swaziland invested a lot of money in education. For example, education, training and broadcasting were allocated E3,310,000, i.e., the second largest share of the total investment in 1969- 1973. Therefore, this section of the paper will summarize Swaziland's educational philosophy, policies, and objectives since independence. It should be pointed out from the onset that these policies and objectives have not changed since they were proclaimed by the Government of Swaziland in the early seventies in the Imbokodvo National Manifesto (1972) and the first post- independence National Development Plan (1969). The Imbokodvo National Manifesto states that: a) The Government of Swaziland believes that education is an inalienable right of every child and every citizen, to receive to the limit of his/her capabilities; b) The purpose of education is to produce an enlightened and participant citizenry; c) Therefore the content of education must be work-oriented from the primary to the higher levels; d) The ultimate goal is to achieve universal free primary education for every child of Swaziland; e) Merit and aptitude will be the only criteria for selection into secondary and other forms of higher education; - 4 - f) Special state bursaries and scholarships for higher education will continue to be supported; g) Improved and enlarged facilities for secondary education, with special extra-mural facilities, will continue to be provided; h) Specialized educational institutions, including special schools for handicapped and retarded children, will be provided; i) The control of education lies with the government of Swaziland whether it concerns state schools, subsidized schools or private undertakings; j) The policy of the Government of Swaziland is that all education should be designed to inculcate love for the land, loyalty to the King and country, self-respect, self-discipline, respect for the law accompanied by the highest degree of knowledge and the building of character; k) Realizing the crucial role of the teaching force in implementing the above educational policies, the government of Swaziland declared as a policy that teachers should be well looked after by providing them with, for example, a free ordinary medical scheme, pension scheme, Teaching Service Commission, etc. Having summarized the major educational and training policies of the Kingdom of Swaziland, the next section of this paper will examine the first quinquennial's development objectives (i.e. 1969-1973). - 5 - 3. EDUCATION AND TRAINING OBJECTIVES FOR THE PERIOD 1969-1973 Swaziland, like most developing countries, was faced with many serious educational problems immediately after independence in 1968. These problems ranged from the poor quality of education to the few, unevenly distributed schools, high dropout, repeater and failure rates, serious shortage of trained teachers, and inappropriate and highly academic curricula at both primary and secondary levels. According to the first post-independence Development Plan (1968- 1973), 402 of the children of ages 7-13 years were not attending primary school in 1968. Two-thirds of the primary school children were estimated to be failing to complete their primary education. This was due, in part, to the fact that a significant number of primary teachers were unqualified. In 1968, for instance, out of 1600 primary teachers, 400 had no secondary education. Meanwhile, at the secondary school level, about 70Z of the children of the age group 14-18 years were not at school. The uneven distribution of schools further contributed to the high dropout/failure rate and to the small number of children going to school because time made it physically impossible for some children to travel every day from home to schools. At the tertiary educational level, the most serious problem was a lack of information concerning the manpower requirements in the public and private sectors. The Government of Swaziland had no basis to decide as to how many semi-skilled and skilled workers were required for what jobs. Lack of information concerning manpower requirements compounded the issue of localization and of the pace government should take to implement localization. In view of the above problems, the Government of Swaziland, in the same first post-independence Development Plan (1969-1973), proclaimed three important policy decisions, namely: 1- To make primary education universal and free; -6- 2. To make secondary education free and available to all children who wanted it and were capable of profiting from it; 3. To ensure that tertiary education level professional technicians and graduates were trained to meet the manpower requirements in both private and public sectors. Invariably, during the First National Development Plan (1969-1973), the Government of Swaziland stated as its development objectives: The expansion and improvement of secondary education; the training of teachers and other professionals; curriculum development; and planning and mounting of new development educational programs. In fact, the Government of Swaziland went to the extent of setting up specific targets it hoped to meet by the end of the first plan period. At the primary educational level, for instance, it promised to increase annually, on the average, 2,000 primary students by providing more facilities and resources. In 1968, the total enrollment of primary students was 62,000 students. Similarly, at the secondary educational level, the Government of Swaziland planned to increase enrollment by 10Z per year. Thus by 1973, secondary school enrollment was expected to be about 10,000 students. In 1968 total secondary schools' enrollment was 6,200 students. With respect to the tertiary educational level, the Government of Swaziland promised to conduct a thorough study of manpower needs of the country, and thereafter produce about 100 graduates and technician specialists for both private and public sectors. In fact, the annual output of primary and junior secondary teachers was expected to increase from 100 to approximately 200 per year over the plan period. The Government of Swaziland recognized that formal education was not going to solve all the educational problems facing the adult population as well as the ever increasing numbers of illiterate youth. As a result, it decided to expand vocational institutions, District Farmers' Training Centers, Youth Training Camps and a National Illiteracy Campaign through the Sebenta National Institute. - 7 - The next important question ist How far did the Government of Swaziland succeed or fail to achieve the targets set out at the beginning of the first post-independence plan? The next section will address itself to this question. 4. ACHIEVEMENT AND FAILURES DURING THE FIRST NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN PERIOD 1969-1973 A review of the first five years of post-independence regarding the educational aims and objectives set out in the First National Development Plan 1969-1973, shows that there were some significant achievements as well as inevitable notable failures. With regard to successes, over the first plan period, there was considerable expansion of primary and secondary education. In 1969, for instance, there were 366 primary schools with a total enrollment of 64,411 primary students and a teaching force of 1,739 primary teachers. However, in 1973, there were 395 primary schools (an increase of 8Z) with a total enrollment of 81,694 (an increase of 27Z) primary students and a teaching force of 2112 primary teachers (an increase of 212) (See Table 1). Table 1 Pupils and Teachers in Primary Schools 1969-1973 -----------------------------------------------------------__------------ Year No. of schools No. of Pupils No. of teachers 1969 366 64,411 7,739 1970 351 69,055 1,706 1971 366 71,455 1,895 1972 392 76.343 2,015 1973 395 81,694 2,112 Z increase 8 27 21 Source: Second National Development Plan At the secondary level, within the same five-year period of the first plan, there were 42 secondary schools in 1969 with a total enrollment of 6,777 students and a teaching force of 366 secondary teachers. In 1973, secondary schools were now 64 (52Z increase) with an enrollment of 12,459 (842 increase) and a teaching force of 550 teachers (502 increase) (See Table 2). Table 2 Pupils and Teachers in Secondary Schools 1969-1973 _______________________________________________________________________ Year No. of Schools No. of Pupils No. of Teachers -----------------------------------------------------------------__---- 1969 42 6,777 366 1970 54 8,027 432 1971 54 9,001 448 1972 62 10,681 491 1973 64 12,459 550 Z increase 52 84 50 Source: Second National Development Plan There were also significant developments in vocational and tertiary education. The Swaziland Industrial Training Institute was expanded and new courses were introduced at both artisan and technician levels to offset the problems of middle level manpower requirements. In particular, the Staff Training Institute was instrumental in training quite a large number of civil servants, thereby speeding up the process of localization, particularly at the lower and middle levels. Within the same plan period, the Swaziland Agriculture College was developed into a center of agriculture training for - 10 - the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland (UBLS). In addition, for the first time, Part 1 degree programs of the UBLS were introduced in Swaziland. Despite these notable significant achievements during the plan period (1969-1973), there were quite a number of problems that kept appearing, thereby tarnishing some of the achievements. For example, although there were more children attending school at both primary and secondary levels at the end of the first plan period, there were still a considerable number of them receiving very little or no schooling at all. Out of a total of 167,021 children of the age range 5-19 years, 76,227 were in primary schools and 9,576 were in secondary schools in 1972. In other words, 85,803 (51.4Z) of the primary and secondary pupils between age group 5-19 were attending school in 1972 compared to 81,218 (48.6%) who were not. Secondly, the quality of education at both primary and secondary levels was still below the acceptable level. This was reflected, in part, by the high rates of repetition and drop out. According to 1972 Education Statistics, less than a quarter of entrants into Grade I and Form I were expected to complete their primary and secondary courses respectively with the majority repeating at some stage or dropping out of the system. (See Table 3.) The quality of education in Swaziland was partially affected by the poor quality of teachers some of whom were still underqualified. The Second National Development Plan points out that during the first plan period (1969- 1973) 35% of the primary teachers were underqualified. Meanwhile, at the secondary level there was a chronic shortage of science and mathematics teachers -- subjects that were vital to the economic development of the country. This led to a heavy reliance on expatriate teachers. In other words, the Teacher Training Institutions were not producing enough teachers to cope with the ever increasing school enrollments. (See Table 4). - 11 - Table 3 Rates of Continuation, Repetition and Drop-Out Between Primary School Classes 1971 and 1972 Continuing Z Z Overall to Next Repeating Dropping Rate of Enrollment Class in Class in out of Contin- Class in 1971 1972 1/ 1972 1/ System 1/ uation 2/ Grade I 14,524 78.9 16.0 5.1 100.0 Grade II 12,149 88.7 11.4 -0.13 78.9 Standard 12,041 78.1 13.4 8.5 70.0 Standard II 10,347 76.2 16.8 7.0 54.7 Standard III 8,796 73.6 17.7 8.7 41.6 Standard IV 6,913 72.4 18.3 9.3 30.7 Standard V 6,685 54.5 28.5 17.0 22.2 Notes: 1/ This percentage is affected by re-starters, that is pupils who return to school to continue their course after an absence of one or more years. No information is available on re-starters at present. 