Nov. 9c9R8 !~~~g t '4 Gender Analysis __ in Papua New Guinea Edited by Elizabeth C. Brouwer Bruce M. Harris Sonomi Tanaka TH E WORLD BAN K Gender Analysis in Papua New Guinea Edited by Elizabeth C. Brouwer Bruce M. Harris Sonomi Tanaka The World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright ( 1998 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing November 1998 The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. 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The cover shows a detail of a Papua New Guinea bilum, the flexible looped string bag usually made by women as a domestic carry-all, used to transport, shelter, store, and contain a wide variety of personal objects, including foodstuffs, firewood, utensils, babies, piglets and personal belongings. It is also used as a garment, ornament and ritual adornment. Originally developed among the highland cultures of PNG, the looped string bag is now widespread across the country. Throughout PNG it is a necessary and constant accessory for women's daily life. Elizabeth C. Brouwer is senior country officer in the Papua New Guinea and Pacific Islands Country Management Unit in the World Bank's East Asia and Pacific Region. Bruce M. Harris is the social assessment coordinator for the Bank's East Asia and Pacific Region. Sonomi Tanaka is social develop- ment specialist in the South Asia Social Development Sector Unit in the Bank's South Asia Region. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gender analysis in Papua New Guinea / edited by Elizabeth C. Brouwer, Bruce M. Harris, Sonomi Tanaka. p. cm. "Papua New Guinea and Pacific Islands Country Management Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region." Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-4394-7 1. Women-Papua New Guinea-Social conditions. 2. Women-Papua New Guinea-Economic conditions. 3. Women-Legal status, laws, etc.-Papua New Guinea. 4. Women in development- Papua New Guinea. 5. Sex role-Papua New Guinea. 6. Sex discrimination against women- Papua New Guinea. I. Brouwer, Elizabeth C., 1951- . II. Harris, Bruce M., 1947- . III. Tanaka, Sonomi, 1967- . IV. World Bank. East Asia and Pacific Regional Office. HQ1866.5.G46 1998 305.42'09953-dc21 98-33282 CIP " - 2Contents Foreword ................................... vii Abstract ................................... ix Acknowledgments ................................... xi Executive Summary ................................... 1 Situation Report ................................... 3 1.1 Introduction .........................................3 1.2 Historical Factors ......................................... 3 1.3 Geographic Factors ......................................... 5 1.4 Demography .........................................5 1.5 Political Environment ......................................... 6 1.6 Economic Environment ......................................... 7 1.7 Legal Status ......................................... 11 1.8 Sociocultural Environment ......................................... 14 1.9 Land Tenure ......................................... 16 Key Thematic Issues ................................... 19 2.1 Introduction ......................................... 19 2.2 Women and Economic Participation ......................................... 19 2.3 Agriculture ......................................... 21 2.4 Fisheries ......................................... 23 2.5 Forestry ......................................... 24 2.6 Mining ......................................... 24 2.7 Women and Credit ......................................... 25 2.8 Political Participation ......................................... 27 2.9 Violence against Women ......................................... 28 2.10 Health ......................................... 29 2.11 Education ......................................... 31 Potential Areas of Intervention ................................... 35 3.1 Introduction ......................................... 35 3.2 PNG Platform for Action ......................................... 36 3.3 Discrimination and Decisionmaking ......................................... 36 3.4 Violence ......................................... 38 3.5 Health ......................................... 40 3.6 Education ......................................... 41 Identification of Major Information Gaps ................................... 43 4.1 Introduction ......................................... 43 4.2 Economic Activity ......................................... 43 4.3 Demographic Indices ......................................... 44 4.4 Social Conditions ......................................... 45 4.5 Availability of Data ......................................... 46 4.6 Updating and Building on Recent Studies ......................................... 47 iii Contents (cont'd.) Appendcixes 1: Map of Papua New Guinea (IBRD 29847) ...................... ............................. 49 2: Chronology of W omen's Movement in PNG ..................... ............................. 51 3: Papua New Guinea - PlatformforAction ...................... .............................. 57 Health ....................................................... . .................. 57 Education, Training and Literacy ........................................................................... 57 Mechanisms to Promote the Advancement of Women and Shared Decisionmaking .... 57 Economic Empowerment and Employment Opportunities and Conditions ....... ......... 57 Legal and Human Rights. Violence, Peace and National Unity ................................... 58 Culture and the Family Including a Section on Young Women and Girls and Special Groups of Women Such As Women with Disabilities, Elderly Women, Refugee and Displaced Women ........................................................................... 58 Transport, Shelter and Water, and Communication ................ ................................. 58 Agriculture and Fisheries ........................................................................... 59 Environment and Development ........................................................................... 59 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders .................................................................. 61 STAKEHOLDERS' ROLES IN POLICY AND IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS .......... 61 Institutionalizing WID and GAD in PNG ........................... .................................. 61 Government Focal Points ........................................................................... 61 NON GOVERNMENT FOCAL POINTS ...................................................................... 63, National Council of Women (NCW) . .................................................................... 63 Provincial Councils of Women (PCW) ...................................... ........................... 63 Non Government Organizations ........................................................................ 64 Political Networks ......................... .................................................. 65 Traditional and Indigenous Networks .................................. .............................. 65 OUTLINE OF THE GENDER WORK OF STAKEHOLDERS ............ ............................ 66 Government of PNG .............................. ............................................. 66 Non Government Organizations ........................................................................ 68 Churches ........................................................................... 72 Private Sector ........................................................................... 73 Donors ........................................................................... 75 UNITED NATIONS AGENCIES ........................................................................... 79 5: Resource Persons .................................................................. 81 6: Annotated Bibliography ..................... 87 Agriculture ........................ 87 Churches ........................ 90 Credit ........................ 90 Culture and Ethnography ........................ 92 Donors ........................ 95 Economic Participation ........................ 96 Education ........................ 101 Government Policy ........................ 106 iu Contents (cont'd.) Health ....................................... 110 Women and Law ....................................... 115 Mining ....................................... 117 Political Participation ....................................... 118 Population and Family Planning ....................................... 120 Statistical Data ....................................... 125 Status of Women ....................................... 127 Violence ....................................... 132 United Nations Women's Conference Material ............... ........................ 135 References ..................................... 137 v Contents (cont'd.) List of Boxes Case Study: Harvesting Marine Resources ............................................................... 10 Case Study: Oil Palm Workers in West New Britain .................................................. 11 Brideprice ................................................................. 16 Women in the Private Sector ................................................................. 20 Highland Region Agriculture ................................................................. 22 Lowlands Agriculture ................................................................. 22 Mid-altitude Region Agriculture ................................................................. 22 Social and Economic Impacts of Mining ................................................................. 26 Addressing Male Attitudes: Mi Man Tru ................................................................. 39 Community for Peace ................................................................. 40 Role Models ................................................................. 42 AusAID Baseline Study on Violence ................................................................. 46 List of Tables 1: Female Candidates in PNG National Elections ................................. ...................... 6 2: Citizen Population Aged 10+ and Earning Money: By Type of Employer and by Gender in the Urban Sector, 1980 ............................................................. 19 3: Social Indicators, Selected South Pacific and Southeast Asian Countries .............. 29 4: Causes of Death for Women Aged 15-44, 1985 ..................................................... 30 5: Illiterate Population in PNG by Age Group and Sex ............................................... 31 6: In-School and Out-of-School Factors Affecting Female Enrollment and Retention ................................................................. 33 List of Graphs 1: Number of Citizen Employees by Industry Group and Gender ........... .................... 9 2: School Attendance by Gender and Age, PNG, 1990 ............ .................................. 32 3: Gender Ratio at School by Age, PNG, 1990 .......................................................... 32 4: Enrollments in Institutions of Higher Education by Gender ................................... 33 vi Foreword In 1994 the World Bank undertook a major review of its policy on and approach to gender, which confirmed that gender issues are fundamentally economic and social, not exclusively women's issues. The East Asia and Pacific Region developed a Regional Gender Action Plan in October 1996 which stressed the importance of country-specific strategies. This report on gender in Papua New Guinea intends to lay the foundation for such a strategy. In Papua New Guinea the status of women is a matter of serious concern to development planners and practitioners. Although the Constitution ensures equality for both men and women it also places priority on maintenance of cultural traditions and customary mores. Among some groups, traditional attitudes can make it difficult for women to change the community perception of gender roles, especially when these attitudes discriminate against women's equal participation and development. Rapid socioeconomic and legal "moderniza- tion" of contemporary PNG society has led to a breakdown of traditional support networks, in many areas of the country creating unfavorable circumstances for women. Violence and prop- erty disinheritance are the most tangible effects. The report was prompted initially by a desire to provide task managers and other staff involved in the Bank's program in the country with a comprehensive basis on which to assess gender issues in their development projects. With a better understanding of the historical and cultural context, more weight will be given to a careful assessment of the impact of policy and program decisions on women. The depth of the research materials and analysis presented by the authors will also provide a valuable compendium for many outside the Bank who are actively involved in the development of Papua New Guinea and will help planners and admin- istrators in addressing the inequality and disadvantages faced by women in Papua New Guinea. Jean-Michel Severino Vice President East Asia and Pacific Region vii Abstract The report provides an outline of the key historical, economic, demographic, political, geo- graphic, socio-cultural, legal and institutional issues that are relevant to understanding the status of women in Papua New Guinea today. It begins with an exploration of the history of contact and political development in the country and discusses how the power of traditional and cultural factors has carried over into contemporary PNG, by and large preventing women from sharing equally in the benefits of development. Following a situation report there is a discussion along sector lines of how gender issues in PNG are influenced by a complex set of interrelated factors. The situation analysis leads into an examination of potential areas of intervention, with the emphasis on identifying how such intervention could influence com- munity and institutional views of the role of women in promoting their fuller participation in economic and social activities. Some gaps in information about the situation of women in PNG, particularly in the statistical database, are identified with recommendations for further research to strengthen the basis on which policies, planning targets and programs are formu- lated. The report concludes with a comprehensive profile of the major stakeholders in Papua New Guinea who have a role in policy development and project implementation and provides a detailed, annotated bibliography of literature on women, gender and sectoral issues in PNG. uc Acknowledgments This report was prepared under the direction and editorial management of a World Bank team of Elizabeth C. Brouwer, Sonomni Tanaka and Bruce M. Harris by SMEC Intemnational Pty. Ltd. The authors of the report are Dr. Maev 0 Collins, Ms. Suzette Mitchell, Dr. Martha McIntyre, Ms. Anne Waiko, Dr. Robin Hide, Dr. Heather Booth and Professor Ron Duncan. As part of the consultations on the report a core Focus Group was for-med to assist the authors in the identification of priorities and in the stakeholder discussions. The members of the Focus Group were Molly Manukayasi, Ruby Zarriga, Susan Settae, Ume Wainetti, Hilan Los, Sarah Garap, Margaret O'Callaghan, Miriam Midire, Dorothy Tekwie, Lydia Garua Gah, Betty Loyai and Anne Ryan. The World Bank wishes to express its appreciation to the authors, to the Focus Group and to those organizations and agencies who assisted in the compilation of this material and in the final preparation of the report. In particular, we wish to acknowledge the advice and support of Mr. Joe Demas and Ms. Ruby Zanriga of the Papua New Guinea National Planning Unit. The World Bank also acknowledges the valuable support for the study provided by the Australian Agency for International Development Pacific Facility and the World Bank Country Opera- tions Support Facility. This version of the report has benefitted from suggestions and advice from peer reviewers, in particular, Ms. Lyn Bennett and Ms. Josette Murphy. The report was prepared with guid- ance from Ms. Marianne Haug, Mr. Richard Calkins and Mr. Klaus Rohland. Mr. Malcolm G. Ross prepared the cover design and layout, and undertook the fnal preparation of the text. His assistance is gratefully acknowledged. Mr. David Colbert provided administrative support and coordinated the processing of the report. xi Executive Summary It is often assumed that women have always Areas of intervention to improve the sta- had a lower status to men in Papua New tus of women in PNG were well documented Guinean society. This is not the case as the in the lead up to the 1995 United Nations history of different provinces within PNG re- Fourth World Conference on Women. Many veals. The matrilineal nature of provinces, recommendations addressing the key areas such as Milne Bay, has contributed to a very of health, education, decision making and different social and cultural environment for violence have been articulated yet very few of women than other more traditionally patri- these strategies have been implemented to lineal and patriarchal regions, such as the date. There is a need for donors, government, Highlands. Regional and provincial variances NGOs, the private sector and individuals to make it very difficult to discuss women and work cooperatively to ensure that government men as homogenous groups in PNG. This policy is implemented and that project work report has tried to reflect this diversity as much is supported through district, provincial and as possible. national networks. Given the variance in factors influencing Although a great deal of information on women within PNG, there are still some gen- gender in Papua New Guinea has been pro- eral trends that illustrate the generally lower duced, it has been narrowly focused on status ofwomen throughout the country. This women, their health, and issues of popula- is depicted through the low numbers of women tion and family planning. Recently there has in decision-making positions in the public been an increase in research into violence, service, the private sector and especially in particularly domestic violence, and its spe- parliament. cific affects on women. Women in PNG lack access to adequate There is still very little information on the health care resulting in one of the highest role of women in some of the PNG industries, maternal mortality rates in the world, an ex- especially in forestry and the private sector. tremely high infant mortality rate and par- The national census information was found ticularly low life expectancy. to be unreliable, inconsistent and out of date Education is the other major social indi- and this report does not recommend focus- cator that portrays the lower status of women ing on new national studies, but rather fo- and girls. Literacy in PNG is comparatively cusing on district and village studies with the low for both men and women. However, the implementation of national standards for sur- consistent 10% lower rate of education for vey questioning. females of all ages has dire consequences for It is imperative that more work and research other aspects of life for women and their fami- is done into the role of men in gender rela- lies. NGOs have been working to increase lit- tions. The whole area of gender in develop- eracy ofwomen throughout PNG, particularly ment will not advance a great deal in PNG in the Highlands where the statistics are the without the support and commitment of the worst. men of the country. 