2/ This columns shows the percentage of a given enrollment in Grade I which would survive to each successive year given the rates of continuation, repetition and drop-out between 1971 and 1972. 3/ This negative drop-out rate may be the result of an abnormally high number of re-starters. Source: Second National Development Plan - 12 - Table 4 Secondary School Teaching Staff by Qualification and Citizenship of Teacher and Type of School, 1972 Citizenship of Teacher Post- Pre- and Type of Total Graduate Matric Metric School Teachers ------------------ with with Uncer- Trained Untrained Training Training tified Government Swazi 85 20 13 38 10 4 Other 114 34 48 24 2 6 Total 199 54 61 62 12 10 Grant-aided Swazi 100 23 8 32 23 14 Other 192 54 76 39 11 12 Total 299 77 84 71 34 26 All Secondary Schools Swazi 185 43 21 70 33 18 Other 306 88 124 63 13 18 Total 491 131 145 133 46 36 Source: Second National Development Plan. - 13 - Thirdly, it was the Government of Swaziland's intention to reorient the curricula towards practically oriented subjects at both primary and secondary levels so as to equip school leavers with basic practical skills to sell. This was not achieved during the first plan period. Subjects such as agriculture, technical drawing, carpentry, woodworking, metal works, home economics, etc. were not introduced in the schools. Thus, the school curricula at both primary and secondary levels by the end of the first plan period were as academic as ever. Inevitably, in the light of the shortcomings experienced in the First National Development Plan (1969-1973) the Government of Swaziland identified three major areas needing special attention in the next plan period (1973-78) namely: 1. Restructuring the school system, raising the quality of education, and radically changing its academic orientation; 2. Making appropriate education and training available to as large a proportion of the population as possible; 3. Continuing with the policy of localization in both public and private sectors by expanding tertiary education and training programs such as on-the-job training schemes. It should be noted that the above major areas formed the broad aims of education and training in the next five-year period (i.e., 1973-1978). Thus, the next section of this paper will look at the development objectives of education and training within the period 1973-1978. - 14 - 5. EDUCATIONAL AND TRAINING DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES FOR THE PERIOD 1973-1978 Realizing the shortfalls of the first plan period, the Government of Swaziland decided to commit itself to the following educational and training objectives within the Second National Development Plan period namely: 1. To continue the expansion of primary education so as to achieve universal primary education. (It should be noted that "free" was now dropped out from U.P.E.); 2. To continue with the expansion of secondary education so as to make places available to all qualifying students (again the word "free' was dropped); 3. To reorient the curricula at both primary and secondary levels so as to counteract the non-technological bias to enable school leavers to move naturally into the employment sectors; 4. To raise the quality of education by reducing the high incidence of dropout and repeaters as well as by improving performance at all levels (that is producing better qualified teachers and improving school facilities); 5. To develop systems of non-formal education and training for youths and adults in order to raise the ability of individuals, particularly those with limited formal education, so that they contribute to rural development; 6. To expand facilities for tertiary education in order to meet the manpower requirements of both public and private sectors. In short, the Government of Swaziland's policies in the area of education and training during the second plan period were basically expansion at all levels and the improvement of the quality of education. However, during the latter part of the First National Development Plan (i.e., in 1972), the Government of Swaziland made a major policy decision to establis the first Post-Independence National Education Commission. Some of its findings and recommendations influenced the educational and training development objectives of the Second National Development Plan. Therefore, the next section of this paper will summarize the commission's observations, findings and recommendations. - 15 - 6. THE FIRST POST-INDEPENDENCE NATIONAL EDUCATION REVIEW COMISSION: ITS CONCERNS, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The Government of Swaziland was very much concerned about the type of education Swaziland had inherited from the colonial British government. It had problems which are already enunciated above namely: a highly academic curriculum geared towards white collar jobs and irrelevant, to a large extent, to the pressing needs of individuals and the nation. Thus, in 1972 the Government of Swaziland made a major policy decision: to restructure the Swaziland educational system. To do that, and be in line with the principles of democracy, the Government of Swaziland decided to hear the views of the entire nation as to which direction education in Swaziland should follow. Subsequently, in November 1972 the government of Swaziland established the First National Education Commission with the following task: to investigate the organization of education in the country and advise the government on desirable changes and future educational developments. In presenting the terms of reference to the commissioners, the Ministry of Education emphasized that, based on their investigations and findings, they should: 1. Give advice on matters pertaining to educational goals and objectives; 2. Formulate guidelines and structure of a new education advisory board and then recommended to government; 3. Give advice on the implementation of the government's decisions affecting education policy; matters pertaining to future expansion of primary and secondary education; and teacher training with respect to the location of new primary and secondary schools; 4. Give advice regarding aims and objectives for curricula reform; 5. Give advice on issues pertaining to regulations and procedures to be included in the new education act. Such regulations should deal with the flow of students through the educational system, e.g., examinations, promotions, repetition, selection of procedures, students' performance, etc.; 6. Investigate and report on the number of school years necessary to achieve the objectives of primary education; and the most efficient - 16 - organization of secondary education to deal with preparation for University studies and vocational training. In carrying out its tasks, the commission reviewed the whole education system of Swaziland, consulted pertinent documents, received written submissions from members of the public, and held numerous meetings and interviews across the entire nation. In 1975, the commissioners submitted their final report to the Minister of Education, titled: Report of the National Education Commission, 1975. Most of the concerns, findings and recommendations of the commission were noted and accepted by the government of Swaziland with the exception of free universal primary education (FUPE), and the expansion of senior secondary education. The government postponed the target date for achieving FUPE from 1980 to 1985. In addition, the word "free" was removed from both primary and secondary education. In the secondary system expansion was to be determined by manpower requirements rather than be made available to all students who qualified as the policy statement had said. The following sections will summarize the commission's concerns, findings and recommendations for each of the educational levels namely: primary, secondary and tertiary as well as curricula reform. Primary Level The commission agreed with the government policy of making primary education available to every child in Swaziland starting in 1985. It further agreed with the government's intention of expanding primary educational facilities and resources so as to achieve UPE. Thus, in its submission, the commission recommended the expansion of primary educational resources and facilities by mobilizing communities, through district education officers, to contribute financially and in kind to building classrooms nd teachers' houses. Concerning the issue of the quality of education at the primary level, the commission found that the high dropout rate was due in part to the lack of schools with full primary courses. Quite a number of primary schools went as far as Grade III, Grade IV, Grade V, or Grade VI (See Table 5). In - 17 - addition, the commission found that the high dropout rate of primary level was also caused by the fact that primary schools with Grade VII level were not evenly distributed throughout the country. Hence, quite a number of primary children who otherwise would not have dropped out of the system, did so because of the long distance they had to walk to and from the nearest primary school. Table 5 Primary Schools by Type of School and Highest Class Taught, 1972 ----------------------------------------------------------------__-----------__----- Type of No. of No. of Grade I Highest Class Taught School Schools Pupils or II Std.I Std.II Std.III Std.IV Std. V Government 1/ 41 12,708 1 - 5 1 2 32 Grand-aided 211 53,026 2 - 19 17 33 140 Private 140 10,609 4 9 73 30 24 - Total 392 76,343 7 9 97 48 59 172 (1OOZ) (1.8Z) (2.3Z) (24.7) (12.2Z) (15.1Z) (43.9%) Note: 1/ This includes: Kwaluseni Infant School Grade I and Grade II) Kwaluseni Primary School Std. I to Std. V ) Shown Manzini Infant School Grade I to Std. II ) Separately Manzini Central School Std. II to Std. V ) Source: Second National Development Plan - 18 - In the light of the problem of high dropouts, the commission recormended that all primary schools should be upgraded to full primary level as soon, as possible. Secondly, the commission suggested that District Education Officers, when planning the distribution of schools in the four districts, should