1 SITUATION REPORT 1.1 Introduction commercial project planners and The aim of this overview is to outline some of implementers, international Non Gov- the key historical, economiic, demographic, ermient Organizations (NGOs) and political, geographic, sociocultural, legal and funding agencies have increasingly institutional environments relevant to under- impacted on socioeconomic policies, standing the status of women in Papua New including those relating to women's Guinea (PNG). Coimmo themes or factors that par-ticipation. influence the status of women within these It is important to stress that the impact on fields will be discussed in more depth in the the status of women during these different next section. periods has been uneven. In some areas ini- tial contacts took place nkfore than a hundred 1.2 Historical Factors years ago, while in more remote areas sus- Communities in PNG often use historical talned contacts only occurred during the events as markers from which to view major 1950s and 1960s (and even more recently in changes to their life styles. These changes, the Highlands, see map in Appendix 1). The which have had major impacts on the status differential impact of these contacts also re- of women, have occurred at different peri- flected the variation in exidsting cultural atti- ods, reflecting geographic isolation and eco- tudes towards women's role, and the degree nomic, political, and other internal and to which their productive and resource man- external influences. Key historical epochs are agement activities were considered subordi- marked by the following events: nate to those of men. Nonetheless, some (a) The first contact with Australian or general themes emerge as to the impact of German colonial administrative con- these changes on women. trol, and/or with missionaries, trad- ers, miners, or plantation owners. Reduction in Status and Position of Women (b) The development of schools, health Outsiders, whether colonial adminiistrators, services, roads, cash crops, wage em- miissionaries or entrepreneurs, were usually ployment, mining, forestry and other men. They made their initial contacts with economic activities which connected male community leaders and warriors. Later communities, families and individuals local men were employed as interpreters, to the wider world and to other influ- workers and administrative go-betweens. Al- ences. though women were employed in domestic (c) The period since Independence during service, they onldy played a m-inor role as in- which Papua New Guineans have taken formants or interpreters of the language and over many of the administrative func- culture, This meant that most newcomers tions and ecmonomic activities previously were unaware of the extent to which women under-taken by outsiders; but which were involved in economic production and has also seen increased numbers of resource management. foreign companies involvement in ar- Because women displayed a less public eas such as mining, forestry, fisher- persona it was concluded that women had ies, infrastr-ucture and other economic relatively little influence in family or commu- development projects. In addition to nity decision-making. This also meant that 3 Situation Report the forest, coastal or other resources under alter the subsistence economic structures or women's control and management were of- the traditional political systems in favor of ten overlooked or considered unimportant. women. On the contrary, western patriarchy, The political impact on women was in the through its colonial education system, reaf- reduction of their status, even at the local firmed the view of women as inferior, isolat- level. ing them even further from their agricultural Formal involvement of women as individual and domestic bases of power and influence leaders and representatives of their lineages (Martin: 1985, 110). has diminished over a period of a hundred At the same time the development of medi- years. State organization of local politics has cal services, particularly those related to historically excluded women. Men now me- maternal and child health, and access (al- diate all female interests and women are be- beit limited) to formal and non-formal edu- ginning to define themselves by virtue of their cation provided a window of opportunity for sex, as non-participants in politics as they some women. The establishment of church are currently structured (Macintyre: 1995 and government sponsored organizations p. 19). paved the way for articulate and exceptional women to undertake a more public role, al- Patrilineal Kinship Focus though usually within the confines ofwomen's Most of those who came from other countries activities (See Cleland: 1996, for a descrip- brought with them patrilineal mind-sets from tion of the development of women's clubs and which they analyzed the kinship organiza- other activities in the 1950s and 1960s). tional structures of those they met. The ma- jor emphasis was on male control over Continuation of Colonial Structures and decision-making and resource management Attitudes with unequal opportunities for women in After Independence in 1975, many of the co- education and employment. lonial administrative structures and attitudes Family groups were seen as directly under continued, almost unchanged. Male exten- the control of the husband and father. This sion officers in agriculture, forestry and fish- was often inappropriate in the matrilineal eries worked almost exclusively with men. societies within PNG where inheritance passed Development projects were designed and through the female line, and where the ma- implemented after'community consultations ternal uncle might be a far more significant but in most cases women had very little in- figure than the biological father. In many of put in these consultations. In designing and these societies women's influence was also implementing large-scale rural resettlement far more direct and pervasive than the new- schemes, negotiations over the leasing and comers realized. This meant that introduced management of land remained exclusively organizational structures with the exclusive "men's work". This has particularly disadvan- emphasis on male authority further weak- taged widows who find that they are unable ened the position of women in society. As one to obtain security of tenure for the blocks on Papua New Guinean educator noted: which they and their children live (Nakikus: The expansion of education and occupa- 1996, p.124). tional opportunities in the 1960s did little to 4 Situation Report During the 1970s more women began to of mainland PNG. Costs of transportation enter tertiary institutions and to move away affect access to health services, schools, ex- from exclusively "women's work" . This was tension services, and markets for cash crops, often at the price of tensions and conflict in as well as participation in wider political and their personal relationships or partial alien- social activities. ation from their communities. Some of the For coastal and island communities ac- dilemmas and difficulties of trying to live in cess to services and the wider society is also two worlds have been described by Papua New affected by the economic costs of owning, Guinean professional women who found that maintaining and running sea transport and success in their careers often brought resent- the availability of wharves and anchorages ment from male colleagues (UNFPA: 1996 and on the mainland. Gibson: 1993). Geographic isolation impacts most severely Additionally, there has been a tendency to on women, particularly those who are preg- see cultural variations in broad regional terms nant or caring for young children. Local and to ignore differential impacts on societ- aidpost health workers and other extension ies who lived relatively close to one another. officers in remote areas are usually men. The An evaluation of the Southern Highlands In- result is that women are often unable, or tegrated Rural Development Program pointed unwilling, to attend health clinics, participate out that the benefits and disadvantages for in women's activities, or take their produce Huli and Wuru women were not the same. to market. Distance and perceived dangers This could best be explained by analyzing "the also make parents more reluctant to send differences between these societies in terms girls to school, particularly if this means that of their social organization and belief systems" they will have to live away from home. Those (Clark: 1990, p.22). who do leave to study or work find that they Although issues for PNG women vary over often become more isolated from their family the past two decades there has been a pro- and community gressive strengthening of the national PNG Geographic distance, security fears, and women's movement. This has led to the imple- the economic costs involved all mean that mentation of national policy and machinery supervisors and inspectors are less likely to to address the needs of women. Appendix 2 visit remoter aidposts and schools, and that lists a chronology of historical developments supplies are more infrequent and unreliable. of the women's movement in PNG. Extension workers and those involved in de- velopment projects tend to work in more eas- 1.3 Geographic Factors ily accessible areas. In these circumstances, The Map in Appendix 1 identify the 19 prov- unless direct assistance is provided, it is more inces of PNG. Within and between these prov- likely that men will be the beneficiaries and inces there is a high degree of diversity of few women from remoter communities will geographic features that range from coastal be able to participate. plains to rugged highland forests. Problems in communication and access to 1.4 Demog raIphy services reflect the difficulties in building and The population as recorded in the 1990 cen- maintaining roads and bridges in many parts sus (which excluded North Solomons Prov- 5 Situation Report ince) was 3,607,954. There is, and has been be seen as reflecting both the actual economic consistently for decades, a masculine bias in and social changes occurring in PNG and the the population, with 111 males to every 100 desire of many people to participate in a mod- females. This is very high by world standards em economy as wage earners. At present this and may be due to relatively high male birth desire is unrealizable for many that come in rate (which is very unusual in human popu- search of work and brings concomitant so- lations), higher infant mortality among females cial problems of poverty, homelessness and (not demonstrated in estimates), or gender crime. Women who move to the towns are preferential mortality. It could also simply be disadvantaged in a variety of ways. They rarely a reflection of the lower status of females, have qualifications for employment and so resulting in their being under recorded in are more dependent on men for money. Nor censuses. do they have land to grow sufficient food to There has been a gradual increase in the sustain their families. Problems with hous- percentage of people in urban areas over the ing affect them more as they are vulnerable past twenty years, but the population remains to assault if they do not have secure homes. predominantly rural with 85% living in rural villages. In rural areas 48% of the population 1.5 Political Environment is female and in urban populations 58% are The very public and adversarial nature of for- male. The 6% increase in people living in towns mal political participation in an overwhelm- in the last decade has a number of adverse ingly male arena has been a major flow-on effects. The loss of young men from sociocultural factor, which makes it difficult villages to find work in the towns alters the for women to stand for national election. Even age and gender balance in rural villages. This when women are candidates, they are rarely trend has some negative effects in both ar- successful. Men see politics as essentially a eas, as villages in some regions lack the la- "man's game". As the PNG PlatformforAction bor of young men and in towns those young 1995-2005 states: men who fail to find employment constitute a deprived, often homeless group who turn to crime. The 1990 census showed Female Candidates in PNG National Elections that the urban growth rate O ~~~~~~~Number of Number of was twice that of the rural. General Women Women The growth rate of females Elections Candidates Elected in urban areas has in- 1964 and 1968 nil nil creased and now stands at 1972 4 1 4.5%, compared with males 1977 10 3 at 3.52%. Over the next 1982 17 1* decade, if this continues, 1987 18 nil the proportion of men to 1992 16 nil women in towns will be- 1997 55 2 come more balanced. In- * This was achieved through the court of dispute returns creasing urbanization must where the candidate won after recounting of votes took place. 6 Situation Report Equal participation of women in decision- Political involvement at the local and in- making in public life is farfrom reality. Over formal levels may become a more significant the years only a handful of women were able aspect of the changing nature of women's to enter into the national and provincial politi- position in society. In some societies this may cal arena. The periods of the late eighties and reflect a return to the greater public role which the nineties have seen a decline in the involve- women played in pre-colonial times. But other ment of women actively participating in the forms of economic and political organization decision-making process (GoPNG: 1995, 4). suggest the development of a greater degree Since 1972 only eight women have been of "societal integration and cooperative po- elected to the National Parliament although litical identity" (Sepoe: 1994: Preston: 1987; others have been appointed as members of Macintyre: 1985 and Josephides: 1985). provincial governments. Yet, the number of A further set of political influences involves women contesting the elections has grown power conflicts, competition, and cooperation steadily from four in 1972, seventeen in 1982, between women themselves. Since Indepen- to fifty-five candidates in 1997, of whom two dence the development of national, provin- were successful. This has meant that politi- cial and local women's councils has been cal decision-making has been almost entirely marked by tension and conflict, often over in the male domain. management of the meager resources pro- The political influence of women cannot only vided by governments. be gauged by their formal representation. Recently there have been indications that Women's lobby groups have grown in confi- women's groups and government and non dence and are more articulate than in earlier government agencies are moving closer to- years. What may be more difficult to overcome gether. This provides room for cautious opti- is the deep suspicion which women themselves mism that the political influence of women have towards female candidates and the ten- will finally become a powerful and coordinated dency for family and clan affiliations with male force for positive change. candidates to be the deciding factor (Bonnell: 1985; Delkin: 1992; Wormald:1989) As a 1.6 Economic Environment former politician concluded: It is perhaps at the provincial and local gov- Macroeconomic Environment ernment or community govemment levels that The two main areas of economic activity in women may eventually find the greatest po- low-income countries that benefit women dis- tential to influence the society and our place proportionately to men are in informal, mi- in it. It is at these intermediate and basic lev- cro-enterprise activities and in labor-intensive els where the decisions are made as to where industries. Informal market activities can be schools, aidposts, water supplies and so on very diverse, ranging from production and are to be placed. There are, however very real sidewalk sale of agricultural goods, to pro- problems facing women's representation at duction and sale of handicrafts, to personal these levels. Local level society is still shaped transport, or to hair cutting. Labor-intensive and determined by conservative traditional industry, with a high ratio of female employ- attitudes towards leadership and the role of ment, includes the standard-technology pro- women (Rooney 1985:46). duction of clothing and footwear. These are 7 Situation Report usually the first industrial activities in which will need to be paid to other constraints on low-income countries specialize as they be- supply response. The major bottlenecks to gin to grow out of a largely rural subsistence expanded investment in all sectors are the situation. poor transport infrastructure, particularly Unfortunately PNG is not providing very roads, and the overwhelming law and order much in the way of development of either of problem. Other significant constraints are the these kinds of activities. As can be seen from high costs of public utilities, the dearth of data on the gender allocation of formal em- skilled, especially supervisory, workers, and ployment (Hetler and Siew-Ean: 1987; Heyzer the need for the PNG Government to give Sen: 1994) PNG's industrial employment is domestic and foreign investors confidence that heavily biased in favor of males, which indi- it will maintain policies which favor outwardly- cates that it has little in the way of labor- oriented growth. intensive industry. In fact because PNG's tiny It is not necessarily the case that labor- domestically oriented industrial sector has intensive industrial activities, such as foot- been developed behind an overvalued ex- wear and clothing manufacturing or assembly change rate with high tariff and non-tariff of electronic parts, will ever have much of a trade barriers, activity is relatively capital- place in the PNG economy. However other intensive. Also because its domestic market labor-intensive activities such as tourism may is so small, there is little scope or incentive well have an important role if the physical for productivity improvements or for employ- infrastructure and law and order problems ment expansion. In order to generate labor- can be significantly reduced. But one of the intensive activities, which will favor females, first places for rapid economic growth to be- PNG will have to become internationally com- gin is in agriculture and in informal activities petitive in terms of its unit labor costs. related to agriculture. Improved growth in A beginning has been made in this direc- these areas would be of substantial economic tion with the substantial lowering of the ur- benefit to women. It is unfortunate that PNG ban minimum wages for new workers in the maintains a highly regulatory attitude towards Minimum Wage Board decision of 1992 and informal activity, a holdover from the era of the accompanying de-linking of wage in- Australian administration. Repression of these creases from increases in the Consumer Price activities restricts the development of a capi- Index. Future wage increases are to be linked tal base in small business, restricts the de- to productivity increases. A second major velopment of entrepreneurial skills, and policy shift towards a more outwardly ori- probably will prevent any micro-finance ented economy was the floating and subse- schemes from being viable. quent large nominal and real exchange rate Agriculture has not provided the kind of depreciation in 1994. A third important policy income and savings base for development that reform has been the move, albeit limited to has been seen in countries such as Chile, date, toward lowering tariff and non-tariff Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. In large barriers under the IMF/World Bank struc- part this has been due to the maintenance of tural adjustment program (World Bank: 1995). an overvalued exchange rate in the interest In order to see a significant response from of containing inflation. But the policy tilt has the private sector to these reforrns, attention been too far in the direction of containing in- 8 Situation Report flation at the expense of the loss of intema- Microeconomic Environment tional competitiveness. Women in PNG have always played a major While lack of individualized access to land role in economic activities involving agricul- for agricultural and other purposes is often ture and the harvesting of coastal and forest cited as a reason for PNG's poor economic resources, as part of their overall involvement performance, it should be recognized that the in the subsistence economy, although, as il- repressive economic policies adopted basically lustrated in Graph 1 these industries are repress the implicit value of land. Therefore dominated by men when paid employees are demand for land to be made more available considered. In the paid work force women for economic uses is also repressed. With lib- are concentrated in community and social eralization of trade and investment, improved services and the retail industry. physical infrastructure, and improved law and The census data has not been uniform in order, the implicit rental value of land will the past four censuses so absolute figures increase and there will be domestic pressure need to be treated with caution. Nonetheless, to provide more secure individualized land since 1996, there has been a rapid increase tenure. Such forms of tenure will make land in the percentage of women 'employed in more likely to be used as collateral for raising monetary activities' - rising from 6.2% in 1966 credit and make investment in land more to 32.6% in 1990 (National Statistical Of- likely. fice: 1994, p. 147). GRAPH 1 Number of Citizen Employees by Industry Group and Gender 35000 30000 25000 Males 20000 Females 15000 10000 5000 0ju 5~~~~~~~~~ a Source: Adapted from Draft Women and Men in Papua New Guinea: A Statistical Country Profile (1997). Port Moresby: National Statistical Office. 9 Situation Report Between 1980 and 1990 labor force par- where women work in partnership with hus- ticipation rates fell by more than ten percent bands, or other male family members, but in Western Highlands and Milne Bay and payment is made only to the men. between five and ten percent in Madang, Women's lack of direct control over land is Morobe, Simbu, and Western provinces. On anotherfactorwhich limits the degree towhich the other hand, participation rates rose mark- they can participate in modern cash crop- edly in Manus, National Capital District, New ping or other economic activities. This often Ireland and Eastern Highlands provinces (Ibid. reflects a convergence of cultural and earlier p. 159) colonial attitudes and practices which ex- Assisting women to benefit more from eco- cludes women from acquiring blocks in new nomic activities, or to be more successful en- settlements, or taking over blocks when, trants into the labor market, wiUl require a through death or divorce, they become heads variety of multifaceted approaches. Educa- of households. Some changes have gradu- tion and training, access to credit and mar- ally taken place but it is still difficult for women keting facilities, formal community support to obtain permanent land management rights and encouragement, particularly from male and it is not uncommon to find that com- mercial land development decisions are made Case Study: Harvesting Marine Resources which ignore their gardening rights. At a Gender Sensitization Workshop for SPC Staff in 1994, a case study Some caution is necessary when analyz- was presented of two Western Province communities involved in har- ing economic factors that impact on the sta- vesting lobsters, crabs and other marine resources. Although women , ~~~~~~~~~~tus of women. The problems faced by coUlected crab, they, unlike in many other areas, did not market them as , , , ~~~~~~~~~~~professional women injuggling domestic and marketing was seen as "men's work". Men also controlled all the money, woresponslities may be mesto rcg and women were reluctant to present their views or take part in meet- nize. However, there are other realistic con- ings. Male extension officers from the Department of fisheries and Ma- . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~straints to increasing the involvement of rine Resources had visited both viUlages but their advice had been directed women in nontraditional economic activi- solely at men. "Although three women from Western Province had at- tics. Many women are already fully involved tended the Papua Region Processing Workshop, there had been as yet in domestic and traditional activities and no transfer of skills or any foHow-up activity" (SPC: 1994, p. 15). unless some of these responsibilities can be This example illustrates several inter-locking factors which limit devolved to others they will merely assume women's economic activities. It was not surprising that the study re- a "double burden". This will be particularly ported that women had expressed a preference for female extension crucial for low-income women, as house- officers. As in Clark's (1990) discussion of the Southern Highlands, a holdlevelsurveysoftenassumeintra-house- 're-negotiation of male-female relations' would also be necessary if women hold equality. as well as men were to benefit form these economic activities. That is, al members of a household are family members, are aU aspects which need assumed to be non-poor. There is a good deal to be taken into account. A further signifi- of evidence to suggest that this is not true; cant factor is the degree to which women have intra-household inequalities mean that men control over the money they earn from their in poor households can be non-poor, and labor, or from other economic activities women and children in non-poor households (Fairburn-Dunlop: 1997; Fahey: 1985; canbebelowthepovertyline. However, there Hailey: 1987). This is particularly a problem is no alternative but to make the assumption 10 Situation Report of intra-household equality if poverty estimates At the same time there have been substan- among persons are to be constructed from tial changes over the last hundred years that household-level data (Gibson: 1996, p.38) have restricted such rights in their extreme The implications of this focus on aggre- forms. Whether the changes are attributed gate household income are to make women to mission influence, imposed colonial laws even more invisible, or to assume that they or gradual attitudinal changes, many of the will benefit from increased production. It is traditions that upheld such things as ritual clear that this is another area where the re- killing of widows, mutilation of adulterous negotiation of gendered relations and the wives and pack rape of female war captives development of more reciprocal and shared have vanished. family, community. and societal responsibili- Acceptance of customary laws such as ties will be required. corporal punishment within marriage, of men's rights over compensation payments 1.7 Legal Status madeinrespectofakinswoman'sinjury, and Traditionally women in many communities of paternal rights over children, are grounded were in the position that is most analogous in traditions which, by Western liberal stan- to the concept of jural minor' in English law. dards, deny women rights as individuals. That is, they were not considered capable of Case Study: Oil Palm Workers in West New Britain rffepresenting their own interests autono- The harvesters' wives are notpaid directly by the Company but the mnously, and kinsmen had authority over husband and wives harvest is combined and the money paid to the them. Before marriage in patrilineal systems, harvester who may or may not pay his wife. The regularity and time senior males of the lineage (usually fathers aendobrothers)fmade dneageiusionslo baheha o per day of this assistance was not determined so its precise contribu- andaug thters) andsers, includiongon thechoo tion tofamily wages is not known. However, most men whose wives assisted stated that the assistance was "all the tine. Of marriage partner. Women influenced such The study raised the issue of the differential use of what was earned, decisions informally through personal inter- as women were more likely to spend money on food, or for household ventions and other strategies. Matrilineal systems varied more in their authority struc- imrvens sturems vrinsed borointhers and ther'tystbrot- It was thought that if the company were to pay the wives directly tures. In some brothers and mother's broth- for their contributions to the workforce this may enhance family wel- ers represented the woman; in others the senior men and women (brothers and sisters) fare, but the company stated: 'We do not wish to employ more people on these tasks and certainly do not wish to separately pay husband had authority over young men and women. In many societies the sorts of authority and and wife. It is a socio-educational problem more than anything else". control that men could exert over women in. (Adamson, Fett, Huntsman, and Scarlett: 1984, p.37). cluded rights over her person, her fertility. Family Law reflects the values and West- her labor and restriction of her movement em ideas about family life that were set up from place to place. The rights of kinsmen during the period of Australian administra- (including fathers, brothers and husbands) tion. Although the PNG Law Reform Com- to chastise and punish women were perva- mission recommended repeal of these laws sive and the majority of men and women in and replacement by a more culturally appro- PNG still uphold many of men's rights over priate Family Law Act in 1978, no new legis- women. lation has even been enacted. Divorce laws 11 Situation Report discriminate against women and the lack of brought by women against husbands for laws that validate the various forms of cus- maintenance are rarely pursued by authori- tomary marriage mean that women are often ties. unable to claim their rights as wives. De facto At all levels throughout the justice system marriages have no legal basis with sirnilar women receive unequal treatment; as victims consequences for women and children who or complainants, as offenders, and in em- are deserted. ployment opportunities. While there are clearly In 1995 the PNG government ratified the institutional and structural factors that con- Convention on the Elirnination of All Forms tribute to lack of access and the opportunity of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). to be heard, cultural and attitudinal factors As yet none of the measures for promoting also contribute to, and compound, gender in- economic equality and improving women's equalities and inequitable treatment. participation in decision-making have been implemented. In government departments Improved Police and Emergency Services there are no affirmative action programs that The Individual and Human Rights Advocacy are acted upon systematically. In the private Forum (ICRAF) considers that improved po- sector there is no awareness of issues relat- lice and emergency services for women should ing to equality of opportunity or affirmative be a national priority. Women are afraid to action in employment and women are con- report crimes in case they may be harassed sistently discriminated against. Sexual ha- or blamed for the crime (ICRAF 1997, p.22). rassment is common and there is no This is particularly the case in police stations legislation protecting women. where there are no women police. In recent years there has been a gradual increase in Gender Inequality and the Justice System the number ofwomen police, particularly since All institutions of law enforcement in PNG the mandatory ceiling of one hundred women are male-dominated. The police force is over- was abolished. However, there are still less whelmingly male. There are hardly any fe- than 350 women in a force of nearly 4500 male magistrates at any level of the legal and they are not present in significant num- system - Village, Local and District court mag- bers in many main centers throughout PNG. istrates are almost exclusively male. There is In most part of the country crisis and emer- only one female judge in PNG and she is an gency services for women are either nonex- expatriate. istent or inadequate, and many male police The legal profession is 90% male. Access officers do not respond sympathetically to to free legal aid is extremely difficult for both women who are victims of domestic or sexual men and women, but as very few women have violence. Women who are arrested are often any income the women are more disadvan- held in police lockups that lack basic privacy taged. Women have very little knowledge of and appropriate facilities, and are in serious the system or their rights in law. Most stud- danger of being further victimized. ies indicate that women are dealt with harshly in village courts for offenses that are perceived to be breaches of morality (adultery, assaults in domestic arguments) and that civil suits 12 Situation Report Domestic Violence ments in some parts of the country, women Institutional responses to domestic violence police themselves may be subject to sexual had, until the mid- 1980s, been muted or in- harassment and lack of support from male consistent. However the educational cam- colleagues. Even when organizations such as paigns aimed at men and women, which were the Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary part of the program initiated at that time by have approved and adopted official policies the Law Reform Commission, have been con- and procedures to deal with domestic vio- tinued by a number of churches and non lence and sexual harassment by their own government agencies. These aim to provide personnel, the degree to which these proce- men and women with a better understand- dures are followed varies widely. In many situ- ing of their legal nights and responsibilities ations, whether at work or at home, women and of avenues of redress open to those sub- consider that they have minimal legal pro- ject to domestic violence. tection or redress. There is also evidence that The institutional response of the justice violent sexual assaults are increasing in ru- system also needs to be strengthened, both ral areas, particularly in some Highlands prov- with regard to domestic violence and also in inces (Jenkins: 1994). dealing with the serious problem of sexual attacks on women (Bradley: 1985: Toft: 1985). Village Courts Problems of domestic violence and personal Women complainants or respondents face security affect women at all levels, and women particular difficulties in their dealings with magistrates, police and corrective institution the village court system. Village courts were personnel share these problems with other established in 1975 with the aim of provid- women in the community. These general prob- ing a local level mechanism for mediation and lems of violence and fear of violence are ever- dispute resolution, and to deal with minor present constraints on women's capacity to offenses in a customary and traditional way. participate in economic, social and political However, the mixture of traditional and offi- activities (See Lak, et. al. 1992, FYnal Report cial western-style practices that have evolved on Domestic Violence, for a consideration of has often led to unequal treatment of women the economic and social costs of domestic vio- when they appear in village court proceed- lence). ings. Over the past ten years cases of illegal or Workplace and Community Harassment unnecessary custodial sentences have been and Violence noted in the annual reports of the Village Court Government and private enterprise recruit- Secretariat. Of particular concern has been ment and training programs often have a male the practice of imprisoning women with young focus and this militates against the success- children. The 1988 report included a joint ful integration of women into the work force. submission from the Western Highlands Re- Women who are subject to domestic violence habilitation Committee and the Baisu Cor- at home or sexual harassment in the work rective Institution staff, which stated: place still experience difficulties in gaining We strongly recommend that it should be redress at all levels. made absolutely illegal for village courts to Although there have been marked improve- be able to imprison women who have young 13 Situation Report children. There is no difficulty giving these and often ambiguous. Generalizations are people community work to do. It is absolutely almost impossible because of the range of ridiculous to imprison women with children views across different cultural groups. Two for minor offenses (Department of Justice, aspects of female status must be seen as con- Village Court Secretariat, AnnualReport 1988, sistently important, both in the past and to- Appendix 24). day. Firstly, female fertility and women's While some problems are clearly due to nurturant roles were culturally valued lack of training and supervision, cases re- (Kopkop: 1992; Stratigos and Hughes: 1987). flecting unjust treatment of women also re- In some societies the religious rituals of both flect the interplay of cultural and attitudinal men and women centered on maintaining and factors. Where supervision is effective women managing fertility. Even beliefs that from one may be assisted to achieve greater equality, perspective can be seen as oppressive or re- but as Jonathan Aleck points out: strictive of women - such as the idea that The issue here - and it is a complex issue women's bodies were polluting to men - can - is whether the more equitable treatment of also be interpreted as giving women power to women by the village courts would not, in punish or retaliate when wronged. Secondly, fact, involve a deliberate compromise of 'tra- women's role as producer and provider of food ditional' values in favor of adopted contem- for her family and for exchange at feasts gave porary Western preferences (Aleck: 1992, p. her social recognition and value to her own 116). kin and to the kin of her husband. In many societies there were distinct ini- Women in Prison tiation ceremonies for boys and girls. These The absence of women in law enforcement provided education and were rituals that in- agencies also discriminates against women. corporated adolescents into the world of There are few female police officers and none adults. But they were usually occasions for in positions of authority over men. The police the celebration of sexual difference when the force culture is very masculine and women positive values accorded to each gender role officers are often relegated to office work or were emphasized. Some of these ceremonies welfare tasks. While there has been training have been modified and in many areas they for women officers to deal with female vic- have been replaced by Christian rituals such tims of assault and rape, this policy is often as first communion and by formal education. disregarded at the local level. Female victims But there are communities where the transi- of such crimes tend not to report them be- tion to adulthood is still celebrated in cus- cause of the assumed sympathies of male tomary ways that sustain the gender values officers towards the perpetrators. Within pris- of the past. ons the officers are mostly male and facilities Money will be spent (or raised through loans are not designed for female prisoners. from wantoks or more formal sources such 'Savings and Loans' agencies) on sending the 1.8 Sociocultural Environment bodies of migrant workers home for burial, While women's jural status can readily be and for other funeral or memorial events. interpreted as relatively low, their status in Women are often in the center of these activi- social and cultural domains is more varied ties as they are significant family and com- 14 Situation Report munity occasions. At the same time they also workers and those who were manried were seek to raise money for school fees, house- neglecting their duties at home (Macintyre: hold improvements and against further un- 1997). The pressures on women to conform anticipated calls on the family of community to the narrow expectations of men are con- (Turner: 1993). The priority ranking given to siderable across all classes. different items of expenditure may not always There are signs that the high value for- be shared by outsiders, but do need to be merly placed on women as mothers and gar- understood as it is part of the overall pattern deners no longer holds, and that this work is of women's participation. increasingly seen as demeaning. Certainly Within the modem nation state the value young men who return to the village after placed on women as mothers and providers being educated or employed elsewhere ap- could be seen to exclude women from other parently see traditional subsistence garden- roles by placing positive value on the tradi- ing as beneath them. Manyyoung people who tional domain and devaluing the contribu- return to village life after leaving school refer tions women make in other spheres. Certainly to themselves as 'dropouts' and see garden- many PNG men perceive any other activities, ing work as providing no status comparable such as pursuing education, working in or- to that of having a job. ganizations, taking paid employment or be- With economic changes there is greater ing politically active, as incompatible with prestige attached to new forms of wealth, traditional maternal roles. Even the head of knowledge and status. Imported foods, mo- the Department of Education could say, with- tor vehicles and boats, western-style cloth- out fear of opposition as recently as 1987, ing and consumer goods have in ways replaced that women have the choice to be good em- the valued goods of traditional life. In some ployees or good mothers. He stated categori- areas money and consumer goods have been cally that he "could not condone" a female substituted for traditional valuables in cus- schoolteacher who was a 'part-time spouse tomary exchanges, such as bridewealth. This and parent and a part-time public servant'. shift in the value system has a deleterious "I know the choice is difficult, but it has to be effect on women's status. But such changes made" (Wormald and Crossley: 1987, p. 23). need to be contextualized as less than 10% 'Custom'or'traditional cultural values and of people are formally employed and there practices' might be used as a tool to prevent are still many places in PNG where cash in- women from achieving equal rights. Noting come is very low, and is spent mainly on things that "laws should not encourage polygamists" such as kerosene, soap, and basic clothing. the ICRAFstatementonJusttceandFreedom Foodstuffs and pigs, produced and raised pointed out that: "Most polygamous manriages mainly by women, retain their value and are existing today in PNG are not practiced ac- not eclipsed by new goods. cording to custom. But custom is being used The cultural complexities of gender relations by men as an excuse to have more than one make it impossible to generalize, even on the woman"(ICRAF: 1997, p.21). On one mining basis ofbroad divisions of matrilineal orpatri- project viflage leaders petitioned the company lineal forms of social organization. Before In- to dismiss all female employees as those who dependence, Marilyn Strathem pointed to were single were likely to be tempted by male different and subtle ways in which Hagen 15 Situation Report women could compete with and influence self-confidence; they are evaluated in terms men. "Women accept that in public life men of how they operate as individuals. Men are are dominant. Competition with men is not evaluated in terms of their ability to influ- to do all that men do, but to draw a recogni- ence women as well as other men .... When tion from them of the claims they make as men talk ofwomen as the business that makes women" (Strathern: 1972 p.309). them rich, they are referred to a possibility Other family relationships may require that will be realized only if men give full credit more direct attention and understanding. to female autonomy. Without the women, the Referring to sibling relationships in one matri- man is nothing; with their help, if he can se- lineal society (Nash: 1987, p. 161) notes that cure it, he may become a real man. In the "Both are believed to own descent group prop- stress on self-achievement, patrilineality erty, but only sisters use it and add to it; counts for almost nothing, and successful affinal relations, only achievable if women are Brideprice satisfied, for almost everything (Chowning: The positive and negative contributions which the practice of brideprice, 1987, p.148). or bridewealth make, can be considered from different