involve communities. With respect to expanding educational facilities, in particular building new classrooms, the commission discovered that the government was subsidizing communities by purchasing building materials. However, the coim.rdssion recommended that a program should be set up indicating, not only priority areas, but specifically mentioning which communities and agencies should get grants for subsequent years. It also recommended that both goverrment and communities/agencies should contribute 50/50 in constructing classrooms and/or teachers' houses. On the issue of UPE, the commission found that facilities were lacking to accommodate all the children enrolled in primary education. It also found that there was a growing demand for primary eoiucarion even from under-age and over-age children. In 1972, for instance, no less than 12,564 pupils in primary schools were under 6 or over 12 years of age, In view of the under-age and over-age children blocking places for 6-13 gear old students in primary education, the commission recommended that UPE be introduced fully by 19802; that tuition should be free in order to give all children a fair chance to enroll if the government's main goal was to prevent illiteracy among adults in future; and that the primary curricula should be revised so as to meet individual needs as well as that of National Developmient. On formal education, in particular, in the rural areas, the cornaission noted the significance and necessity of developing a widespread rural educational program which would meet the urgent needs in training for early school leavers and adults. It therefore recommended formulation of a rural educational program that would cater to all sections of the rural population; address itself to the needs of self-employment in rural areas; be practically oriented; be extremely low-cost in terms of capital and staff; and be widely spread in the country. 2 The government postponed this date to 1985 and UPE was not to be free. - 19 - The commission envisaged two parallel rural educational programs, one for the youth and another for adults. It suggested that youth rural education programs should cater to out-of-school and over-age youths. Such a progralmne should provide the youth with basic-out-of-school course. The ultimate goal of organizing such a program for this group was to open more spaces in the primary education system for the 6-13 years old and hopefully achieve UPE by 1980. Secondary Level At the secondary school level, the commission discovered that there was a high demand for secondary education, and yet spaces and facilities in Form I and Form IV, to accommodate the qualifying students were limited, and hundreds of students each year failed to enroll. This was in direct contrast to the policy of Imbokodvo National Manifesto which spelt out that all pupils who had passed Standard V (Grade VII) should get a place in Form I. Furthermore, it contradicted the Government of Swaziland's objective, as stated in the Second National Development Plan (1973-1978), of making places in secondary educatxon available to all qualifying pupils. Secondly, the commission found that secondary schools were unevenly distributed in the country. It found, for example, that among the four districts, Manzini district had eight secondary schools with boarding facilities compared with Hhohho and Shiselweni districts, which had four such secondary schools each. Lubombo district had one. In the light of the above issues, the commission recommended that new junior secondary schools should be established in places or areas where none existed before or were inadequate. In particular, the commission recommended establishment of 14 new secondary schools among the four districts, namelyD Shiselweni District: 1. Hluti Secondary 2. Elulakeni Secondary 3. Enhletsheni Secondary 4. Lavumisa Secondary 5. KaMazombizwe Secondary - 20 - Lubombo District: 6. Big Bend Secondary 7. Mpolonijeni Secondary 8. Mpundle Secondary Hhohho District: 9. Dvokolwako Secondary 10. Etimpisini Secondary 11. Esigangeni Secondary 12. Ensingweni Secondary Manzini District: 13. Ekuphakameni Secondary 14. Dwalile Secondary All of the above schools have been established. Secondary schools should he double-streamed in order to increase the number of places as well as maximize the utilization of facilities and resources economically. With reference to expansion at the senior secondary level (high school), the Government of Swaziland, in the Second National Development Plan, suggested that those schools which had double-streaming, should triple steam. Such schools were, for example, Mbabane Central, Evelyn Baring, Mhlatane High and Lubombo Central. The commission concurred with government's suggestion to triple stream and further recommended that more secondary schools should be upgraded to Form V such as Ngwane Secondary, Entfonjeni Secondary, Siteki Nazarene and Vuvulane. (As of 1989, these schools have been upgraded to High Schools.) In addition, the commission recommended that a few high schools be upgraded to "A" level; and such schools should be evenly distributed throughout the country so as to give equal opportunities to all children. The commission suggested that, at least, there should be one "A" level school in each district. The commission also reviewed the geographical situation and need of boarding facilities to the country. It noted that existing boarding facilities ware catering to a few students and were expensive to operate. As a result, the commission recommended that boarding schools should be kept to a - 21 - minimum level. It also suggested that transportation facilities should be made available to take children to school. This would greatly minimize the incidence of high drop-out, repetition and failure rates. However, the commission, noting the fact that Lubombo District had no boarding facilities, recommended that Lubombo High School be converted into a boarding school. Teacher Training In reviewing the teaching force at all education levels, with the view of realizing the national educational goals and objectives, the comission found that about one third of primary teachers were unqualified or had qualifications below the minimum teacher qualification. It further noted that Teacher Training Institutions, including the teacher upgrading program, were not producing enough teachers to man the ever increasing number of students in the schools. To alleviate these problems, the commission recommended expansion of teacher training colleges. It also recommended construction of an additional teacher training college. At the secondary school level, the commission found a serious shortage of science and mathematics teachers. Subsequently, it recommended training of more science and mathematics teachers through special programs. One of the major policies of the Government of Swaziland was diversification of the curricula so that practical subjects such as woodworking, domestic science, home economics, and agriculture could be included. In view of this policy, the commission recommended training of specialized teachers in these subjects. In addition, the commission recommended that the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland should step up its output to at least 35 teacher graduates, of which 15 should be B.Sc graduates. - 22 - Curricula Reform Concerning the issues of curricula reform, with a view of realizing the policy of curricula divesification, the commission recommended that the duration of primary school should be six3 years, that of secondary school should be three years, and high school (Form IV-V) should be two years. In examining the aims and objectives of the curricula at all levels of the education system, the commission suggested that primary education should give a child a broad educational background and, in particular, basic numerical and literacy skills and general knowledge. With respect to secondary education, the commission suggested that the aims of education at this level should give the child a broad educational background as well as elementary skills to enable him to either engage in self-employment or proceed to high school or tertiary education. Regarding the content of the syllabi, in particular, at the secondary level, the commission suggested that it should have a broad aspect of practical oriented subjects so as to be in line with the aims of secondary education. The Education (Consolidation) Order, 1975 One of the terms of reference given to the commission was to give advice on issues pertaining to the establishment of the new educational act. In this connection, the commission recommended the establishment of the Education (Consolidation) Order whose aim was to set up six statutory bodies: a) The National Education Board; b) Four District Education Advisory Boards; c) The Adult Education Council. 3 The government of Swaziland did not accept this recommendation and stuck to 7 years of primary education. - 23 - Basically the function of these bodies was to advise the Minister of Education on educational issues throughout the system. Indeed, in 1977 the Education Rules, 1977 was gazetted and came into operation in the same year. These rules spelt out the control of schools, procedures for admitting pupils, hiring teachers, controlling discipline, examinations and award of certificates, etc. (See Appendix 1) The next section of this paper will look at the successes and/or failures of the Second National Development period 1973-1978. - 24 - 7. EDUCATIONAL AND TRAINING ACHIEVEMENT FACILITIES FOR THE PERIOD 1973 - 1978 Primary Education At the primary level the quantitative developments within the plan period were satisfactory. Enrollments increased by 23Z from 1973-1978. In addition, the number of primary teachers increased by 35Z within the same period. However, the rate of expansion of primary school facilities within the plan period was inadequate. From 1973 to 1978, for example, in spite of large enrollments and more teachers, the number of schools increased by only 10Z. (See Table 6). Table 6 Enrollments and Teachers in Primary Schools Year No. of Schools No. of Pupils Number of Teachers 1973 395 81,694 2,112 1974 403 86,110 2,220 1975 412 89,528 2,363 1976 420 92,721 2,513 1977 436 77,835 2,672 1978 436 100,700 2,853 Z increase 10 23 35 Source: Central Statistics Office, Annual Statistical Bulletin 1983 - 25 - A survey conducted by the Ministry of Education in 1975-1976 found that more than half the classrooms in primary schools were inadequate and the majority of them were without proper equipment and basic facilities. In addition, housing for teachers was inadequate. Although the number of primary school teachers did increase by 35Z between 1973 to 1978 the proportion of qualified and unqualified teachers did not change much in the same period. Table 7 Teacher Qualifications, Primary Schools Percent Year Qualified Unqualified Total Qualified 1973 1,618 494 2,112 76.6 1974 1,643 577 2,220 74.0 1975 1,644 719 2,363 69.9 1976 1,699 814 2,513 67.6 1977 1,978 694 2,672 74.0 1978 1,194 659 2,853 76.9 Source: Third and Fourth National Development Plans. Despite the fact that Teacher Training Colleges had increased their teacher enrollments through regular and in-service courses, they failed to cope with the pace of increasing primary school enrollments. - 26 - With respect to curriculum development, Grade I materials, from the Primary Curriculum Unit, established in 1973, were piloted in some selected primary schools. In addition, more buildings for the curriculum center as well as four other Teaching Innovation Development Centers were completed in 1977. Concerning the issue of the quality of education at primary level, in particular, regarding the continuation rates, there was some notable improvement in the flow of students in the system. This flow was due, in part, to the introduction of the normal progression policy in 1973 by the Ministry of Education. However, there was still a bottleneck at the Standard V (Grade VII) level where a significant number of students failed to pass the Swaziland Primary Certificate Examination (SPCE); and hence either dropped out of the system or repeated the Standard. In short, the government of Swaziland failed to eliminate repetition and drop out rates at the primary level. (See Tables 8 and 3.) On the other hand, the number of students passing SPCE increased while the number of failures, in terms of percentages, dropped during the plan period. In 1973, for example, the pass rate was 64.4Z and the failure rate was 35.6Z. However, in 1977, the pass rate was 752 and the failure rate was 25Z. (See Table 9). - 27 - Table 8 Rates of Continuation, Repetition and Drop-out Between Classes ln Primary Education z z Continuing Z Dropping Class Enrollment to Next Repeating Out of Year System 1972 Grade 1 15,864 79.5 13.1 7.4 Grade 2 12,856 89.4 9.5 1.2 Standard I 12,380 88.4 10.8 6.9 Standard II 11,142 79.5 13.8 6.7 Standard III 9,430 77.7 15.3 7.0 Standard IV 7,745 79.5 15.6 4.7 Standard V 6,911 56.8 29.5 13.8 1973 Grade 1 10,241 83.7 9.5 6.8 Grade 2 13,836 92.5 5.7 1.8 Standard I 12,828 85.9 7.7 6.4 Standard II 11.742 92.0 11.0 7.0 Standard III 10,385 79.4 12.2 8.4 Standard IV 8,552 81.7 11.8 6.5 Standard V 8,130 57.0 25.0 17.4 (2) 1974 G-rae 1 16,496 83.6 9.8 7.3 Grade 2 14,375 90.7 6.4 3.0 Standard I 13,787 82.6 8.5 8.9 Standard II 12,306 81.6 10.9 7.5 Standard III 10,882 79.9 11.3 6.8 Standard IV 9,187 81.9 12.1 6.1 Standard V 9,077 61.0 18.7 20.3 1975 Gra-de 1 17.590 82.5 10.2 7.3 Grade 2 14,708 88.6 7.6 3.8 Standard I 14,199 82.4 9.9 7.7 Standard II 12,737 80.2 10.5 9.2 Standard III 11,269 80.0 11.0 9.0 Standard IV 9,809 80.5 11.7 7.8 Standard V 9,216 60.5 18.9 20.7 1976 Grade 1 18,357 85.0 6.9 8.1 Grade 2 15,631 90.9 6.1 2.9 Standard I 14,435 84.4 7.6 8.1 Standard II 13,046 84.3 7.6 8.1 Standard III 11,454 82.1 9.0 8.9 Standard IV 10,162 84.1 9.2 6.7 Standard V 9,636 64.7 11.1 24.2 Source: Ministry of Education Annual Reports 1973-1977 Table 9 Examinations Results, Swaziland Primary Education Certificate 1973 - 1977 First Second Third Pass Year Candidates Class Z Class Z Class Z Fail Z Rate Z ----------------------------------------------------------------------__-----__----------------- 1973 7,508 876 12 2,045 27.2 1,911 25.4 2,676 35.6 64.4 1974 9,157 311 3 2,543 27.7 3,185 34.7 3,118 34.1 85.9 1975 8,762 271 3 2,832 32.3 3,115 35.5 2,544 29.0 71.0 1976 9,006 819 9 3,613 40.1 2,383 26.4 2,191 24.3 75.7 1977 9,087 940 10 3,400 37.4 2,474 27.2 2,273 25.0 75.0 ----------------i--istry------of---Ed---cation------Annual------Re-__--rts---_1973-1977.------- Source: Ministry of Education Annual Reports 1973-1977. - 29 - Secondary Education At the secondary level, quantitative developments were more satisfactory than at the primary within the plan period. In 1973 student enrollment was 12,459; and in 1978 it went up to 20,584, an increase of 65Z from 1973 to 1978. Similarly, secondary teachers increased from 550 in 1973 to 1,073 in 1978, an increase of 95Z. But the percentage level of qualified teachers went down while the number of unqualified teachers soared. The number of secondary schools also went up from 64 schools in 1973 to 76 schools in 1978, an increase of 19%. (See Table 10 and 11.) Table 10 Enrollments and Teachers in Secondary Schools Number of Number of Number of Year Schools Pupils Teachers 1973 64 12,459 550 1974 66 14,301 611 1975 67 16,227 739 1976 67 17,396 885 1977 70 19,359 978 1978 76 20,584 1,073 Z increase 19 65 95 Source: Education Statistics 1973 to 1976 and Annual Statistics Bulletin. - 30 - Table 11 Teacher Qualifications, Secondary Schools -----------------------------------------------------------__---------------- Percent Year Qualified Unqualified Total Qualified 1973 467 83 550 84.9 1974 480 181 611 78.6 1975 538 201 739 72.8 1976 655 230 885 74.0 1977 741 237 978 75.8 1978 811 262 1,073 75.6 Source: Education Statistics 1973 to 1976 and Annual Statistics Bulletin. Despite the notable quantitative expansion, the secondary school system was afflicted with the same problems of low quality and poor orientation of the primary school system. There were still numbers of qualifying students failing to find places in Form I and Form IV. The rate of growth of secondary school facilities did not keep pace with the demand for secondary education, despite the fact that the number of schools during the plan period had increased by 19Z. Although the policy of normal progression did ease the flow of students in the secondary system, as it did in the primary school system, drop out and repeat rates were still very high. (See Table 12.) - 31 - Table 12 Rates of Continuation, Secondary Schools Year of Course 1972 1073 1974 1975 -------------------------------------------------------------------__-------- 1 100 100 100 100 2 83.2 87.0 85.5 82.2 3 65.1 69.1 67.3 63.0 4 38.6 37.3 35.3 32.4 5 33.3 30.6 28.3 23.9 6 1.9 1.2 0.8 1.1 Source: Central Statistics Office, Office Statistics 1972 to 1976. In addition, the government of Swaziland failed to provide enough teachers' houses as recommended by the National Education Commission. Concerning the construction of new schools as well as adding more facilities in others, the government of Swaziland partly accomplished this objective within the plan period, hence the 19Z increase. However, most of the construction of new schools was completed in the Third National Development Plan (1978-1983). The siting of these schools, as well as the number to be constructed, was based on the recommendations of the 1975 National Education Commission. In 1975 expansion and renovation of Swazi National High School was completed. Construction of five new schools was started in 1977; and construction of five more were to follow in 1978. By 1977, facilities were added to two more schools with another 12 schools to follow. - 32 - Another notable achievement during this plan period was the opening of a Correspondence Education Center to provide secondary education for people not in schools (both youth and adults). Secondary Curriculum Development With respect to secondary curriculum development within the plan period, subject panels were set up to improve the curriculum and achieve the policy of diversification. By the end of the plan period modern agriculture, elementary technology, and home economics were introduced in secondary schools. In addition, the number of schools offering technical subjects and commercial education increased during the plan period. In 1972, there were three schools offering technical subjects, but in 1976 they had increased to ten schools offering commercial courses. Another important achievement during this plan period was the organization of the Secondary Curriculum Unit (SCU) within the same premises of the Primary Curriculum Unit. The main objective of establishing the SCU was to speed up the process of re-orientating the secondary curriculum so as to be in line with the policy of curriculum diversification and meeting the needs of individuals as well as of the nation. Teacher Training During the plan period the Teacher Training Colleges operated close to capacity. Unfortunately the enrollments in both primary and secondary schools rose at a proportionately greater rate than the supply of qualified teachers. (See Table 7.3.) It should be noted that at the beginning of the second plan period, the government of Swaziland instituted a five-year In-Service upgrading program for 600 poorly qualified teachers. The government of Swaziland was aiming at two objectives: increasing the number of qualified primary teachers and phasing out the lowest primary qualification (the lower primary certificate). The ultimate goal was to improve the quality of education at the primary level. By the end of the plan period (1977) 550 primary teachers - 33 - had gone through the upgrading primary program. Another 600 were identified for upgrading in the next plan period. In 1973, at the beginning of the plan period, the government projected that by 1978 all primary teachers would be qualified. However, this was not the case due to the rapid expansion of school facilities and increased student enrollments. The government of Swaziland failed to solve the problem of the serious shortage of mathematics and science teachers as it had promised at the beginning of the plan period. Non-Formal Education At the beginning of the Second National Development Plan, the government of Swaziland, through the Ministry of Education, successfully devised a rural education program to serve out-of-school youth and adults. In 1977, seven Rural Education Center (RECs) were constructed adjacent to some secondary schools. The general goal of the REC's program were to provide training in practical skills to rural adults and school leavers; to assess needs and initiate projects; to coordinate services, resources and activities of the various government and non-governmental agencies involved in rural development; and to be community resource centers where education, economic and social activities could be provided. The potential success of the RECs could not be established during the plan period since they were constructed towards the end of the plan. - 34 - 8. EDUCATION AND TRAINING DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES FOR THE PERIOD 1979 - 1983 When drawing up the educational and training development objectives for the Third National Development Plan, 1979-1983, the government of Swaziland reiterated its previous policies that social demands for education woue.d continue to be the guiding principle for the provision of education at the primary levels of education, while manpower requirements would determine enrollments and the planning of courses at the higher levels of education. The government of Swaziland further re-emphasized its philosophy for providing education by proclaiming that every child had a right to have access to education and to receive an education geared to his or her own needs. It re- em,phasized its commitment to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) by 1985 and to develop post-primary