viewpoints. While most would agree that the practice has become subject to economic the moit Tenure inflationary pressures and distortions, there is a greater difference of Inuthe majontyof mainland P ak soite, opinion as to its intrinsic value in stabilizing and promoting positive grous ofm ctrol ln and maketmjo op.nion decisions about its use. In island societies inter-family and mnter-group relations. inter-family nd inter-grop relations.the picture is more varied. In some Milne Bay The 1996 household survey, conducted as part of the Poverty As- thempities me aredeeme owne communities women are deemed to own the sessment for Papua New Guinea, found that the payment of 'wedding land and they make decisions about garden expenses and brideprice' was a significant household expenditure item - almost twice that recorded for 'school fees' (Gibson and Rozelle: 1997). give In Ne and ove resocetin One view is that the accumulation and distribution of brideprice serves give men sole authority over resources, in to promote productive activities and reflects a different approach to oth al decisnsar made lyn the 'wealth'. From this perspective, the objectives of accumulation and sav- majoity of ma n sieie landhis hl ing are to meet specific economic, cultural and social needs of the ex- conjointiyiy wo men whe the In many patrilineal societies men own the land tended family, clan group or wider community. and women have no rights except those con- ferred by men as brothers or husbands. brothers advise about its future". Policy-mak- In the main systems of land registration ers and planners may overlook the impor- proposed from the 1950s have neither ac- tance of these sibling relationships particularly knowledged the rights of women nor attempted if they focus exclusively on spousal or gen- to redress the balance so that women have erational gendered relations. equal rights as citizen landowners. While there Another analysis of gender relations among is some evidence that in the past women had the Kove, a West New Britain patrilineal soci- some voice in decisions about land and its ety, questioned simplistic notions of female use, the system of village courts established subordination and male domination. during the Australian Administration effec- The frequently mentioned strength and tively excluded women from public decision- 'hardness' of Kove women derives from basic making about land. Today, in places in New 16 Situation Report Britain, New Ireland Province or Milne Bay the detriment of women. This is particularly Province where the kinship systems and land the case in matrilineal systems where men rights are matrilineal, disputes over land are gain a permanent right over land and then conducted between representative men and bequeath it patrilineally to their children - a women are only called as witnesses. practice that has no precedent in custom. In In the few instances where land has been patri]ineal systems women are often entirely registered or privatized women have been excluded from owning registered land. severely disadvantaged as a result. Land reg- In the monetary system of today, land has istration practices have consistently resulted become an important asset for acquiring bank in the effective diminution of women's tradi- loans. Women are particularly discriminated tional rights in land. First, because when the against in this regard because land is now land is acknowledged as belonging to a spe- registered under male ownership and even cific group of people, males are usually the in the few remaining matrilineal societies ones who are consulted, are the signatories where women work and own land it is the to any legal documents and often are the ones men who negotiate with banks and similar who benefit from changes in inheritance, to services (Cox and Aitsi: 1988, p. 34). 17 Key Thematic Issues 2.1 Introduction paid, the majority is paid by church or mis- Gender issues are influenced by a complex sionary groups. Women are least represented set of interlocking factors so it is difficult, or in areas of the private sector. even impossible, to disentangle the different The graph of employees by industry group elements which affect the current status of and gender in the previous section (Graph 1) women in PNG. Many of the key thematic is- illustrated that the majority of people (85% sues that construct a gender analysis of PNG of the population) gain a livelihood through are interrelated. agriculture, forestry and fisheries. Women's The interplay of culture and tradition, and work figures largely in subsistence garden- colonial and post-colonial developments, make ing, livestock rearing, fishing and cash crop- it hard to point to a hierarchy of importance ping. Women are mostly employed in for these different factors. traditionally female areas such as commu- nity and social services, as well as the retail 2.2 Women and Economic Participation trade. Forestry, logging, construction and mining employ hardly any women. Key Gender Problems In the workplace women are often discrimi- In PNG the economic role of women is essen- nated against and do not have access to in- tial to the subsistence economy but is both formation and support to ensure that their underestimated and devalued by men and rights are respected, and that they have equal by economic observers. Table 2 illustrates that access to services. If women are to partici- the highest percentage of females are self- pate at all levels of the economy they will re- employed and unpaid, as compared to other quire assistance and advice from private and types of employers. Of those women that are public sector personnel. The Individual and TABLE 2 Citizen Population Aged 10+ and Earning Money: By Type of Employer and by Gender in the Urban Sector, 1980 Number Percentage Females per Type of Employer Male Female Male Female 100 Males Self-employed and Unpaid 3,946 2,373 4 14 60 Government 30,702 6,399 35 38 21 Statutory 7,788 1,498 9 919 Local Govt Council 1,859 99 2 119 Missions/Churches 1,584 464 2 3 30 Private Business 42,610 5,844 48 35 14 Int'l orgs/Embassies 107 24 0 0 22 Total 38,596 16,701 100 100 19 Source: 1980 Population Census. 19 Key Thematic Issues Community Rights Advocacy Forum state- as essential, it does not invariably mean that ment on 'Gender Equality' notes that: their contributions are given equal value. The public service in PNG is the largest Studies have repeatedly shown that women employer of women, yet few women have spend more time, compared to men, produc- been able to attain high level positions. ing food and that they expend more of their Since Independence, less than five women energy and provide most of the food that is have held departmental head and senior consumed. Nonetheless, men's work in clear- administrative positions. Only 10 of the ing and preparing land for planting, building 18 boards and councils have women's rep- fences and fishing or hunting is usually cul- resentation (ICRAF: 1997, p. 16). turally perceived as balancing or exceeding women's contributions (Brown: 1987; Hogan: Analysis of Factors Which Cause 1985). Gender Problems Income from cash crops, such as coffee, Inalmostallmajoreconomiicprojectswomen's copra or cocoa, is managed by men in the needs and interests have been marginalized majority of societies, although there are many or ignored, with the result that their status communities where this is not so. Local sales has been lowered and the negative social of garden produce at markets or roadside stalls impacts have been borne by them dispropor- are generally the preserve of women. In some tionately (Stratigos and Hughes: 1987). areas, especially rnatrilineal societies where In the subsistence sector the division of women have continuous rights in their clan labor has often been characterized as based land, cash income is perceived as belonging on ideas of gender complementarity. While to the person who produced the goods for this construction acknowledges women's work sale. In these areas women retain control over the money they make. The situation regard- Women in the Private Sector ing control over family income is variable and There is very little information available on the role of women in the changing, but as relatively few women earn private sector, although it is acknowledged as an area that needs to be cash and with some women giving their earn-- promoted. The Investments Promotions Authority (IPA) has been run- ings to husbands or male kin, it is clear tha ning a register of women in business for the past 3 years which is very few women control household income. designed to maintain listings of women and provide assistance to women schemes directed at women (Finch: 1992). entering business. The IPA has a national office in Port Moresby and an office in Lac to service the Momase region. It's aim is to have offices As women's projects within the family or clan very often involve their giving all profits to open in the Islands and the Highlands regions by 1999. These regional men, they lack control over income. Also the offices will maintain regional registers of women. women have little experience of financial The IPA works closely with the Small Business Development Cor- poration (SBDC) which has a special loan facility for women to access management to draw on in planning repay- small loans for businesses. Women accessing this loan facility have ments of loans. Another characterization of the gender di- initiated their businesses in areas such as establishing bakeries, co- ,visions in the economic sphere is that of women coa projects, trade stores, selling ice blocks and other retail ventures. as the producers and men the iransactors. The IPA and the SBDC also hold regular training courses for women in business and host business women's luncheons. This provides a useful analytical starting point as it develops the idea of complementarity but 20 Key Thematic Issues illustrates the way that men gain control over appears generally to be the case that women women's products and so benefit more in sta- are disadvantaged. tus and political power. This also illustrates how women have had such difficulties in ac- Market Trading cessing positions in the private sector, although Marketplace trade occurs throughout PNG this is changing slowly. and its significance varies largely in relation to urban demand and access. By 1993 the 2.3 Agriculture annual value of such trade was estimated at K300 million. Generally women dominate food Key Gender Problems and Analysis of crop marketingwith the main exceptions being Factors that Cause Gender Problems some markets in Port Moresby, the manage- Agriculture in PNG is divided into two major ment of long distance trade in products such sectors: village and non-village agriculture. as sweet potato (from the highlands to coastal Village agriculture provides subsistence and towns) and in some cases betel nut. While cash incomes for approximately 85% of the participation rates for women in market trad- population. Non-village agriculture includes ing are high, market incomes and cash re- three sub-sectors: the largeholdings or es- turns are usually relatively low. tates; the smallholder land settlement schemes; and urban horticulture. Nonvillage Agriculture All PNG societies mark gender differences Agriculture outside of village-based systems strongly and in distinctive ways varying be- on customary land takes three major forms: tween cultures. In agriculture the gender dif- estates or largeholdings; smallholder land ferences significantly structure the access to settlement schemes; and urban horticulture. resources, divisions of labor, and returns to The estate or largeholder sector in PNG agri- labor in the form of consumption patterns culture produces a range of export crops (cof- and income shares. fee, cocoa, coconuts, oil palm, tea, rubber, To summarize significant aspects of gen- and, until 1989, cardamom), as well as live- der it is useful to divide PNG agricultural sys- stock, sugar and stockfeed for the internal temsintothreebroadagro-ecologicalregions: market. In 1985 it included over 800 the highlands (>1200 m), the mid-altitude largeholdings, employed 42,443 citizens, and zone (600 - 1200 m), and the lowlands (0- land useinvolved over386,000hectares. While 600 m). Overleaf are case summaries of low- women are generally invisible in both the lands, mid altitude and highlands time use ownership and management of estates, their allocations. These case studies show both appearance in employment figures is also sexes contributing substantial labor inputs minimal. In 1982 women were only 8% of the to the production of cash crops for income, estate work force, and 4% of the agricultural with men's contribution probably greatest in wage workforce. In both cases substantially the case of highland coffee and most equi- less than their overall 13% in national wage table with women's time use in the lowlands employment. The invisibility of women in the regions. However, in terms of rights of own- official employment picture of the estate sec- ership to such long-lived tree crops and of tor seriously underestimates their actual con- rights to benefit from cash crop income, it tribution. 21 Key Thematic Issues Highland Region Agriculture Characteristically most agricultural systems in the highland region are based on sweet potato as the major crop. Overall, population densities are higher than in the other two regions and in core areas they are much higher. Agricultural intensity is also generally higher, with more plantings before land is fallowed and often shorter fallows. Coffee is the most important cash crop: it has a seasonal harvesting period between May and September when its labor requirements are greatest (Samana: 1986 and 1989). Work patterns in Enga Province in 1968 when cash crop plantings were still minimal, showed women working for 26 hours weekly in food production, compared to 16 hours by men, with a further 2 hours of cash crop production by each sex. Twenty years later similar figures were reported. In the neighboring Southern Highlands in 1979, Duna women spent 27 hours weekly in food production, the men 19 hours. In Simbu Province in 1972, women spent 22 hours weekly in food crop production, men 15 hours, and two hours each in coffee production (Hide, 1981). The most extreme case appears to be that of Wola women in the Southern Highlands who have been described as working between four and six times more hours in agricultural cultiva- tion than men (Sillitoe: 1985). Lowlands Agriculture Time allocation studies have been undertaken in parts of the Western Province where sago is either ajoint staple or the sole staple food, and where cash crops are of minimal importance. These studies indicate that the contributions of men and women to food production are generally similar in terms of overall activity time, though sharply different for specific food getting components. Thus in the Kubo area of Nomad, men spent 49 % of their total activity time, and women 58 % of theirs, in subsistence activities. More specifically, men spent 5.7 % in horticulture, 2 % in sago making and 19.6 % in hunting, fishing and collecting, while the respective figures for women were 7.6 % in horticulture, 15.8 % in sago making, and 12.1 % in gathering and fishing. The similar inputs by men and women in gardening and the much greater contribution by women in sago making are confirmed by Dwyer (1994). Mid-altitude Region Agriculture Very low population densities characterize the mid-altitude region, with low intensity agricultural systems based generally on one or more of such crops as sweet potato, taro, Chinese taro and sago. Subsistence food production usually involves a combination of agriculture, sago processing, and hunting and collecting, with only restricted cash cropping. Women's share of total time spent on food production ranges from a high of about 66 % (in Gulf and parts of Western province), to a low of 44% on the Papuan Plateau in the Southern Highlands. The overall average of several studies is about 60% (Bonnemere: 1992; Kelly: 1993). 22 Key Thematic Issues Originally the coastal plantations of coco- 2.4 Fisheries nuts and cocoa used primarily male migrant laborers. There is little or no information about Key Gender Problems the use of women workers. The situation is In many parts of PNG, especially in coastal similar for the oil palm estates where the only regions, women fish regularly and provide study shows women working unofficially as substantial amounts of fish for family con- assistants to their husbands employed as sumption. The Women in Fisheries Develop- officiallaborers.Inthecaseofthesinglesugar- ment program was initiated in 1989, producing estate no gender information is supported by overseas aid funding. Its aims available on the regularly employed labor force are both nutritional and economic and the but a substantial proportion of the more than target beneficiaries, women, children and 800 workers taken on for casual seasonal work youth in villages, have consistently been iden- in the 1980s were women. tified as deprived in these aspects of their Smallholder land settlement schemes have lives. been a significant part of government policy to encourage cash cropping since the 1950s. Analysis of Factors Which Cause Gender Nakikus' (1985) review of the impact of such Problems settlements on women in 1984 is still the best The gender problems encountered in this overall view as regards land tenure, income, program typify the inadequacies of many simli- nutrition, and the general failure of planners lar agricultural development projects. The to take gender into consideration. South Pacific Commission initially supported By 1990, some 15 % of PNG's population the Women in Fisheries Project in 1989 how- were living in urban areas. Surveys in the ever fundingwas withdrawn in 1994. By then mid 1970s indicated that just over 40 % of 800womenhad been trained and averysmall urban households produced some of their own seeding fund established. The funding could food. Most surveys in the 1970s described not sustain the infrastructure required to women as the major contributors to this ag- maintain the momentum established during ricultural subsector, supplying inputs of about the training and the village-based leaders were two to five hours per week, with much smaller left unsupported. Failure was attributed to inputs by men. A 1981 survey in Moresby lack of motivation at village level, lack of funds, showed major variation in gender contribu- expectation of payment by the newly-trained tions by suburb and it was suggested that leaders (rather than the self-help ideal pro- this variation was related to variation in posed) and the influx of cheaper protein women's place in the urban work force. Re- sources such as lamb flaps and tinned fish. cent surveys in the early 1990s have shown A new management plan was drawn up in substantial differences between suburbs in 1996 but as yet no evaluation of this has been Port Moresby in horticultural inputs, from 7 produced. (Five-Year Management Plan for to 22 hours per week, with women's contri- Women in Fisheries Development Program in bution at about 57 %. Papua New Guinea 1996-2000, National Fish- eries Authority.) 23 Key Thematic Issues 2.5 Forestry best. The only available case study, of the Wasab in Madang Province, (Sagir: 1994) dem- Key Gender Problems onstrates the ways in which women are ex- Forestry and logging are, like mining, domi- cluded from decision-making, have no control nated by foreign companies and expatriate over the contracts made between men and men mostly hold the managerial positions. logging companies and are not experiencing Although there have been suggestions that any economic or social benefits from this type locally operated portable sawmills could in- of economic development. volve women in small-scale businesses, there No mention is made of the role of women have been no recorded cases of women work- in forest management in the latest publica- ing on these village-based projects. tion form the PNG National Research Insti- The economic impacts upon women are tute: The Political Economy of Forest similar to those in mining. The areas of land Management in PNG (1997). There is a need clear felled are often useless for agriculture, for a more gendered analysis in research in which result in women having to work gar- the forestry sector. dens in distant locations on poorer soil. En- vironmental degradation associated with 2.6 Mining logging means thatwomen's work is increased, hunting areas are devastated so protein in- Key Gender Problems take declines and dependency on bought food The situation of women in the mining sector increases. in many respects exemplifies the ways in which economic development strategies have Analysis of Factors Which Cause Gender not taken the specific social and cultural situ- Problems ations of women into account and have not The most profitable operations are highly implemented policies that ensure that women mechanized and the industry therefore em- benefit equally with men. ploys local unskilled men for very short peri- Given the economic importance of the min- ods. There are few positions available for erals industry in PNG, a consideration of gen- women. With no training programs for women der issues in this context is long overdue. At and the cultural attitudes of both Papua New present the inclusion of gender and women Guinean people and expatriate men ensure as factors to be examined in Social Impact that women are effectively excluded from Assessments have not resulted in any sig- employment in logging operations. nificant changes in the way companies and The forest is normally seen as a domain governments respond to the findings or to where men work: hunting, cutting trees for the specific problems that emerge for women building materials or clearing forest for new and families. gardens. These exclusive attitudes are com- In 1990 the number of PNG men employed pounded by the prevailing view that operat- in mining and quarrying was 3,390. In com- ing machinery is a male skill. parison only 152 women were employed in The economic benefits of employment and this sector. Since that time many new min- moneys paid to local people are mainly man- ing projects have begun, notably the major aged by men and women benefit indirectly at gold mine on Lihir Island in New Ireland Prov- 24 Key Thematic Issues ince. Nevertheless, the ratio of men to women cause so few women have been trained on employed has remained about the same, at these mine sites, the nationals in senior or 96:4. In the case of Lihir Gold, the highest skilled jobs are almost exclusively men and participation rate by women has so far been whenwomenwho have experience move jobs, 8%, but this was during the construction it is usually to a similar position, not one at a phase when a large number of women were higher level. employed cleaning workers' quarters and in Given the types of primary industries that catering. are attractive to overseas investors and their relatively low workforce requirements, the Analysis of Factors Which Cause Gender implementation of equal opportunity policies Problems would not in itself improve matters forwomen. Mining is a male-dominated and conser- Women would be seen as competingwith their vative industry in almost all countries. In the own menfolk and their participation would PNG context the prevailing attitudes of local be at the expense of men's. Such gender com- men and the lack of qualified women com- petition would exacerbate antagonism be- pound this conservatism. The jobs available tween men and women and probably increase for women tend to be either secretarial/cleri- the incidence of violence. Nonetheless it has cal or unskilled domestic jobs. So far no PNG become increasingly obvious over the past women have been appointed or promoted to ten years that unless laws and policies that any senior managerial positions. protect and affirm female participation are As most mining projects are located in enforced (such as are set out in the Platform previously undeveloped areas, local women for Action: A Decade of Action for Women to- are expected to continue to provide families wards National Unity and Sustainability, with food and are discouraged by these ex- 1995-2005) then the status of women will pectations from seeking training or work. not improve. For men the situation is different because there is often the need for large numbers of 2.7 Women and Credit unskilled workers during the construction phase and government policies on local par- Key Gender Problems ticipation are generally interpreted by the Although there are some exceptions, such as expatriate employers and the local men as the Wok Men rtral credit groups in the High- meaning participation by men. lands (see Sexton: 1986 and Warry: 1985), a The financial constraints on mining com- major constraint to women's participation in panies mean that in the early stages there is small business projects has been their lack pressure to begin production so that expatri- of access to credit and banking facilities. ate men mostly fill the managerial and pro- Most women do not have control or own- fessional positions. As the industry has grown ership of land or other substantial resources in PNG there has been a flow-on effect from which banks generally require as collateral one project to the next (e.g. from Bougainville for loans. In addition, problems of geographic to OK Tedi to Misima to Lihir etc.) which has access are now more acute for women in less meant that gradually more of the skilled or populated areas as most financial agencies senior positions are taken by PNG men. Be- have been centralized to the larger centers. 25 Key Thematic Issues Social and Economic Impacts of Mining The problems for women in mining extend beyond that of limited employment opportunities. The social and economic impacts of mining and other extractive primary industries affect the lives of women in many negative ways. Briefly, these include: * Women can lose land for gardening and so become dependent on the wage labor of hus- bands, thereby losing their basic source of control over the domestic economy. * In some areas (Ok Tedi, Bougainville) environmental degradation has meant that garden productivity has been reduced, or water sources polluted with the effect of increasing women's subsistence workload. * When mining developments occur, local men gain employment and women are expected to continue to produce food for the family without male support. This has far-reaching eco- nomic implications as it perpetuates the cultural role of women as food producers, encour- aging men to perceive their earnings as discretionary income. The withdrawal of male labor from subsistence gardening reduces the standard of living formerly attained with comple- mentary work relations. Men decrease their input and the areas of land they clear. This leads to shorter fallow periods as women cannot undertake clearing for new gardens, re- sulting in smaller gardens and reduced production. It also increases the burden on women as providers. * When mining leases and compensation agreements are negotiated women are almost in- variably excluded from decision-making and are rarely consulted independently. Compen- sation payments are usually paid to groups of men who represent their clans or communities and business opportunities that are associated with the mining project are usually given to males. Women have no direct access to the large cash compensation payments, rarely participate in decisions about business developments or investment of money and so ben- efit indirectly, if at all. * In many places where mining development has occurred, men spend large amounts of money gained from wages, compensation payments and royalties on alcohol. [In one study, 70% of male employees spent between 50% and 80% of their fortnightly wages on beer]. In the first few years most of the wealth is spent by men on cars, trucks, boats, beer and consumer items. Alcohol consumption by men creates many problems for women. Most women perceive drunkenness to be a major factor in domestic violence. In almost all social impact studies of mining projects an increase in marital conflict and violence has been observed. The combined effect of spending on vehicles and beer means that many road accidents occur in the first years of mining projects, often wiping out the major item of expenditure and occasioning death or injury to driver and passengers. * The lack of employment opportunities for women and the presence of large numbers of wage-earning young men creates a situation where young women can be pressured to prostitute themselves to get money. In PNG prostitutes are stigmatized and often their own families and communities reject these women. They are at higher risk of infection from STDs and AIDS and are also more likely to be raped and assaulted. 26 Key Thematic Issues In recent years a number of micro-credit women in the use of credit and in the man- schemes have been initiated by aid agencies, agement of loan applications and repayments, and women have been trained to take over and government, NGO and international sup- management and educate participants in port for these activities has substantially in- business practices. There are difficulties in creased. A more recent development has been the management and sustainability of these the recognition that there needs to be greater projects, particularly in more remote areas. coordination among different sectoral and Credit programs face a number of con- agency initiatives in providing a supportive straints, including low and highly dispersed network for women. The Department of Home populations, inadequate infrastructure, the Affairs (1996 and 1997) has developed docu- importance of the subsistence economy, and mentation of their major credit project includ- difficulties in achieving high repayment rates ing an Operations Manual. However anecdotal evidence suggests that there are several teeth- Analysis of Factors Which Cause Gender ing problems with the credit project particu- Problems larly in terms of coordination at the provincial Rural women have little experience of bank- level as implementation has focused on the ing generally, and have low levels of educa- district level without adequate training. tion. This means mechanisms and procedures associated with credit facilities are notwidely 2.8 Political Participation understood. The requirements for loans are complex and women may be unable to write Key Gender Problems submissions, set out business plans or put Women gained the right to vote in PNG elec- up collateral. Systems that operate in urban tions at the same time as men and most ex- centers in other Third World countries are ercise that right enthusiastically. This often not appropriate for PNG women who fundamental political equality is in manyways are, in many instances, unable to assert per- the only one that women have in PNG. In all sonal control over money they earn. The lack other respects women are outside the politi- of secure banking facilities in rural areas mili- cal processes that affect the general popula- tates against this even further. tion and they are confined to 'women only' Credit projects have had limited success spheres. The National Council ofWomen pro- largely because of problems with repayments. vides an umbrella organization for women's While there are training and information ses- groups at village and district levels. While this sions for rural and urban women, these tend has the potential for promoting women's in- to be sporadic and very basic. The PNG terests at all levels of government in practice Women's Credit Scheme, established through its influence is constrained by low levels of cooperation with ILO and UNIFEM in 1996, funding and many of its programs are sup- promises to deliver credit facilities to women, ported by NGOs. with market linkage and skills training backup. Analysis of Factors Which Cause Gender Nevertheless a number of micro-credit Problems schemes are now operating throughout PNG. The tradition of male representation of Workshops have been conducted to educate women's interests prevails at every level of 27 Key Thematic Issues government. As the lack of skills in public but the fear of rape in many areas means speaking and debating excluded women from that women are unable to travel, act inde- village politics in the past, so the pattern con- pendently or engage in activities that used to tinues whereby men are expected to be rep- be normal aspects of everyday existence. resentatives of their clans or local groups. At the recent 1997 election only two women Analysis of Factors Which Cause Gender gained seats, one of them an expatriate and Problems widow of a prominent PNG man, the other a Women are often not aware of their legal woman from Milne Bay Province. rights, and there is a genuine concern New reforms under the Organic Law on (O'Collins: 1997) that violence is becoming a Provincial Governments redefine the roles and normalized pattern of behavior. Many police functions of provincial and local governments consider that violence against women is jus- in ways that theoretically enable them to be tifiable if the woman has offended her hus- more responsive to people's needs. The struc- band or failed to attend to his needs. In some ture proposed allows for one female repre- areas of the Highlands violence against women sentative to be appointed to the Provincial during tribal fighting in 1995-96 reached such Assembly. Given the barriers that exist against a level that pack rape of women was consid- women, this is more likely to mean that ered to be a 'normal' feature of intervillage women's political views will be assumed to conflict (Toft: 1985 and 1986; Dinnen 1993) be covered by this single representative and Women's status is equal in law. Most cases all other positions will be occupied by men. involving women as plaintiffs and accused Lack of political will to implement policies are dealt at the village court level rather than and to fund projects directly aimed at increas- in national courts. This means that custom ing women's participation in public life means usually prevails and in many instances ef- that even when problems are defined and fectively deprives women of their legal rights analyzed very little will be done. under national law. Studies of cases involv- ing women reveal that they are often discrimi- 2.9 Violence against Women nated against in village courts. In cases involving marital disputes, adultery, domes- Key Gender Problems tic violence and desertion, women are usu- Violence against women is common through- ally dealt with much more harshly than men. out PNG with some studies indicating that While there is some evidence that women 70% of married women have been beaten by are gradually more prepared to have recourse their husbands. In many areas, both urban to litigation than in the past, men are much and rural, intolerable levels of insecurity af- more litigious generally, and have greater fect women's everyday lives. Their freedom of knowledge of their rights, both under cus- movement is restricted, they are not safe in tom and national law. their homes and they do not have confidence The recommendations made by the Law in legal protection or recourse to the law when Reform Commission in 1991 have not been they are victims of crime. systematically implemented. The problems of law and order in PNG have negative impacts on both men and women, 28 Key Thematic Issues 2.10 Health Key Gender Problems Key trends from Table 3 illustrate the extraor- skewed because of better data collection in dinarily high rate of infant mortality and ex- PNG, as it has been estimated that only one tremely low life expectancy for men and women in 10 maternal deaths is reported. The di- in PNG as compared to other countries in the rect causes of death are (in descending or- region. These indicators illustrate that health der) post partum hemorrhaging, puerperal is one of the most critical issues facing women sepsis, prolonged labor and anaemia. The and men in PNG. high rate of mortality must be viewed not PNG has one of the highest maternal mor- only as a problem reflecting the decline in tality rates in the world. This figure is not health generally but also as a factor that TABLE 3 Social Indicators, Selected South Pacific and Southeast Asian Countries Infant Crude mortality birth rate Total Crude rate (death (children fertility rate death rate Imunization Life per born per (avge no. (deaths per rate Adult expectancy 1,000 1.000 children per 1,000 (per literacy Major South at birth births people woman in people 1.000 rate Pacific Countries (years) per year) per year) a lifetime) per year) children) (percent) Papua New Guinea 56 67 34 5.0 10.7 72 52 Fiji 72 23 24 3.2 4.6 22 87 Federated States of Micronesia 64 52 37 6.5 7.8 52 65 Kiribati 58 60 33 3.8 10.9 65 93 Marshall Islands 61 63 39 7.2 5.2 63 91 Solomon Islands 62 44 38 5.8 4.4 38 22 Tonga 68 21 30 5.2 6.3 26 99 Vanuatu 63 45 na 5.3 7.3 45 64 Western Samoa 65 25 32 4.7 6.8 28 98 Southeast Asian Countries Indonesia 63 56 24 2.8 8.0 na 77 Thailand 69 36 19 2.1 6.0 na 93 Malaysia 71 13 28 3.5 5.0 na 78 * 1993 or most recent estimate. Sources: Economic Insights (1996). The Economy of Papua New Guinea 1996 Report. Canberra: AusAID p 109. 29 Key Thematic Issues places greater strain on women's psychologi- that there is urgent need for implementation cal and physical well being. of primary health programs and improved In 1986, the life expectancy for women is service delivery regardless of the real incidence estimated at 51.4 years for women and 52.2 of HIV infection. for men, making it the lowest in the Pacific region (Gillett: 1991). In 1971 it was 41 for Analysis of Factors Which Cause Gender women and 40 years for men, so there has Problems been a significant improvement over the in- While many of the major health problems, tervening years. The improvement for women such as malaria and tuberculosis, affect occurred in the late 1970s and has dropped people regardless of gender in PNG, as else- in relation to male life expectancy in the last where in the world, women's reproductive decade, increasing only one year since 1981. health is a major indicator of gender differ- These figures are all estimates and in some entiation. As 50% of the female population respects unreliable. in 1990 was of childbearing age the prob- However when better figures exist the pic- lems in maternal health in PNG must be ture they present is often worse for women. viewed as among the most serious issues in Table 4 illustrates the excessively high ma- the country. ternal mortality rate that causes almost a third Poor maternal health is in large partly due of the deaths of all women in PNG in the 15- to malaria and other common illnesses as 44 age group. well as poor nutrition and inadequate spac-- Given the very high maternal and infant ing between pregnancies. Death following mortality rates in the population it is clear self-induced abortion is undoubtedly com- mon, although accurate figures are difficult to obtain. Malaria is a major health problem in many Causes of Death for Women Aged 15-44, 1985 (%) areas of PNG and over the past few years it has spread to areas that were previously Obstetric causes 29.0 unaffected. Public health preventative pro- Diseases of genital organs 6.0 grams have been designed and all provinces Malaria 4.0 have excellent strategy plans but funding has Pneumonia 2.0 been cut to the point where any systematic Diseases of other parts of the digestive system 2.0 implementation is impossible. In those areas Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue 2.0 where malaria is endemic, eradication pro-- Anaemia 1.0 grams should be implemented during the early Diseases of muscular/skeletal 1.0 stages of any development project as incomers Ill-defined intestinal infections 1.0 often lack any immunity, and constant ma- Fractures 1.0 laria infection of workers creates high levels All other causes, known and unknown 52.0 of absenteeism and inefficiency. The incidence of tuberculosis is allegedly Source: Beatrice Avalos (1994). South Pacific: Women and increasing in many parts of the country but Development in Papua New Guinea, Canberra: Research School the cuts in funding mean that in many places of Pacific and Asian Studies. it is undiagnosed and untreated. Respiratory 30 Key Thematic Issues illnesses are a major cause of morbidity and More males than females are represented mortality for males and females of all ages. at every educational level. The primary school Poor nutrition, high maternal mortality, the enrollments have increased over the last de- very arduous workload and 'the serious de- cade but are still low. In 1994 they stood at gree of violence against women" (UNICEF and 67% for girls and 80% for boys (cf. 51% and GoPNG 1996:27) are the perceived reasons 66% respectively in 1980). Secondary school for the relatively low life expectancy for fe- (years 7- 10) enrollments are very low for girls, males. While questions about cause and ef- with little improvement relative to boys over fect remain problematic the lack of funding two decades. In 1994, the enrollment rate for for improvement of women's health reflects a girls of secondary school age was 17.4%, for deep-seated reluctance on the part of gov- boys 21.3%. Overall, only 40% of school-age emnment to privilege women in any program girls attend school (Gannicoot and Avalos: (even when they are demonstrably disadvan- 1994: Gibson 1996). taged) or even responds to their gender-spe- cific needs. In this area, as in violence against Analysis of Factors Which Cause Gender women, the issues that need to be dealt with Problems and many of the strategies for doing so, have Tertiary education refers to all institutions been identified. The lack of will to develop above year 10. Women constitute only 30% of and implement policies that require funding tertiary students and they are concentrated in is perhaps the major cause of women's health the fields of nursing and teacher training. Girls problems. and women generally face many obstacles in gaining an education. In all major studies cul- 2.11 Education tural factors have been found to be the major impediment to increasing the enrollment of fe- Key Gender Problems males at all levels of education. Boarding fa- The illiteracy rates in PNG are high on a glo- cilities for females are often insecure and there bal average, however the gender disparity is have been numerous rapes of female students. even more severe. The rate of illiteracy among Pregnancies occur at an unacceptably high rate adult women is estimated around 60%. and pregnant students are unable to continue TABLE 5 Illiterate Population in PNG by Age Group and Sex (%) Male Female Illiterate Illiterate Age Total Number % Total Number % 20-24 167,389 43,660 26.1 159,792 66,638 41.7 15-24 379,906 106,832 28.1 343,433 134,433 39.1 15+ 1,083,133 437,905 40.4 997,211 544.278 54.6 Source: Beatrice Avalos (1994). South Pacific: Women and Development in Papua New Guinea Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. 