education with the long term objective of providing ten years of basic education. In this connection the broad educational and training objectives for the Third Plan were: 1. To cope with the strong and diversified demand for education; 2~1 To improve the quality of education and training at all levels. To achieve the above objectives the government of Swaziland planned to continue with the policy of expansion at the lower levels of the educational system with a view of achieving UPE by 1985 and ten-year basic education thereafter. At the secondary level the government of Swaziland proim.ised to restrict enrollments on the basis of manpower requirements. To achieve the above stated broad aims and objectives within the plan persod, the government of Swaziland set specific targets to be realized before the end of the Third Plan (1983): I_ To provide an increase in the enrollment of primary schools to 122,000 children and an increase in the teaching staff to 3,400 by 1983 by applying a standard of 55m2 per 40 pupils a classroom; 2. To reduce the pupil-teacher ratio to 36 to 1 and the pupil per qualified teacher ratio to 45 to 1; - 35 - 3. To provide for 22,500 secondary students and a teaching staff of 1,150, applying a standard of 55m2 per 35 students in a classroom by 1983; 4. To reduce the ratio of secondary students to qualified teachers to 25 to 1; 5. To restrict entry to high school to holders of first and second class passes in the Junior Certificate examinations; 6. To continue the diversification of the curriculum to achieve a closer relationship with labor market opportunities, necessitating the provision of practical subject classrooms in Junior Secondary Schools and the orientation of the curriculum at all levels towards practical and technical pursuits; 7. To scrutinize the examinations system with a view to evolving a set of examinations relevant to the specific needs of Swaziland; 8. To expand and improve teacher training facilities; 9. To extend the In-Service teacher training program spo as to qualify 600 teachers by 1980 and thereafter to concentrate In-Service efforts on training teachers in the use of the new curricula; 10. To integrate radio education closely with curriculum reform, Teacher Training and Correspondence Studies; 11. To add '0' level courses to the on-going program of correspondence education at Emlalatini Development Center; 12. To expand and diversify the annual output of the Swaziland College of Technology; 13. To establish two Vocational Training Centers in the districts to serve the development needs of rural areas and the training needs of junior secondary school leavers; 14. To coordinate and integrate Rural Education Centers with other adult training programs and to evaluate them during the plan period; 15. To continue and diversify the Swaziland National Sebenta literacy program; 16. To expand the Gcina Youth Training facilities to accommodate 160 trainees; 17. To extend primary education for the deaf and the mentally retarded and to extend education and vocational training for the blind and those otherwise handicapped; - 36 - 18. To transfer jurisdiction over institutions for the handicapped to the Ministry of Education; 19. At the University College of Swaziland to achieve by 1983 the following enrollment mix: Commerce 118 ' Humanities 105 Law 56 ' Science 285 Other professional studies 133 ' Agriculture 302 In addition to the specific targets described above, the government of Swaziland further drew up an action program which would guide it in executing the set targets within the plan period. The action program is summarized below: a) In primary schools, the government of Swaziland intended to construct 2,856 classrooms, 2,082 teachers' houses, and other educational facilities; b) In secondary schools, the government of Swaziland planned to build 739 general classrooms, 929 teachers' houses, and other support facilities; c) With respect to curriculum development, practical courses were to be added in 22 junior secondary schools and agriculture introduced in 40 more primary schools, 12 secondary schools and 3 vocational centers; d) Concerning Teacher Training, the government of Swaziland promised to build a new Teacher Training College in the Shiselweni District (Nhlangano) with an annual enrollment of 200 student teachers. It was expected that by 1980/81 the College would be in full operation. The In-Service program at William Pitcher College was to be extended until 1980 by which time 600 primary teachers would have been trained. It was projected that the University would annually produce 56 graduates with secondary teaching qualifications by 1983. As a result, it was expected that by 1985 the above program would raise the percentage of qualified primary teachers to 77.1Z and of qualified secondary teachers to 87.1Z; e) With respect to radio education, the government of Swaziland expected the curriculum center to develop 15 junior secondary program for broadcasting. In this connection, cassette copying equipment and radio receivers were to be provided in a limited number of schools; - 37 - f) Concerning non-formal education, the government of Swaziland planned, within the period (1979-1983), to build three new Rural Education Center, bringing the total to ten. It further promised to build three adult education center in urban areas as well as undertake a training program for specialized staff. - 38 - 9. ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES DURING THE THIRD NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN 1979-1983 Primary Education At the primary level the Ministry of Education did make some progress in increasing educational opportunities for primary students during the plan period. There was an average annual increase of 6,150 school places per year in primary schools during the plan period. But the Ministry of Education failed to reach its planned target of constructing 2,856 primary school classrooms during the plan period. Instead, 364 primary school classrooms or approximately 14,560 places (assuming 40 students per classroom) were provided, compared with an overall increase of 24,603 students during the same period. The number of primary schools rose by 32 (7Z) from 1978 to 1983. There were 436 primary schools in 1978. In the Third Plan, the government of Swaziland's planned target enrollment was 122,000 by 1983. However, this planned target enrollment was surpassed in 1982 by 3,303 pupils (37Z). The actual enrollment in 1982 was 125,303 primary pupils and in 1983 it went up to 129,767 pupils. With respect to constructing primary teachers' houses, the government of Swaziland had planned to build 2,082 houses by the end of the Third Plan Period. However, it fell far short of that number. Instead, a total of 341 (16Z) teachers' houses were constructed within the plan period. Yet the number of primary teachers increased from 2,853 in 1978 to 3,922, an average annual increase of 37Z. More than 800 teachers' houses should have been built over the plan period. At the beginning of the plan period the government of Swaziland had planned to have a primary teaching force of 3,400 teachers before the end of the plan. However, in 1983, there were 3,922 primary teachers in the field, exceeding the targeted number by 522 teachers (152). - 39 - With respect to the pupil-teacher ratio, the government of Swaziland had planned to reduce it to 36:1 and to 45:1 per qualified teacher at the primary level over the plan period. However, as early as 1978, the pupil- teacher ratio was 35:1 and by 1983 it was 33:1. Meanwhile, the number of pupils per qualified teacher also declined from 46:1 in 1978 to 38:1 by the end of the plan period. In essence the government of Swaziland succeeded in reducing pupil-teacher ratio. However, this is debatable since classroom sizes vary from one school situation to another and the above ratios are simple national averages and tend to smooth the variations. Despite the reduction in pupil-teacher ratios over the plan period, wastage was significantly high. Instead of the normal seven years to produce a primary school graduate, it took 12.6 years in 1981 to produce one, almost doubling the resources. The number of repeaters went up from 10,775 to 15,300 over the plan period (i.e., by nearly 50X). The repetition rate, over the plan period increased from 10.7Z in 1978 to 12.2Z in 1983. One would have expected that the reduction in pupil-teacher ratios would improve the results of the Swaziland Primary Certificate Examination (SPCE) taken at the end of primary education. Unfortunately that was not the case. There was no improvement in the overall pass rate in the SPCE during the plan period. In 1978, 9,284 pupils wrote the SPCE and 6,880 (74.1Z) passed. In 1983, 12,197 pupils wrote the SPCE and 8,900 (73Z) passed. Thus, there was no improvement at all in the quality of education vis-a-vis the number of passes in the SPCE (See figure 1) Secondary Education At the secondary school level, as at the primary level, there was an increase in enrollment during the Third Plan Period. At the beginning of the Third Plan Period, the government of Swaziland estimated 22,500 secondary students would be enrolled by the end of the period. However, in 1983, the secondary school enrollment was 27,801 students, exceeding the projected enrollment number by 5,301 (24Z). Between 1978 and 1983 the average annual increase was 7,217 (352) students. (See Table 13.) - 40 - Tailk 13 CoWAltISOi OF THIF NATIOAL DEVWLOPM1 PLAN CAPITAL COST FOR EDUCATION, AtOVED ESTIMATES AND ACTUAL EXP?ENDITUR BY PliOU ACTIVITY TOTAL (1978/79 - 19M2/63) E 'O00 THIR APPROVED ACTULAL ACTUAL/ AClUAL/ ACTIVITY PLAN ESTIMATES EXOV. PUN iOlUT PRIMARY EDUCATION 24,2S6 16,571 14,132 0.ttt 0.ttt SECOIARY EDUCATION 14,643 14,001 17,496 1.Sin 0.73t TEACHER TRAINING 2,813 6,751 1,696 0.6t2 0.2711 cui.9iLI I DEVEi.WMET 1,712 1,40 6U7 0.SCt1 0.461 ADULT AND WON-Pam" Of7 1,t12 1,130 1.1dt 0.7tS NiER EDUCATION 7,061 S,St6 2,63O 0.361 0.26u SPCIAL EDUCATION 246 34S 22 . 0.915 0.4t TOTAL I 51,6Is 5O,$96 37,M 0.73d1 0.$3 Sorce: Mintistry of Eductil.a/mlIi.try of Piseac Note.: 1 Excluding other ectiviti. such as Mtinistry Ad.isigtr.tfs. aeti lrclude to Thrld Plan Figure 1 Per Cent Passes - Primary School Examination (1972- 1982) 45 40 - _ _ CM" 38 A'0 j X Hoo~~tila tO tx. .. . ... . .. .. .. .. . .. . ... . .. .- 1972 1973 1974 1075 1973 1077 1078 1079 1t0 10i6 10 Yew * P~1724 - 41 - The above enrollment figures provided Junior Secondary School places for 48Z of the 13-15 age group; the Senior Secondary School places for 22Z of the 16-17 year age group. Because of the presence of out-of-age students, only 24% of the junior and 9Z of the senior secondary school age populations respectively were in school in 1982. The enrollment increase in secondary education was caused, in part, by the ten-year basic education policy; by the failure of the Ministry of Education to ensure that entry at the secondary level was strictly restricted to holders of first and second class passes in the SPCE and Junior Secondary Certificate; and by the failure of the government of Swaziland to provide adequate Vocational Training Center to work with Junior Secondary School leavers. The unexpected increase of enrollments in the secondary schools over-stretched the budget of the Ministry of Education, and by the end of the plan period the budget had been exceeded. (See Table 14 and 15). With regards to expanding secondary school facilities, the government of Swaziland fell short of reaching its target figure of building 739 general classrooms by the end of the Third Plan Period. The target figure of 739 did not take into account the unexpected secondary school enrollment increase. By the end of the Third Plan Period, 274 (40Z) separate classrooms were built. In addition, 40 agriculture facilities, 21 multi-purpose rooms, and 49 workshops were completed. In effect, approximately 3,990 additional places were made available (assuming 35 pupils per class) compared with a student increase of 5,885 over the period. The government of Swaziland failed as well to build 929 secondary teachers' houses it had planned to build within the plan period. By 1982, only 191 (21Z) secondary teachers' houses built, (short by 738 houses) compared with the additional 428 secondary teachers employed over the same period. A total of 334 qualified secondary teachers still needed houses for accommodation. - 42 - Table 14 Comparison of Third National Development Plan Capital Costs for Education, Approved Estimates and Actual Expenditure by Program Activity Totals (1978/79 - 1982/83) Third Approved Actual Actual/ Actual/ Activity Plan Estimates Expend. Plan Budget Primary Education 24,295 16,571 14,132 0.58Z 0.85Z Secondary Education 14,663 14,081 17,495 l.19Z 0.73Z Teacher Training 2,913 6,731 1,809 0.62Z 00.27Z Curriculum Development 1,712 1,469 657 0.38Z 0.45Z Adult and non-formal 957 1,513 1,130 1.18Z 0.75Z Higher Education 7,051 9,869 2,550 0.36Z 0.26Z Special Education 245 349 225 0.91Z 0.64Z TOTAL 1/ 51,836 60,583 37,998 0.73Z 0.63Z Source: Ministry of Education/Ministry of Finance 1/ Excluding other activities such as Ministry Administration not included in Third Plan. - 43 - Table 15 Ministry of Education: Recurrent Expenditure Comparison of Revised Provision and Actual Expenditures, by Activity Totals (1978/79 - 1982/83) Approved Actual Over/Under Z of Approved Activity Estimate Expenditure Spending Est. Spent Minister 319 917 +598 287X Ministry Admin. 4,179 4,888 +709 117Z Primary Educ. 31,845 42,988 +11,143 135% Secondary Educ. 25,361 30,576 5,215 121% Teacher Training 3,334 2,518 -816 76Z Curriculum Dev. 706 572 -134 81% Adult Education 1,319 1,378 +59 104% Higher Educ. 10,315 10,114 -201 98% Special Educ. 50 27 -23 54% Pre-School Educ. 38 21 -17 55Z TOTAL 77,466 93,999 +16,533 121% Source: Ministry of Education/Ministry of Finance Because of the increase in student enrollments at the secondary level, the planned target of 1,150 secondary school teachers was exceeded by 351 teachers. This excess of teachers further compounded the problem of teacher accommodation. However, there was a 45Z increase of qualified secondary teachers from 811 in 1978 to 1,172 in 1982, bringing the proportion of qualified teachers vis-a-vis the total secondary school teaching force from 76Z in 1978 to 781 in 1982. Despite the moderate increase of qualified - 44 - secondary teachers during the plan period, the number of qualified science and mathematics teachers was still very low. One of the ways by which the government of Swaziland planned to achieve quality of education at the secondary level, within the plan period, was to reduce the pupil:teacher ratio. Therefore, when drawing up the action program of the Third Plan, the government of Swaziland stated that it would reduce the pupil-qualified teacher ratio to 25:1 by the end of the plan. The overall pupil-teacher ratio dropped from 19:1 in 1978 to 18:1 in 1982. Similarly the overall pupil-qualified teacher ration dropped from 25:1 in 1978 to 23:1 in 1982. As already pointed out above, the favorable pupil-teacher ratios should be interpreted with caution because they are based on national averages, thereby ignoring situational variations within schools. One would have expected as well that the favorable pupil-teacher ratios at the secondary level would improve the quality of education by reducing repetition and drop out rates within the plan period. Unfortunately, the repetition rate rose significantly from 3.1% in 1978 to 5.9Z in 1982. Meanwhile, the drop out rates in Grace VII, Form IV and Form V in 1983 were 15.1Z, 40.3Z and 95.6Z respectively. (See Table 16.) The qualitative effects of the rapid expansion in secondary enrollments were also reflected by the examination results. In 1978, the J.C.E. was taken by 4,266 candidates of which 2,796 (65.52) passed. In 1982, 5,222 candidates took the same examination, of which 69.5Z passed. However, it should be noted that the bulk of passes were mostly from the third class category. In 1978, 3.OZ of the candidates passed in first class and 24.3Z passed in second class. But in 1982, only 1.7% and 21.6% of the candidates passed in first and second class respectively. (See Figures 2 and 3) The situation in the senior secondary level was worse. In 1978, 1,705 candidates took the COSC examination and the overall pass rate was 31.4. In 1982, it dropped to 29.6Z. - 45 - Table 16 Q7. Rate of Continuation, Repetition and Drop-Out Between Classes in 1982 and 1983 --------------------------------------------------------------------__------- Continue to Repeating Dropping Out Enrollment Next Class Class of System 1982 in 1983 in 1983 in 1983 Primary Grade I 25,470 71.2 14.3 7.9 Schools: Grade II 21,807 83.2 12.3 3.8 Grade III 20,524 79.2 13.7 6.4 Grade IV 17,276 81.1 11.6 6.6 Grade V 16,129 78.8 13.5 7.1 Grade VI 13,200 80.7 12.1 6.6 Grade VII 11,897 67.7 16.6 15.1 Form I 7,984 85.8 5.3 8.7 Secondary Form II 7,190 77.7 9.1 12.8 Schools: Form III 5,794 53.7 5.9 40.3 Form IV 3,090 77.2 6.9 13.0 Form V 2,327 3.8 0.6 95.6 Form VI 84 0.0 1.2 98.8 --------------------------------------------------------------------__------- Source: Central Statistical Office NOTE: 1. The high drop-out rate reflected in Form III merely reflects the fact that after taking the Junior Certificate Examination in Form III, some pupils leave the schools system to take up occupations or technical training at SCOT or elsewhere. 2. At present there are High Schools offering a full Sixth Form Course. - 46 - Figure 2 Per Cent Passes - Junior Certificate Examination (1972- 1982) 50 3rd Class 45 - 40 a~~~~~~~~~~~Ya 35 0 Per Cent Passes Class ig O"Lvl 30 - 25 E 20 15 10 ' 1st Class 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 Year Source: Fourth Nallonal Development Plan 1984-1988. Figure 3 Per Cent Passes - Cambridge "0" Levels (1972 - 1982) 40- 35 30 3rd Class 20 - 2nd Class I1St Class -__ 5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ . 1972 1 973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 Year Source., Founth National Developmernt Plan 1984-1988. pkoW45724m - 47 - Teacher Training In the field of teacher training, there was some moderate progress during the plan period. There were 639 primary teachers, 298 secondary teachers and 50 home economics teachers trained over the plan period. In addition, a total of 1,630 primary teachers were upgraded through the In- Service upgrading program at William Pitcher Training College. By 1982, the annual average increase of trained primary teachers was 52, whereas at the secondary level it was 4.7Z. By the same year the number of qualified primary and secondary teachers was 87.72 and 78.12 respectively. It should be noted that within the plan period, there were still quite a number of primary and secondary teachers not qualified. There were, for instance, 12.32 and 21.9Z unqualified primary and secondary teachers respectively, by the end of the plan period. (See Table 17). Table 17 Primary and Secondary Teaching Staff, by Qualification, 1982 ---------------------------------------------------------__------------------ Primary Secondary Qualification Number Z of Total Number Z of total Graduate 24 0.6 439 29.2 - Trained - - 301 20.0 - Untrained - - 138 9.2 Post-Matric with Training 65 1.7 688 45.9 Pre-Matric with Training 3,216 85.4 45 3.0 - PHC+PTC+MF 1,471 39.0 - - - PLC + PLU 1,748 46.4 - - Uncertified 464 12.3 329 21.9 TOTAL 3,769 100.0 1,501 100.0 Source: Ministry of Education - 48 - Curriculum Development With respect to curriculum development at both primary and secondary levels there was some progress in diversifying the curriculum. Practical and occupational subjects such as agriculture, home economics and elementary technology were introduced. To strengthen the teaching of agriculture, school garden projects were established in 1982 in 200 primary schools (See Tables 18 and 19). Table 18 Number of Schools Teaching Practical Subjects 1978 and 1982 --------------------------------------------------------------------__------- Compound Growth Subjects/School 1978 1982 Rate (1978-82) --------------------------------------------------------------__-------------_ Agriculture - Primary 45 75 13.6Z - Junior Secondary 31 51 13.32 - High School 2 7 36.8Z Home Economics - Primary 105 166 12.1X - Junior Secondary 29 48 13.4Z - High School 10 14 8.8Z Technical Subjects - Secondary 21 41 18.2Z Source: Ministry of Education NOTE: Numbers equipped to teach technical subjects. - 49 - There was also some progress in training local Swazi teachers of agriculture. In 1978, there were 35 secondary school teachers of agriculture, of whom 602 were expatriate. By 1982 this number rose to 108, of whom 102 were expatriates. Table 19 Schools Teaching Agriculture Primary Secondary High Total 1978 45 31 2 78 1982 75 51 7 133 TOTAL 120 82 9 211 Source: Fourth National Development Plan Adult and Non-Formal Education The establishment of Rural Education Center (RECs) continued in the Third Plan period during which seven were built. More than 500 rural adults and youths were trained in various practical skills in the RECs. The RECs were used more and more by other government ministries for training adults and youths. About 22,000 adults have obtained basic literacy through the Sebenta National Institute program during the nine years that it has been operating. Special Education There was some notable progress in the area of special education during the Third Plan period. Two new schools were established for mentally retarded children . In addition, facilities were added for the deaf at Siteki School for the Deaf and also at Mzimpofu School for the Deaf. A Rehabilitation Vocational Center was established at Swaziland College of Technology to train disabled persons in practical subjects. - 50 - 10. EDUCATION AND TRAINING DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND/OR OBJECTIVES FOR THE FOURTH-YEAR PERIOD 1984 - 1988 According to the Fourth National Development Plan, the main aim of education within the plan period is to improve the quality and relevance of education at