31 Key Thematic Issues School Attendance by Gender and Age, PNG, 1990 Numbers at school 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 ; tSl0;i/ft 0 0 i i 0 0 00 ;; Fen le 0 5000 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Age Gender Ratio at School by Age, PNG, 1990 Percent 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Age 32 Key Thematic Issues GRAPH 4 Enrollments in Institutions of Higher Education by Gender 6000 Male 5000 Female 4000 3000 2000 1000 = -- .a_ _ 0 LM~6 Sources for Graphs 2, 3 and 4 adapted from "Women and Men in Papua New Guinea: A Statistical Country Profile" (Draft Report) (1997). Port Moresby: National Statistical Office. TABLE 6 In-School and Out-of-School Factors Affecting Female Enrollment and Retention Out-of-School Factors In-School Factors Cultural/historical factors Age of entry Geographical factors Supply of teaching materials/aids Attitudes of parents School fees Disillusionment with schooling; Sexual liaison and sexual harassment - restricted high school entry Quality of the learning Environment - limited employment prospects Family labor requirements Marriage Tribal fighting Environment Source: Beatrice Avalos (1994). South Pacific: Women and Development in Papua New Guinea. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. 33 Key Thematic Issues their studies. There are few affirmative action in the historical experience of different re- quotas for girls and evidence suggests thatthese gions. Those with strong mission education are not always implemented at the local level systems that promoted single sex education (Yeoman: 1985; Oliver 1987). for girls, such as Milne Bay Province and The low enrollment of women at all levels Manus, have higher enrollments and reten- means that this is not likely to improve dra- tion rates for girls than other regions. Simi- matically over the next decade. Illiterate larly data illustrates that literacy levels are women are unable to gain access to many of lowest for women in the Highlands. Several the informal education and training programs NGOs have developed literacy courses for that exist. The discrepancy between male and women in the Highlands and although there female education levels creates a flow-on ef- have been teething problems with the devel- fect that impedes the participation of women opment of these programs by non- economically and politically. Melanesians (see Schoeffel: 1987), there are There are regional variations in the gen- currently many successful projects running der patterns of enrollment and retention rates (see Chapman: 1996), especially through in- at secondary level. These reflect differences digenous NGOs (Soondrawu: 1993). 34 Potential Areas of Intervention 3.1 Introduction tionships, and working with men as well as The development of a sustained commitment women to bring about positive and sustain- to gender sensitive policies and programs able change. It will also be important to rec- cannot take place unless there are major shifts ognize the diversity of male responses to in attitudes and practices at all levels of gov- gender inequality as these responses mirror emnment, non government and community the multidimensional nature of communities administration, and within families and throughout PNG. households. Although the goals of 'integral The identification and implementation of human development' and 'equal participation' appropriate participatory strategies has to take were adopted in the PNG Constitution, there into account the specific needs of women in has been little success in translating these particular socioeconomic and environmental policy statements into sustained action. situations, from different ethnic groups, and The past five years have seen a marked at different stages in their life cycle. Aware- increase in awareness among women and men ness of the historical background of cultural, that equal participation and a greater sense religious and colonial attitudes and practices of partnership is an important goal. Govern- helps to deepen understanding of where ment and non government agencies have ini- women are coming from so that appropriate tiated a number of programs aimed at participatory strategies can be determined. improving the status of women in society and Education, employment, and household in- achieving the goal of integral human devel- come and consumption patterns may all have opment. Greater coordination and coopera- a differential impact on the degree to which tion are now required to overcome isolationist women currently participate in the wider so- or competitive attitudes that hinder sustained ciety. While it would be impractical to attempt action. to document all their life circumstances, a The 1997 Human Development Report re- number of significant factors affect the ca- fers to the need "to mobilize alliances and pacity ofwomen to participate in the economic partnerships". In analyzing the significance and political life of their communities, and of different key gender issues, the aim is to that of the nation as a whole. develop appropriate participatory strategies. This section will deal with the major causes These will ideally involve "alliances, partner- of the low status of women in PNG. This in- ships and compromises" between all agen- cludes the attitudes of men, violence and dis- cies and organizations working towards more crimination, the lack of women's public sustained gendered development. Govern- decision-making powers, their low position ments, NGOs and other institutions do not in the workplace, low levels of literacy and empower people. People empower themselves. health, and barriers in accessing credit. The Through policies and actions governments interventions suggested in this section are can either create a supportive environment aimed to address the core structural forms or put up barriers to empowerment (UNDP: of inequality between genders in PNG in a 1997, p. 96). way that is inclusive of men. The development of a more equal partner- ship will also involve identifying past and present influences which affect gender rela- 35 Potential Areas of Intervention 3.2 PNG Platform for Action crease funding for women and chil- Before mapping out suggested interventions dren and related programs by 10% in PNG it is worth noting that the major prob- each year; lems and issues facing the women of PNG * To work towards the establishment of have been documented in the PNG Platform the Office of the Status of Women. for Action: A Decade of Action for Women To- wards National Unity and Sustainabflity 1995- 3.3 Discrimination and Decisionmaking 2000. This document was developed from In order to address problems related to the extensive consultation with Government, non low status of women, it was noted in the Coun- government organizations and individuals, try Strategy Note 1997-2001 that the Gov- particularly women, throughout the nation. ernment and NGOs "recognize that It is thus the most comprehensive identifica- partnership between men and women is vital tion of issues and problems facing women in and have started to undertake the PNG. mainstreaming of gender issues and gender The PNG Platform for Action recommends training" (UNDP/GoPNG: 1995, p. 10). The strategies for addressing the critical areas of aim should be to realize the second constitu- concern of women, which includes priority tional goal that all citizens, men and women, recommendations for each of the nine criti- "have an equal opportunity to participate in, cal areas of concern. This is an extensive, and benefit from, the development of our coun- and somewhat lengthy list, and very little of try" (Constitution of the Independent State of it appears to have been implemented. The PapuaNew Guinea 1975, National Goals and critical areas of concern identified as the major Directive Principles). problems facing women of PNG are listed in 'This means that women must participate Appendix 3. equally, just as much as men. We must imple- The Post-Beijing Declaration for Action on ment policies to fulfill this national goal and the Development of Women (dated 22 No- directive by introducing specific measures to vember 1995) and the Post-Beijing Report increase the number of women involved in all identified four key priorities from the Plat- levels of political, economic, and social par- form. These priorities identify the key areas ticipation and decision-making. The Govern- for interventions: ment must ensure the enforcement of all existing laws protecting women's equality rights * To strengthen current national, pro- and freedoms (Individual and Community vincial, and local women's credit facili- Rights Advocacy Forum [ICRAF]: 1997, p. 15)." ties and to conduct a comprehensive Critical areas that need to be dealt with are: feasibility study leading to the partici- pation in Women's World Banking; * The inclusion of women in the deci- * To mainstream gender issues in all gov- sion-making processes and community ernment policies and development consultations in equal numbers to men. planning and administration; * Development of programs aimed at im- * Bearing in mind the urgent need to proving women's status and address- increase the health, education and lit- ing systematic discrimination at local eracy status of women in PNG, to in- and government levels. 36 Potential Areas of Intervention All facets of women's legal, social and eco- careers. Some have stated quite directly that nomic position are affected by the way in which in order for women to have equal opportuni- men and women view women's role in their ties men themselves must change their way particular community, orthewider PapuaNew of thinking (M.A. Gibson: 1993, p. 9 1). Guinean society. In some situations negative community attitudes, plus a fear of the im- * Gender analysis training for decision- pact of changed power relations, maybe bar- makers in Government, non govern- riers to greater access to social and economic ment organizations and the private opportunities. For women who are employed sector. in the formal work force there are inherent * Implement Train the Trainer gender tensions in negotiating a more balanced shar- analysis sessions for senior male pub- ing of domestic responsibilities. In all these lic servants. situations, domestic violence and marital dis- harmony maybe added elements, which mili- Training is essential as a first step in ad- tate against positive outcomes. dressing discrimination against women, par- What is perhaps most difficult to counter ticularly in the workplace, however it is also is the passive resistance to change among essential that the participants see the train- male decision-makers, whether in the formal ing as valuable, high status, and reputable. sector or in village communities. Policies or Training some high-level male gender analy- projects that promote the advancement of sis facilitators could be an important step to- women may be agreed upon, but there is no wards increasing the status of gender training serious commitment to implementation. Ten- in the eyes of some male decision-makers. sions and conflicts within and between It is essential to have guidelines and regu- women's groups and between government and lations on discriminatory behavior to accom- non government agencies may provide fur- pany the training and awareness program of ther justification for inaction. gender analysis and workplace discrimina- In some Papua New Guinean societies tion. These regulations should also be moni- women's rights have been so depleted and tored and enforced. negated by negative attitudes, and the dis- torted impact of colonial and modern devel- * Support provision of legislation, pos- opments on the existing social structure, that sibly though a Human Rights Act, "to women do indeed feel powerless. provide for the prevention and protec- At the same time it is clear that attitudes tion of sexual harassment from bosses are changing and that progress, however and colleagues in the work place. This uneven and patchy, is being made particu- legislation should have a mechanism larly among younger men and women. Al- for complaint, remedy, compensation, though negative male attitudes may create and punishment procedures" (ICRAF: problems for some professional women, oth- 1997, p. 18). ers have found that their success is accepted and encouraged by their husbands and kin. Any analysis of gender issues needs to ac- Not all of the men are unconscious of their knowledge that successful approaches to re- own attitudes and their impact on women's negotiating male/female relations involves a 37 Potential Areas of Intervention shifting of power and resource management culture in justification of the subordi- to a more equal and shared societal frame- nation of women. work. This will not happen without some ten- * Possible interventions in this area sion and resistance. Developing ways of would be gender analysis training for mediating and resolving these conflicts will church personnel, and strengthening be essential for a successful outcome. of Women's Desks within the church. Many projects that aim to increase the sta- tus of women have worked exclusively with women, and seen women as having the power 3.4 Violence to create change. However this may lead to In her speech to the United Nations Fourth women suffering further discrimination, iso- World Conference on Women, Ms Felecia lation, or in some cases violence. Dobunaba, Head of the PNG Delegation, noted It is essential that intervention strategies domestic violence as a priority issue in the do not put women at further risk. Speaking national report. Domestic and other forms of out on issues of gender equity can attract violence are a major concern in PNG and have negative attention and cause women to be a pervasive impact in many other areas, es- publicly humiliated, ostracized and beaten. pecially on women's health, decision-making An example of this was the public trial of Sarah and their general well being. Garap, who had an article on the hardships The major problem facing women in PNG of women published in the local newspaper. was is male attitudes and violence towards She was working as the Provincial Women's women. Although law and order are perceived Officer in Simbu at the time. She attended as critical issues for both genders in PNG, the markets the day following the publica- there is a distinct gender difference in atti- tion of the article and was confronted by many tudes towards these issues and assessing the people on the article. Gradually the crowd effects of violence. Such high rates of domes- grew to over 300 and it became a public trial tic violence against women leads commen- with the District Manager demanding com- surately to a low status of women and low pensation. participation of women in decision-making. A particularly disturbing aspect of domes- Church and Culture tic violence is the tendency to view it as so- Often custom and religion are used against cially acceptable behavior, rather than women. Selective parts of the Bible are quoted, recognizing it to be a deviant and criminal usually from the Old Testament with little act in clear violation of a woman's rights. reference to the whole concept of Christian- Communities which allow violent acts against ity. Customary law is also very selectively used women to be perpetuated with very little cen- in relation to those aspects of culture which sure or minimal punishment indicates that are retained. The maintenance of discrimi- informal social controls are being eroded and natory customs against women such as po- new structures do not provide a solid moral lygamy and punishment often are maintained. foundation for an adequate response to the situation. * Further study and work needs to be conducted into the selective use of 38 Potential Areas of Intervention Men as Actors of Change Male attitudes to women and their propen- Addressing Male Attitudes: Mi Man Tru sity to violence against women are key struc- The Department of Health 'Mi Man Tru' campaign is encouraging men's tural and systemic problems preventing the to change their attitudes and become more responsible fathers and advancement of women. Addressing struc- husbands. An urban billboard campaign is encouraging 'real men' to tural causes of inequality is not easy and will share in housework, decisions on smaller families with adequate spac- take time. Men need to become a more active ing between children and safe sex. The billboards are illustrated by in gender analysis as the targets and benefi- local artists and include slogans such as: ciaries, as well as teachers and role models. * 3 children. Both of us decided that's enough. I'm a real man! * My wife's health is my affair because I'm a real man! * There is a need for study and work to A national series of radio scripts will also be aired to reinforce the strengthen efforts of men as leaders message and encourage discussion on gender roles in the community. and actors in promoting gender equity. A Men Against Violence group was es- tablished at UPNG several years ago. Many elements come into play against the however after the women who assisted position of women. We actually end up with with the establishment of the group a mixture offemale prisoners so strange took a "backseat" the group disinte- that we cannot but wonder what they are grated. doing in prison. * Maxine Makail from ICRAF considers Because the rate of imprisonment ofwomen that it is too late for many men to is less than one-sixth of that of men, main- change their attitudes. She believes that taining and upgrading of facilities for female a more effective strategy to start edu- prisoners and the provision of training and cating boys before they have been so- rehabilitation services are often seen as less cialized into sexist behaviors. important. The Report on the Prisons of Papua New Guinea 1963-1986 (Department of Cor- Learning from Other Melanesian Countries rective Institutions: 1991) discussed the cost The Fiji Women's Crisis Center is the leading of upgrading facilities for small numbers of regional center on issues of violence against female detainees. It noted that the constitu- women. Several women from PNG have at- tional requirement that offenders should not tended training sessions held at the center, normally be removed from their home areas however there has not been a concerted strat- was a valid objection to any solution which egy to ensure the ongoing training of counse- involved a single centralized women's prison lors and advocacy workers in this specialized (See various Annual Reports of the Depart- area. ment of Corrective Institutions. Most women offenders are unlikely to be a danger to the Women in Prisons general community and one solution would Very little positive action appears to have been be to make greater use of probation as an taken to reduce the number of women who alternative to imprisonment. receive prison sentences. After discussing the The 1992 Annual Report of the Probation reasons why women were imprisoned, Anou Service noted that 588 women and 3,398 men Borrey (1992: p.25) concludes that: were under the supervision of the probation 39 Potential Areas of Intervention service, only a slightly higher proportion of 3.5 Health women than those in prison. However, out of The largest problems facing women, children 263 voluntary probation officers, only 1O were and men in PNG are high infant and mater- women, reflecting the interplay of cultural nal mortality rates and the life expectancy. and attitudinal factors involved in recruit- The PNG Department of Health estimates that ment and retention (See Annual Reports of 80-90% of maternal and infant deaths could the Department of the Attorney General Pro- be prevented if the following changes occurred. bation Service). Adequate antenatal care. Cuts in fund- * Greater understanding and acceptance ing to health services have had a di- by village and local courts of the use of sastrous effect on service delivery, compensation, community work, and especially in rural areas. Buildings are probation could provide more humane often substandard, health workers are and just alternatives for many women not paid for weeks on end and basic in conflict with the law. equipment and pharmaceuticals are - Increased employment, training and not supplied. This lowers morale of promotional opportunities for women health workers and makes their it im- in the police service, the courts and possible for them to do theirjobs. There corrective institutions would make are also cultural factors that inhibit women more visible, help ensure equal women from seeking antenatal care (see treatment, and lessen incidents of ha- Marshall: 1985). rassment and discrimination. * Improved nutrition. Nutritional status varies greatly with respect to gender in PNG. In most societies women and Community for Peace girls eat less food, have less protein This recently formed group is made up of non government organiza- and iron in their diet than men, and tions including Individual and Community Rights Advocacy Forum (ICRAF), National Council of women (NCW), Young Women's Christian (Badcock: 1988; Gillett: 1990). Women's Association (YWCA), and Lifeline PNG, as well as individuals. It started work in garden production is often ar- as a small group protesting violence in PNG society, particularly vio- duous and during pregnancy this lence against women. The police prevented the group marching to Par- places great strain on her body's re- liament House, however after repeated attempts, a group of 600 men , , ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~sources. In some areas cultural restric- and women successfully delivered petitions against violence to Parlia- tions on foods that can be eaten during ment House. This success was due to their increased numbers and pregnancy and lactation have a delete- support of the newly elected member of parliament, Lady Carol Kidu, rious effect on health and postnatal who negotiated with the Prime Minister to have the gates opened. Al- recovery. though the Prime Minister did not meet the group, his office organized Greater knowledge and use of family a meeting with the executive of 'Community for Peace'. planning methods, and use of contra- The petition calls for better training of police officers, an increase in ception by sexually active women police presence on the streets, an increase in money spent on personal younger than 18 and older than 35. security and the implementation of recommendations of the Law Re- form Commission Reports, particularly Report 14 on Domestic Violence. 