all levels by improving and expanding teacher training program, curriculum development, strengthening the Ministry's administrative, professional and support services, and by the systematic planning, monitoring and evaluation of education development and reform. The overall educational objectives over the plan period are stated as follows: - To consolidate the achievements made towards the quantitative and qualitative improvements of the education system; - To continue with the implementation of UPE with the objective of achieving the ten-year course of basic education; To limit entry to senior secondary education, other courses of higher learning and training according to the ability of the student; - To provide alternative educational opportunities through the establishment of a variety of pre-vocational and vocational programs; - To expand and improve teacher training program through the more effective use of existing and planned facilities; - To provide reading materials for research, education and recreational purposes; - To strengthen and re-organize the Ministry of Education both at Headquarters and in the Districts; and - To pursue appropriate training instruction for incorporation into teacher training syllabi. In accomplishing the stated educational objectives, the Ministry of Education has identified the following overall priorities: - To re-organize and staff the Ministry with suitable qualified personnel and support services; - 51 - To strengthen the National Curriculum Center; To coordinate and monitor Teacher Training and Curriculum Development; To reorganize and strengthen the professional and supervisory services so as to ensure that a cadre of trained inspectors is established; and To develop a financial and administrative system which will be ccst effective in the use of materials and supplies and which will also ensure equitable distribution to schools. To achieve the above educational objectives, the government of Swaziland has allocated Capital and Recurrent Expenditure commitments as indicated in Table 20. Table 20 Capital and Recurrent Program Expenditure Commitments in E,000 at 1983 Prices 1983/84 ' 1984/85 ' 1985/86 ' 1986/87 ' 1987/38 Capit. Recurr.' Capit. Recurr.' Capit. Recurr.' Capit. Recurr.' Capit. Recurr. 5880 24945 ' 5841 29237 ' 4368 29237 ' 4158 29237 ' 3426 29237 Source: Ministry of Education APPENDIX I Recommendations of the National Review Commission 1985 A LETTER TO THE HONORABLE MINISTER OF EDUCATION - 55 - Ministry of Education P.O. Box 39 MBABANE 27 February 1985 The Hon. Minister for Education Mr. D.H.S. Nhlabatsi MP Ministry of of Education MBABANE Dear Mr. Minister On the 20th March, 1984, the Cabinet of the Kingdom o- Swaziland approved the formation of the National Education *I iew Commission. This Commission was charged with the important task of reviewing the entire education system which has grown very complex and has developed a number of problems since the last Education Commission of 1975. The Commission was launched on the 27th of July, 1984 and was given six months to complete the task and submi- its findings. This, the Commission has successfully done. The findings in the Commissiozi's report, represent the views of a. wide spectrum of Swazi society.The report may have certain flaws but the Commission has made an attempt at looking into ways of improving the quality of education no,; that as a result of the 1975 Commission school places especially at primary level are almost accessible to all. It is hoped that Her Majesty's Government will find the report useful and will approve and implement those recommendations that can be catered for within the nation's '-_nited means. Yours sincerely <. >~~Jr M. NSIBANDE CHAIRMAN - 56 - SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION 1. As a long term objective, free pre-school education should be provided to all children aged 4 to 6. Pre-schools should be located in close proximity to children's homes, and where this is not possible, provision of transport facilities should be made. 2. Pre-school attendance should not be a precondition for admission into primary schools before pre-school education is generalized throughout the country. 3. Regional and Headquarters pre-school administrative services should be strengthened and a clearly defined policy governing the operation and functioning of pre-schools, including the standardization of pre-school curriculum, should be drawn up. 4. The training and conditions of service of teachers at the pre-school level should be streamlined. 5. The local communities should be encouraged to participate in the establishment and operation of pre-schools. PRIMARY EDUCATION 1. The duration of primary education should be seven years (grades 1 to 7) and should cater for children in the age group of 6 to 13. 2. Provision should eventually be made to offer free education for Grades 1-4 3. Primary schools should be equitab]y distributed throughout the country, and transport facilities should be provided for children living in isolated areas. - 57 - 4. The curricula of primary and secondary levels should be closely coordinated and practical arts subjects should be given strong emphasis. 5. Continuous assessment should be introduced throughout the primary level and at the end of this level of education, the award of the Swaziland Primary Certificate will be based on the record of this continuous assessment and performance in the national Examination. 6. Repetition should be allowed once in Grades 1-4 and once in Grades 5-7 and remedial instruction and psychological guidance should be introduced to cater for the needs of slow learners. 7. Administrative and Inspectorate services at the Regional level should be strengthened. SECONDARY EDUCATION 1. In the long term, the duration of secondary education should be four years, with the first two years (Grades 8-9) serving to stream students for academic '0' Levels or alternative fields and the following two years (Grades 10-11) for specializing either in academic or vocational fields). 2. The J.C. examination should be abolished. 3. A diversified curriculum will be offered for children's different talents and aptitudes. 4. Vocational and Psychological Guidance Services should be introduced and should be supported by continuous assessment which together with the examination administered at the end of four years lead to the award of a School Leaving Certificate. - 58 - 5. Provision should be made for the introduction of 2 year "A" Level equivalent studies, to be offered at centers attached to existing schools, preferably one in each Region. 6. Provision should be made for the maintenance of school buildings, equipment for libraries, laboratories and workshops. 7. School administration and management should be strengthened by the training of headmasters and by the consolidation of the services of school inspectors at the regional level. PRACTICAL ARTS 1. Both the primary and secondary school programs should be diversified to include Practical Arts subjects like Agriculture, Home Economics, Elementary Technology and Technical Trade Skills. 2. Practical Arts subjects should be accorded adequate prestige and value. 3. Regional Vocational Training Centers should be constructed to strengthen practical arts education. 4. SCOT and UNISWA should offer advanced studies in practical arts and facilities for technicallvocational teacher education at SCOT should be expanded. 5. The Act of 1982 creating the Directorate for Industrial and Vocational Training should be implemented and the Directorate should be established under the Ministry of Education. 6. Land should be made available to school leavers trained in agriculture, through the readjustment of the land utilization system; some Government farms should in addition, be used for training youth in modern agricultural methods. - 59 - TEACHER EDUCATION 1. Teacher Colleges should function under an overall coordinating body and be given resources to implement their programs. Z. The duration of training should be three years post 'O' Level and the two year probationary period before confirmation should be reactivated. 3. Primary school teachers trained at UNISWA should be encouraged to teach in primary schools. 4. The Teacher Education course should include the teaching of handicapped children in normal classes and compulsory courses in psychological and vocational guidance. 5. Only highly motivated, qualified and experienced candidates should be eligible to become teacher educators. UNIVERSITY 1. As a long term aim, the entrance requirements to University should be an "A" Level (type) examination and consequently the duration of the basic degree course should be reduced to three years. 2. The commencement of the University academic year should be related to that of the school year. 3. A one year post graduate Diploma in Education should replace the compulsory concurrent Diploma of Education. 4. An Endowment Fund should be established for the University. 5. The payment of personal allowances to students should be determined strictly by their socio-economic background. - 60 - 6. The money recovered by Government for paying back scholarship loans should be recycled to support the on-going programs. 7. In order to attract persons of high intellectual calibre and to ensure continuity of service the University should review the conditions of service of staff. NON-FORMAL AND ADULT EDUCATION 1. A Directorate of Non-Formal, Adult and Special Education should be created and provided with adequate staff and resources to coordinate and implement the programs in these fields. 2. Emlalatini Development Center should be consolidated to cater more effectively for non-formal education activities, vocational skill training and the training of teachers of agriculture. 3. The regional outlets of the Non-Formal education sector and their activities should be closely integrated with rural development programs. 4. Inter-ministerial and private sector support should be sought to establish a loan scheme and support services for graduates of Rural Education Centers. SPECIAL EDUCATION 1. The Ministry of Education should assume direct responsibility for special education as an integral part of the education system, with free flow of pupils between the normal and special schools. 2. Government should provide funds for the expansion and improvement of facilities and procurement of teaching aids and materials for the existing Institutions for the Handicapped. - 61 - 3. In-service and pre-service training should be provided for all teachers to enable them to cater to the needs of special education. 4. Provision should be made for the identification of handicapped children at the earliest stages of childhood. EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT 1. Administration and management of the education system should be decentralized from the Ministry of Education Headquarters to the Regional level in order to make implementation of educational projects, programs, regulations nd policies more efficient. 2. Training programs in communication skills, delegation of responsibility and decision making should be designed for all senior officers of the Ministry of Education. 3. Authority to enforce discipline should be given to officials at the Regional and School levels. 4. The Teaching Service Commission should be an appeal body and most of its present administrative functions should be transferred to each Region. 5. While promotional avenues within the teaching profession should be broadened, promotion should be based on merit, length of service and previous service in a rural area. 6. A Teachers' Council should be established to protect the teacher's rights, professional reputation and image and a Teachers' Code of conduct should be drawn up. - 62 - CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1. Coordination of all curriculum development activities should be consolidated under the National Curriculum Center. 2. The Curriculum Coordinating Committee should be reactivated and should work closely with the National Curriculum Center. 3. The National Curriculum Center should cooperate more closely with Teacher Colleges, Subject Panels and should be intimately associated with the establishment of Regional Education Resource Centers. 4. Swazi culture, traditional values and history should be incorporated in the content of the national curriculum. VOCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL GUIDANCE SERVICES 1. The system of continuous assessment should be introduced at all levels of the education system throughout the country to enable a systematic follow up of the progress of students through their school career. 2. Vocational guidance and aptitude testing should form part of the education system so that students are guided into fields for which they are best suited. 3. The Educational Testing, Guidance and Psychological Services should be strengthened at Headquarters, Regional and School levels and be provided with the necessary resources to implement their services. TEACHING PROFESSION: CONDITIONS OF SERVICE 1. Teachers should enjoy the same benefits as their counterparts in the civil service. 2. Provision should be made for adequate accommodation of teachers. - 63 - 3. Boarding school heads be provided with a special allowance for their extra services. 4. Hardship allowances should be awarded to teachers working in rural areas. 5. The criteria for promotion should be clearly defined and based on, among other considerations, qualifications, professional achievement, length of service and service in rural areas. 6. A simple and regular form of evaluating the professional services of teachers should be devised. 7. Provisions should be made for regular in-service training of teachers. 8. Teachers should be free to exercise all civic rights generally enjoyed by citizens and as such be given the right to choose to belong to professional associations. EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT 1. A permanent machinery based at the Department of Economic Planning should be established to ensure an adequate link between the supply and demand for trained manpower on the one hand, and to relate school curriculum to national employment prospects. 2. A comprehensive National Manpower Survey should be conducted to identify manpower requirements at all levels and feed back the information to the school system. 3. The scholarship Board should award scholarships for fields of study that have been accorded priority rating for the employment market. - 64 - 4. The National Employment Program should be drawn up with the purpose of encouraging the public to create employment opportunities for school leavers and trained manpower. DISCIPLINE AT SCHOOL 1. A disciplinary code concerning teachers and students should be drawn up specifying their rights and responsibilities, the major misdemeanors meriting disciplinary sanctions and the authorities responsible for applying these sanctions. 2. The teachers should be given the opportunity to defend themselves against allegations made by parents or other persons and no publicity should be given to such proceedings unless it is for the well-being of the pupil. 3. Schools should keep parents regularly informed of the studies and conduct of their children and encourage parents to take more interest in the activities of their children at school. 4. Pre-service and in-service training should put greater emphasis on professional and moral conduct of teachers and discipline at school. - 65 - Capital Costs, Education and Training (in thousands of Emalangeni) --------------------------------------------------------------__-------------__----- 1978/79 1979/80 1980/81 1981/82 1982183 Total ---------------------------------------------------------------__------------__---- Primary Education 1,205 5,554 5,668 5,908 5.960 24,295 Secondary Education 5,086 2,164 2,446 2,442 2,525 14,663 Curriculum Center 30 425 130 129 98 812 Agriculture Program 87 61 71 61 60 340 Elementary Tech. - 224 112 112 112 560 Teacher Training 494 975 1,074 314 56 2,913 Radio Education - - 200 228 - 428 Correspondence Educ. 75 40 - - - 115 Swaziland Col. of Tech. 622 120 178 185 195 1,300 Vocational Trng. Centers - 206 - - - 206 Rural Educ. Centers 719 - - - - 719 Adult Educ. Centers - 87 41 - 4 132 Geina 34 18 24 30 - 106 Special Education 101 66 66 12 - 245 Higher Education 1,845 2,229 896 1,288 793 7,051 Total 10,298 12,169 10,906 10,709 9,803 53,885 ----------------------------------------------------------------__-----------__----- Source: Third National Development Plan Average Annual Expenditure Per Pupil 1973174 to 1977178 (in Emalangeni) -------------------------------------------------------------__-------------- Capital Recurrent -----------------------------------------------------------------__--------- Primary 1.98 22.37 Secondary 65.28 143.79 Teacher Training 655.97 1,355.93 University 1,970.84 2,330.20 Source:---------Third-------National---------Development---__--------Plan--- Source: Third National Development Plan APPENDIX II Further Statistical Information Actual and Projected Growth of Population in Swaziland 900~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1 nifl. 900 _* 700 - 54, | > ~~~~~~~~600 -, X c ~~~~~~~~500- o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 400 a.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~S 300 - 200- 100 - 0 _ I I I I I I , I I I I i l I I I I I 1 I 1910 1920 1930 1940 19S0 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Year Source: Third Nafional Devehoprn@nt Plan pkw457241 Age-Sex Pyramid of the Population, 1976 Age 80 ll Present 70 Absent 60 50 MALES 40 FEMALES 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 20 10 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 (in Thousands) Note: This Is derived by taking raw data from the 1976 census. No adjustments have been made to smooth out bases arising from Inaccurate declarations of age as for instance rounding of ages to the nearest five or ten years or overstating age for reasons of preste, etc. Source: Third National Development Plan. pk"4S724d Organizational Chart of Ministry of Agriculture MINISTER PERMANENT F SECRETARY F UNDER SECRETARY 1 T 1 r ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-- I1|r D__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _IR C O O F___ _DI R E C T OR___ ___ _O F_ ADMINISRATION | STATUTORY I E CTOR - - - - - - | CURA L O - - - - - - AND FINANCE BOARDS EXTENSION CULTL l VDRECT PRoiEcT ExTENsioN ECONOMIC R.D.A. SGNIORIESOK E RESEARCH PLANDI LATND PLANNING & 4- - - MANAGEMENT CULTURAL INFORMATION SERVICES SERVICES M ANALYSIS UNIT OFFICERI LAND CROP COPSOF STRY FISHERIES ECON. & CE S DEVELOPMENT EXTENSION EXPERTSCLBEXNSO AA DISTRICT EX(TENSIONSEVCSDTRT R.D.A.'s NON-R.D.A.'s PROJECT EXTENSION MANAGERS OFFICERS Source: MInistry of Aguiculture pWcW457241 Swaziland Education and Training Sector Review STRUCTURE OF THE FORMAL EDUCATION SYSTEM UNIVERSITY DEGREES PRIMARY SECONDARY Socoloy arts,agniculture PRIMARY~ ~ ~~N SECODAR econorniics, educabon Age 6 12 13 17 {} P PG Junior Senior {}{2 sLawence UB = {~~~~~\ UNIVERSITY DIPLOMAS GRADES STANDARDS FORMS Primary teacher traning business studies, educalton, home economics, rnanagement, admiinistra0on W.P.T.C. N.T.T.C. UNIVERSrrY CERTIFICATES Notes: Q - Swaziland Pdmary Certificate Exam (SPCE) VOCATIONAL TRAINING Business studies D - Junior Certificate Exam (JC) SCOT educabon A - Cambrdge Overseas School Certificate Exam (0" level) COLLEGE OF NURSING 1) - W.P.T.C. - Wiliam Pitcher Teacher College 2) - N.T.T.C. - Nazarene Teacher Training College Itu-1re 3) - SCOT - Swaziland College of Technology (university) PG - Post graduate Diplomas and Degrees -vl Technician training UB - To universities abroad _C_ Ji~ - Junior Secondary Teacher Certificate J University courses given above are all catered for in Swaziland. The last two years of science are taken at the Botswana campus. College of nursing _ PT The third and fourth years of law are taken at the University of _P_ Edinburgh, after which the student retums to Swaziland for the (J-S.T.) final fifth year. Souce: Compiled by the mnission from official documents. _Nw insbtu60n of health sciences ptM4S724g - 73 - REFERENCES Central Statistics Office, Annual Statistical Bulletin, 1983 Central Statistics Office, Office Statistics 1972 to 1976. Education Statistics 1973 and 1976 and Annual Statistics Bulletin First National Development Plan Ministry of Education and Ministry of Finance Report of the National Educational Commission, 1975 Second National Development Plan Third and Fourth National Development Plans Distributors of World Bank Publications ARGENTINA FIL'AND MALAYSIA Foroalxaiptio orer Carlo. Hhich, SRL Altenen Kirakauppa Uivedty od Malaya Coperaive Inteaatio-i Sub-xipdon Service Galwi CneGe- P.OE Bo 128 Bkhop Lied P.O. Box 41095 Flnda 165,4th FloorOf 453/465 SF00101 P.OE Box127.Jalan Fri arts Cr highli 1333Burerw Aire Hettonld 10 Kueb Lunpur johaxnethur8 2024 AUSTRALIA, PAPUA NEW GUiNEA FRANCE MEXICO SPAIN FJL SOLOMONISLANDS, WodidBakPubHCtIr,& EIOTEC Mn-d-Prers Ubro, SA. 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George Psacharopoulos No. 83 Comparative African Experiences in Implementing Educational Policies. John Craig No. 84 Implementing Educational Policies in Ethiopia. Fassil R. Kiros No. 85 Inpletnenting Educational Policies in Kenya. G. S. Eshiwani No. 86 Implementitng Educational Policies in Tanzania. C. J. Galabawa No. 87 Implementing Educational Policies in Lesotho. T. Sohl Thelejani The World Bank Headquarters European Office Tokyo Office U 1818 H Street, N.W. 66, avenue d'16na Kokusai Building Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. 75116 Paris, France 1-1 Marunouchi 3-chome Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100,Japan Telephone: (202) 477-1234 Telephone: (1) 40.69.30.00 Facsimile: (202) 477-6391 Facsimile: (1) 47.20.19.66 Telephone: (3) 214-5001 Telex: wus 64145 WORLDBANK Telex: 842-620628 Facsimile: (3) 214-3657 RCA 248423 WORLDBK Telex: 781-26838 Cable Address: INTBAFRAD WASHINGTONDC ISBN 0-8213-1585-4