40 Potential Areas of Intervention There are very strong cultural factors pro- situation becomes more alarming as the dis- moting the desire for large families. More than parities between levels of education increases. 35% of people belong to Christian denomi- There is a dire need to address this through nations that prohibit or discourage the use a comprehensive and coordinated approach. of contraception. In areas where these As stated in a National Council of Women churches have provided health services, no (NCW) Country Report in 1992: contraception advice or provision of contra- Increased female enrollment at schools has ceptives is available to women. Health au- largely happened in the absence of any coor- thorities have developed excellent outreach dinated policy approach in favor of increas- programs, but proper implementation is ham- ing female enrollment at all levels of education. pered by lack of funds (Dickson: 1993). UNFPA The past and present National and Provin- has been extremely active in implementing cial Education Plans have all provided state- awareness and information programs in family ments of support for women's education, but planning throughout PNG. the intention has never been translated into action. Lack of resources and management * Referral of high-risk pregnancies to capabilities especially at the Provincial level, hospitals. make it difficult to develop and fund projects aimed at improving the educational status of Obstetrie facilitiesto dealwithhigh-riskbirths women (NCW: 1992, p. 9). are limited and require women to leave their villages. Many are reluctant to do this even * There is a need for a national coordi- when their condition is potentially life threat- nated approach to gender equity in ening (Street: 1993). education. This could occur through Comparative studies indicate that lack of the development of a focal point for the maternal care in pregnancy and childbirth is mainstreaming of gender equity issues the most significant factor in maternal mor- throughout PNG educational institu- tality. Since 1990 the percentage of super- tions, to act as a clearinghouse and vised births has risen from 24% to 49% central database. however this is still low compared with other Pacific countries. Despite numerous studies Many studies and papers have cited the need which have stressed the need for improve- for a comprehensive and coherent coordinated ment of women's health services, there has approach to gender equity issues in educa- been an overall decline in this area which is tion in PNG (Soondrawu: 1993; Gannicott and reflected in the increases in maternal and Avalos: 1994). To date several disparate neonatal deaths in provinces such as Milne projects have addressed gender equity within Bay, Morobe, Madang and Enga (Alto et al: their scope however there has not been a 1993). project or studywhich has looked at the whole sector to address the systemic issues which 3.6 Education have led to current gender inequalities. The current disparity between the education Several reports have indicated that al- levels of males and females in PNG is stark though policy documents identify gender eq- (up to a 10% difference in population). This uityasanimportantobjectivewithinthePNG 41 Potential Areas of Intervention education system, there has not yet been a UNFPA small project on Population Educa- central point for the development of guide- tion that is developing gender sensitive cur- lines and strategies for the implementation riculum for high schools. There is a need for of this objective. stakeholders to come together to discuss strat- Major stakeholders in this area include egies in this area to ensure consistency and the National Department of Education, Of- effectiveness in gender projects. fice for Higher Education, Department of Per- sonnel Management, UPNG, University of * Increase access, enrollment, retention Goroka, community teacher colleges, Women's and performance of girls in nontradi- Division of the Department of Home Affairs, tional areas of tertiary study for women Gender Unit in National Planning Office, and through support mechanisms and selected NGOs. mentoring programs. : Mainstream gender equity issues In many areas of tertiary study women are throughout teaching practice and the virtually nonexistent (for example in the ap- curriculum. plied sciences, law, medicine and commerce). In these areas women need support and en- Ensuring that teaching practice and texts do couragement to undertake and complete ter- not discriminate against girls is essential in tiary studies. A support program for them a gender equity approach to education. This and other women in nontraditional areas at is aimed at addressing the problem of lack of tertiary institutions would be an important relevance of school texts and teaching styles step. An example is the PNG UNFPA Role Mod- for females. els project that involves role model visits to There are several projects that are already schools. working on improvements in this area. This The implementation of mentorship pro- includes the AusAID Primary and Secondary grams would be of great assistance to women Teacher education Project for PNG and the pioneering new fields. Role Models The United Nations Population fund (UNFPA), in conjunction with the National Council for Women (NCW), is implementing an innovative project addressing changing attitudes and encouraging gen- der equity through education and role modeling. This project is titled 'Role Models for Gender Sen- sitization' and presents positive male and female role models for students in schools. It looks at the need for husbands to support their wives and share in familial roles. An education kit of gender equity will be distributed to each school in PNG as a part of this awareness program. 42 Identification of Major Information Gaps 4.1 Introduction By way of 'compensation', rather fewer females As a general comment, the degree of sophis- than males are reported as being engaged in tication in data collection, compilation and purely subsistence activities (277,000 females publication in PNG can be described as mod- and 314,000 males) and as 'unemployed' est. Reliable national and provincial data are (22,000 females and 45,000 males). This lat- not readily available. Most government de- ter category is of doubtful validity, especially partments concerned with social conditions in rural areas. Even in urban areas a pilot do not collect data on a regular basis. Whilst question about whether the respondent was health and education are exceptions to this, looking for, or available for, work in the last the data that they produce are of limited scope seven days was found to be 'not meaningful' and reliability. National censuses and sur- (National Statistics Office: 1994, p. 14). veys suffer from difficult field operations, both For both sexes census data on economic logistically and with respect to the response activity are divided into two main groups, error. monetary' and 'non-monetary'. This repre- Perhaps the most important national sents a departure from the more usual group- source of recent data is the 1990 Census of ing,'economically active'and'not economically Population and Housing. However, due to real active'. Subsistence activity is aggregated with and perceived difficulties in field operations, the 'not economically active' that includes stu- PNG censuses do not provide as comprehen- dents, those doing housework and the sick, sive data as do other Pacific Island censuses. elderly and disabled. This implicitly places Employment and demographic measures of value on monetary activity while devaluing fertility and mortality are areas on which lim- subsistence activity in which women are par- ited data are collected. ticularly are engaged. The 'unemployed' is also included in this non-monetary grouping. 4.2 Economic Activity There is need for further research to be Data on economic activity from the 1990 cen- done in aggregating women's subsistence and sus includes only the question on economic other unpaid work. Current data in this area activity itself. This question is less than ad- is misleading. equate in capturing women's economic ac- Other census information on economic tivity and hence the data is of limited use for activity is not available at the national level. gender analyses. This is in large partly due Occupation is available for the urban popu- to the use of the category 'housework'. lation only with the assumption that all rural Whilst this category may have some rel- residents are engaged in agriculture. Whilst evance for the urban population, its use in this may be largely true the assumption pre- rural areas is of questionable validity. Gen- cludes knowledge of the development of small- der bias in field operations is clearly evident scale rural economic activities such as food in the results. Amongst rural females aged processing, in which women are increasingly 10 and over 187,000 were reported as en- becoming engaged. gaged in housework, compared to 18,000 For the data on occupation that are gath- males. This represents 18 percent of the fe- ered for the urban population, available tabu- male rural population aged 10 plus, stretch- lations are not adequately disaggregated by ing the imagination in a subsistence economy. sex. Detailed occupation by sex is tabulated 43 Identification of Major Information Gaps by citizen/non-citizen status only, omitting this is a burgeoning area for development tabulations such as occupation by sex and assistance. It is essential that training is pro- by educational attainment which are impor- vided to enable accurate records to be taken tant for any gender analysis of the labor mar- on women and credit facilities and repayment ket. rates. Information on industry is not available in census data. A 1989 pilot question on indus- * It is recommended that donors and try in urban areas was omitted from the cen- other funders of credit schemes work sus because it was 'found not meaningful' together on ensuring consistent data (National Statistics Office: 1994, p. 14). is collected on credit schemes through- Other sources of data on employment in out PNG. The Investment Promotion urban areas have not been available in re- Authority has a registry of Women in cent years. For example, the most recent data Busiriess and it may be possible for on urban employment refers to 1989. organizations running credit programs Administrative records of employees, such to feed information into this central as kept by the Public Service, do not usually national database. provide useful data on employment because the sex of employee is often not recorded. In 4.3 Demographic Indices rural areas, within the overall classification Knowledge of current demographic trends in of subsistence activity, data are lacking on PNG is either lacking or unreliable. The 1990 the nature of that activity. census did not include questions designed Women's involvement in agriculture, fish- to obtain information on which to base de- ing, forest resource harvesting and manage- mographic estimates of fertility and mortal- ment of the environment are all areas where ity. Where estimates of life expectancy have detailed information is lacking. Mining, em- been made available they are valid only for ployment in mining and its impact on com- females since the data on which these esti- munities, families and women and men is mates were made was collected only for fe- another area where information is deficient. males. Sex differentials in mortality are thus Clearly, small-scale studies are appropriate unknown. in these areas. The widely used estimate of male life ex- Additional work is needed in gender dis- pectancyin 1980 was assumed to be approxi- aggregatingoccupational statistics. Substan- mately two years less then female life tial questions on industry need to be included expectancy, based on demographic models in the census form. of sex differences (of doubtful applicability to Although extensive studies have been done PNG). The 1990 census does not provide es- in industry (particularly forestry), there is timates of life expectancy for either sex, though scant literature in this area that addresses data to estimate female adult mortality were gender issues. There is a need for a gender collected while child mortality was not. Esti- study in forestry to be conducted using case mates of child mortality were obtained in the studies from a variety of regions in PNG. 1991 Demographic Sample Survey (commonly Women's involvement in credit schemes has called DHS) so that life expectancy estimates not been documented extensively although have been made available. This 1991 survey 44 Identification of Major Information Gaps is of questionable reliability, however, and The first step towards the development of covered only a selection of provinces due to a coherent approach to the issue of gender financial constraints. A 1996 Demographic equity in education is to collate information and Health Survey has been conducted which on current knowledge. Baseline data are should fill many of the gaps in demographic needed for many of the issues and patterns and reproductive health knowledge. that influence the lack of access, low enroll- Further gender-disaggregated data needs ment, poor retention and weak performance to be consistently collected throughout dif- of females in education in PNG. ferent PNG regions. The standardizing of ques- Although extensive anecdotal evidence tions between departments will enable regional appears in different studies there has to date studies to contribute towards national data. been no extensive or comprehensive national study on issues of sexual discrimination in 4.4 Social Conditions PNG educational institutions. The study could identify major indicators and patterns and Health trends in the occurrence of barniers to gen- Data on health from service delivery records der equity: are significantly under-reported. Service de- livery records at health posts are often not * Discrimination (both covert and overt compiled at higher levels. This appears to be to include harassment, bullying, teas- due to inadequate communication between ing, sexual assault); the different levels of service management. * Violence in educational institutions (a The annual Handbook of Papua New Guinea gendered analysis of the effects on stu- Health Statistics contains data provided by dents and teachers); provincial offices. Significant information gaps * Cost of education; hamper effective health planning. Health data * Lack of access to private counseling; are, however, the most useful source of in- * High rate of teenage pregnancy and formation addressing the social impact of marriage; economic policies. * Parental/spousal influence; a Lack of relevance of curriculum and Education teaching methods; In education, discrepancies exist between * Accommodation issues for women and enrollment data from schools and attendance girls in boarding situations (student data from census reports, casting doubt on and teachers); the reliability of both. * Regional and clan variance; There is a need to develop of a compre- * Safety for women on campus: review hensive national study of gender equity bar- the need for additional facilities on ter- riers in PNG educational institutions (schools tiary campuses; and tertiary education) focusing on issues * Critique of the effectiveness of current such as harassment, bullying and sexual and of codes of conduct, policies or guide- physical assault. The study should also in- lines being used in educational insti- clude a review of campus security and safety tutions for preventative behaviors and mechanisms for women. disciplinary actions. 45 Identification of Major Information Gaps This study could also investigate how Rec- Poverty ommendation 29 and 30 from the Final Re- Until recently no data was available on pov- port on Domestic Violence (Law Reform erty. This situation had been improved by Commission: 1992) have been implemented: the recent poverty assessment that involved a 1996 household survey of income, consump- Recommendation 29: That anger manage- tion and expenditure. This survey will pro- ment and conflict resolution skills be in- vide valuable data on gender dimensions of cluded in the curriculum at both primary poverty. and high school levels and that in-service training on these topics be provided for all Male Gender Studies teachers. There is general lack, as far as gender analy- Recommendation 30: That the Education ses are concerned, in data and studies ad- Department and the Teaching Services dressing males. Male attitudes have been Commission implement the recommenda- identified as a major impediment to the tions from the Gibson Report (Education progress of women in many areas of life, in- Research Division Research report No. 65). cluding education, employment and credit. Also that clear policies be developed with There is a lack of behavioral and attitudinal respect to spouse beating, so that a teacher studies addressing males and on the impact who physically assaults his or her spouse of male attitudes and behavior on communi- will be charged and disciplined. Repeat of- ties and development. fenders will be dismissed from the teach- ing service and teachers who are victims 4.5 Availability of Data of domestic violence will be supported and One of the major problems in national data not penalized. availability is decentralization. The extent and quality of data vary considerably among prov- Violence inces, and national compilations are of patchy A key area of concern in contemporary PNG, reliability. Adminis-trative records are often especially for women, is the increasing level created and/or stored in ways that does not of violence. Information on its impact is lack- easily allow tabulation or gender-disaggre- ing. Some studies have been conducted on gation. In addition difficult field operations domestic violence and violence towards women reduce the usefulness of national data col- and attitudes to such violence, however, the lection exercises. Whilst censuses and na- general issue of violence is under-researched. tional surveys are necessary to provide AusAID Baseline Study on Violence In 1997 AusAID commissioned a study of the work NGOs in PNG are doing to address issues of violence, particularly against women and girls. Although this report has not yet been made public, the results of the survey and fieldwork illustrate that very few NGOs are working on violence issues. The key organizations active in the area are: the Individual Community and Rights Advocacy Forum (ICRAF), East New Britain Social Action Group (ENBSAG). Simbu Women's Resource Center (SWRC), and the East Sepik Council of Women (ESCOW). 46 Identification of Major Information Gaps population counts and overview information, Law Reform Commission such exercises do not provide much by way Strategies to address systemic violence and of data that are useful for analyzing gender discrimination in PNG were identified through dimensions. National overview statistics do the Law Reform Commission in the Final Re- not identify how interventions can be made port on Domestic Violence in 1992. However, to assist women in tangible ways. many of the recommendations were never Given the difficulties involved and the lim- implemented and the Commission no longer ited usefulness of aggregate data, it would be exists. The recommendations were comprehen- both unrealistic and misguided to look to sive in their coverage of legal measures includ- improved national or provincial data collec- ing the present legal provisions and their tion systems as the main source of relevant deficiencies, the police, criminal law, district gender-disaggregated data. Local level data courts and protection orders, and village courts. are, in any case, often the most appropriate It seems unnecessaryto recommend any other for examining the gender and social effects of options for addressing issues of violence against development processes and economic poli- women, other than to reiterate the importance cies, particularly on subsistence communi- of implementing the strategies already identi- ties and on the poorest sections of fied from this seminal report. Possible inter- communities. However, the current availability vention strategies in this area: of local level data is also poor. Efforts to im- prove the availability of information and data * Support and strengthening of ICRAF on women in PNG should concentrate on stud- paralegal training for women ies at the local level. * Implementation of the Law Reform Com- miission report 14 on Domestic Violence. 4.6 Updating aind Building on Recent Studies There are many areas where further study and research would be useful in developing Statistical Country Profile gender-disaggregated data that would assist There has been an extremely timely updat- a comprehensive gender analysis within PNG. ing of the seminal work by Heather Booth of It is important that studies that are con- the statistical profile of gender in PNG. The ducted are made public and shared with par- Gender Desk in the National Statistics Office ticipants and stakeholders. There is a great produced a draft of this updated profile in deal of anecdotal evidence to suggest that 1997. Although the profile incorporates data people in PNG, particularly women, are tired from recent studies, much of the comprehen- of 'being studied'. It is also essential that scarce sive statistical data is drawn from the 1990 resources are not wasted on unnecessary or census. This is because there has not been inaccurate studies. any comprehensive collection of data since It is recommended that major donors in PNG this census. hold an annual meeting with UPNG and the National Research Institute to discuss upcom- ing studies. This would enable collaboration between academics and donors and others and avoid possible duplication in research. 47 Appendix 1 Map of Papua New Guinea (IBRD 29847) 49 IA5- 150' v . 4 ~~~145 .15 ___-__- Lorengau - PAPUA NEW GUINEA NEW IRELAND Kavieng (® PROVINCE CAPITALS 0VanirnoMAU . NATIONAL CAPITAL PROVINCE BOUNDARIES WEST SEPIK Wewak IREL4ND - - INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ t ;- x EAST SEPIK /\'. t W =UEMIADANG / ... 0 '. < ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5' V) WESTERNiWEST g SGoroka MoROBE I NEW EAST NEW BRITAIN BOCANVIUE t | HIGHijlNDSENG {HIGH HEHAN) a H GH AND BRITAIN ISLAND~~~NW RIAINBOGANVLL M ^ - M g (i)L8e : . ,,_.0/blg ®Lae WE TERN GULF Soo o Sea - Kerema® _____ ____________ ISLANDS;0 ;2 : ::, WcibagiL % NORTHERN / / D a u. Gulf of Papuo CENTAL(D Popondetta ................... -. 10 1 Ku10waKib Mendi (D Hagen E)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Altu ho,B ,o poccdb SOUTHERN EAST .-NE W BRITA 10 -N '; .' , GU :'- ''' " , " - '': -: ' \ ' ' ' .? LFc AU STRAIA ° m n e 100 200 Kalometers . . - -. World B _0 AUSTRAL°A 100 200Miles 150° 155° Or onmCENTorLO Part oresi I I Iorayononmoto 0 100 200 Miles occop,onoo~0"A6tti V. of ,cc, '0 145' 150' 155'~~~~~~~~~~~ 10 00mie .-ptd- .7. N c Appendix 2 Chronology of Women's Movement in PNG 1950 - 1960s Early missionaries established womens' groups aimed at improving family welfare and to equip women to be good mothers in different parts of the country. 1973 The National Government launches its' Eight Point Plan (Eight Point Im- provement Plan), the 7th of which called for "a rapid increase in the equal and active participation of women in all forms of economic and social activity." 1974 Mrs Tamo Diro was appointed as an advisor on Womens Affairs to the Prime Minister. A Womens' Unit was established within the office of Home Affairs within the Department of Decentralization. By this stage there was at least one Provincial Womens Activities Officer in every province. 1975 Papua New Guinea becomes a member of the United Nations on the 10 October. The United Nations declared as the International Womens Year. Delma Boden was appointed to coordinate the PNG involvement in International Womens Year. To commemorate the year PNG held its first National Convention for Women. 1976 Annual Convention on Women was held in Rabaul. 1977 Annual Convention on Women was held in Lae which resolved that March 24th be made the National Women's Day. 1978 The National Council of Women under the leadership of Dame Rosa Tokiel decided to establish its own office and staff to run its own programs. K94,000 was allocated to NCW by the National Government. The Womens Office in the Prime Minister's department was re-organized and also established a Womens Activist with the Office of Social Development Section in the Department of Decentralization. 1979 The National Council of Women Incorporation Act was passed through Parliament. Provincial Councils of Women were established in provinces with membership from the existing womens groups. The United Nations create the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women. 51 Appendix 2: Chronology of Women's Movement in Papua New Guinea 1980 In June 1990, The Department of Community and Family Services was created, with the Womens Activities Section. 1982 The National Government allocated K350,000 to fund womens projects all around the country. During this year the Department of Community and Family services was abolished and the womens functions was trans- ferred to the Office of Youth & Recreation which then changed the office title to Office of Youth, Women, Religion and Recreation. 1983 In May 1983 the Womens Division was established within the office of Youth, Women, Religion and Recreation. The office was staffed by an Assistant Director and Program Manager. Policy and Program Develop- ment supersede previous functions of the division. The same year, the Womens Division set up and established a national coordinating committee which acted in an advisory role to the ministry on policy, program and training matters for women. Its membership was derived from the six (6) major churches and YWCA and including the National Council of Women. This was due to the fact that not all womens organizations were yet members of the National Council of Women. During the same year a national Workshop was organized at St. Joseph's Lae by the Women Division to develop a National Program for Women. The government had refused to grant further funding for national women's activities unless there was a program in place. An additional task of the Women's Division was to develop ground work for the National Women's Policy. 1984 The government introduced the first ever National Development Program for Women with major aims to: (1) Mobilize women into the development of the country consistent with the national Goals and Directive Principles especially Goals 1 and 2 and the 7th point of the Eight Aims. (2) To build up a strong network of womens organizations from dis- tricts to national levels to implement this mobilization. Govemment funding became a stronger focus and K100,000 was allocated to this program. 52 Appendix 2: Chronology of Women's Movement in Papua New Guinea 1985 In 1985 The Office of Youth, Women, Religion and Recreation was split into two separate Departments - The Department of Youth and Develop- ment and the Department of Home Affairs - Women became a part of Home Affairs. After 8 months the 2 departments were amalgamated. In response to the end of UN Decade for Women - 1975-1985, PNG held a National Womens Forum to review progress made and prepare for partici- pation for the Nairobi Conference (the United Nations Third World Con- ference on Women). The review highlighted the need for Government Policy on women. During the period 1985-1987 the National Council of Women was defunct and there were calls for its reorganization. 1986 Department of Home Affairs and Youth Established and the Women's Di- vision grew. A special conference was held at the Administrative College to revive the National Council of Women. A committee was appointed, headed by Mrs Au Doko Aruai to make recommendations for improvement. During 1986 serious work commenced on the National Womens Policy. The period from 1983 to 1986 was very quiet for NCW because there was no financial backing from government. Ms Angela Soso was the president during this period. 1987 Intensive consultations began with Womens Organizations and the prov- inces on the development of the National Womens Policy. 1988 The National Council of Women was revived under the leadership of Mrs Bungtabu Brown. The Women Division provided secretarial support to NCW to have it function effectively until the National Council of Women recruited its own staff. 1989 Mrs Bungtabu Brown introduced a new concept - the establishment of a Commission on the Status of Women. A special conference was organized in Madang to discuss the proposal. The proposal was accepted in prin- ciple but faced heavy criticism from the churches and the government. 1990-1992 Pacific Mainstream Project piloted in 4 countries of the Pacific, including PNG. 53 Appendix 2: Chronology of Women's Movement in Papua New Guinea 1990 A special meeting was held in Lae. A no confidence vote in Mrs Bungtabu Brown was passed. Maria Kopkop was appointed with a Caretaker Com- mittee. 1991 In January 1991 the National Executive Council endorsed the National Womens Policy. A Convention took place in Goroka which adopted new rules for NCW and proper elections were conducted which elected Maria Kopkop as president. 1992 In October the PNG National Womens Policy was launched. A Gender and Development Unit was established in the Department of Finance and Planning. A Review of National Women's Machinery was developed by a committee comprising of DHAY, NPO, NCW and PM's Department. 1993 - 1994 Gender Training of Trainers for Planners and Community leaders agen- cies involved included the NPO, DHAY and the National Council of Women. 1993 The Madang NCW Convention passed the Madang Declaration for the Advancement of PNG women and elected Dame Abaij ah as president. The convention called for amendments in the NCW Act and the establishment of the Office of the Status of Women. It also calls for training of womens' officers and women leaders to be more aware of their complementary roles in a changing PNG. Gender Awareness Training undertaken through project cycle for Plan- ners and others separately for awareness purposes through both the sta- tistical and planning component through NPO and Advocacy through DHAY. 1994 Papua New Guinea ratifies the UN Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). The United Nations holds the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, Egypt. A National Womens' Machinery Committee was appointed and directed to present its findings to the National Council of Women Annual General Meeting. The committee's recommendations were disregarded by NCW and appointed its own review committee led by Mrs Nahau Rooney. This committee called for a separate ministry to be headed by the Womens' 54 Appendix 2: Chronology of Women's Movement in Papua New Guinea Nominated Representative and new legislation for National Council of Women enabling women to discuss issues of regional focus and improv- ing on national issues. Pacific Womens Regional Meetings opened up to include relevant central agencies and the National Council of Women enabling women to discuss issues of regional focus and improving on national issues. 1995 Establish National Steering Committee to prepare for the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing Conference). Many preparatory meetings were held throughout PNG with the development of the government endorsed document PNG Platformnfor Action: A Decade of Actionfor Women Towards National Unity and Sustainability 1995-2000. The Granville Declaration on Emergency Actionfor Women's Development and the Future of PNG was also signed prior to the Conference. Over 100 women from PNG attended the Beijing Conference. 55 Appendix 3 Papua New Guinea Platform for Action The PNG Platform for Action includes prior- *. Lack of women in most senior decision ity recommendations for each of the 9 criti- making bodies e.g. National Parliament, cal areas of concern. The critical areas of the bureaucracy and the private sec- concern identified as the major problems fac- tor; ing women of PNG are listed below with some + Poorly resourced national machinery of the main issues: for women. Health Options/Approaches: Major health problems, which need to be Upgrade the Women's Division to an Office of addressed, include: the Status of Women that is effectively staffed *: Maternal mortality rates; and adequately resourced. *> Female malnutrition across the life Revitalize the Inter Agency Women's Advisory cycle; Committee. ** Poor access to reproductive services. Ensure that all national boards have women's representation and monitor that they regu- Options/Approaches: larly consult with women's organizations. Increase access to affordable community Promote the sharing of roles and responsi- based health care services, particularly those bilities within the family through provided through mobile maternal and child innovative media campaigns, school and com- health clinics, village patrols and community munity education programs which empha- based distributors. size gender equity and non-stereotype gender roles of women. Education, Training and Literacy Major education problems, which need to be Economic Empowerment and Employment addressed, include: Opportunities and Conditions * Female illiteracy; Major economic problems which need to be *: Poor enrollment and attendance rates addressed include: of girls in school and tertiary institutions. * Poverty of women and lack of control over economic resources; Options/Approaches: + Lack of access to credit; Encourage gender balance through affirma- 4- Inequality in the workplace. tive action and quotas for women and girls in the allocation of scholarships. Options/Approaches: Promote policies which ensure that there are Legislate and where appropriate introduce at least 50% of females in all educational in- policy measures to enable women to partici- stitutions. pate freely and more effectively in commerce both as employees and entrepreneurs. Mechanisms to Promote the Impose controls on transport levies to assist Advancement of Women and Shared small business operators. Decisionmaking Major problems, which need to be addressed, include: 57 APPENDIX 3: PAPUA NEW GUINEA-PLATFORM FOR ACTION Develop national employment policy with em- girls and boys and promoting equal respon- phasis on equal opportunity in employment. sibilities in family and community life. Enforce laws and develop policies against sexual harassment, adultery and enticement Culture and the Family Including a in the workplace. Section on Young Women and Girls and Special Groups of Women Such As Legal and Human Rights, Violence, Women with Disabilities, Elderly Women, Peace and National Unity Refugee and Displaced Women Major problems which need to be addressed Major problems which need to be addressed include: include: *: Domestic violence, rape and sexual * Cultural practices which discriminate assault; against women (e.g. bride price, po- * Lack of access to, or incentive to use lygamy); counseling and other support mecha- *> Clash between traditional culture and nisms; modern culture; * Lack of legislative measures available *: Increasing urbanization. to women. Options/Approaches: Options/Approaches: Provide appropriate training for village court Make available support services for women magistrates and officers to adequately deal including rape crisis centers, shelters for with the problems relating to adultery, do- women, private facilities for interviews at police mestic violence, polygamy and desertion. stations and court advocates to enable women Introduce family life and adolescent educa- to take perpetrators of violence to court. tion awareness at grade six level. Monitor, review and strengthen legislation against sexual abuse and prostitution. Transport, Shelter and Water, and Promote legislation and enforcement of poli- Communication cies aimed at eliminating domestic violence. Major problems which need to be addressed Implement the recommendations of the Law include: Reform Commission No. 14 on violence *: Access to safe, reliable and affordable against women. transportation; Liaise with police and other relevant agen- *> Access to secure, adequate and afford- cies to establish an integrated database on able shelter and water; violence against women. *: Access to communication systems and Enforce legislation on child abuse including appropriate technologies. incest, rape and prostitution and provide appropriate support services and counselling. Options/Approaches: Increase the number of police officers with Ensure women's needs such as safety, ac- special training to support women who are cessibility and affordability are taken into con- subjected to violence. sideration when transportation policies are Ensure that school curriculum includes gen- formulated. der issues highlighting the changing roles of 58 APPENDIX 3: PAPUA NEw GUINEA - PLATFORM FOR ACTION Develop and implement government hous- food processing particularly fruit for canning ing policy and programs that are supportive and makingjams, sweet potatoes, yams, ba- of women, especially single mothers. nanas and breadfruit. Research and implement innovative distance communication systems and technologies Environment and Development appropriate to the varying geographic condi- Major problems which need to be addressed tions of PNG. include: * Destruction caused by logging and min- Agriculture and Fisheries ing on the environment and the effects Major problems which need to be addressed on women and their families; include: * Increased information and access to * Women's access to extension services sustainable farming methods and re- and appropriate technology; cycling. *. Recognition of women's traditional and unpaid roles in the sectors. Options/Approaches: Increase women's representation in environ- Options/Approaches: mental management and development, par- Develop and support an agricultural subsis- ticularly on forestry, mining and landowner tence improvement program for women using boards. appropriate technology. Create markets for Enforce legislations to strengthen existing subsistence women farmers with subsidies for mechanisms in the ConsumerAffairs Bureau transporting goods to the nearest market. to monitor prices and quality of foods, mate- Support short courses for women to learn rials and medicines imported and produced the various methods of fish preservation and in PNG. 59 Appendix 4 Profile of Major Stakeholders STAKEHOLDERS' ROLES IN POLICY AND Government Focal Points IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS National Women's Machinery Institutionalizing WID and GAD in PNG The implementation of donor funded projects A good deal of the confusion which exists in has been hampered by lack of staff and re- the history of WID/GAD machineries in the sources in the Women's Division of the De- country now, can he explained by the frac- partment of Home Affairs, the agency tured history of institutionalization within the responsible for overseeing the implementa- bureaucracy and the constant reorganization tion of women's projects in the provinces. This and attempts at reform of the bureaucracy is the focal point for national policies and leg- or parts of the bureaucracy. Other contrib- islation on women and gender issues. It is uting factors include a lack of a women's also empowered to enforce, administer and movement in the country that is focused, implement various international conventions motivated and organized which could press to which Papua New Guinea is a signatory. for their interests on the state of PNG. The The Women's Division has tried to improve manner in which women's and gender issues inter agency cooperation with the establish- were introduced to the country was largely ment of the Inter Departmental Women's imposed by donors since 1975 UN's Women's Advisory Committee (IWAC) which could act International Year. The high rate of female as a formal venue for coordinating women's illiteracy means that women are only now policy issues within the Government. The being educated (mostly informally) about gen- IWAC also acts as an advisory body to the der issues and how interventions can be made Ministry on policy, programs and training within the state apparatus. This explains the matters for women in Papua New Guinea. It ad hoc manner in which women's machiner- was the intention to have Departmental ies have been developed (or their lack oi) within Women's Advisory Committees established in the national and provincial levels. all provinces. However, to date these have not The current restructuring within the na- been set up. The 1WAC concept has not worked tional and provincial governments means that partly due to the fact that when it was con- women's machineries at both tiers of gov- vened in the early 1980s, Departments nomi- ernment are in a state of flux. This restruc- nated fairly junior staff to represent them. turing is also affecting the national and Preparation for the UN's Fourth World Con- provincial councils of women. Linkages be- ference in Beijing in 1995 was a catalyst for tween the national department and the pro- convening a group of representatives from vincial departments are weak. The departments, agencies, and Non Government government women's machinery at both the organizations. During the preparations for national and provincial levels does not have Beijing, interagency cooperation was better a network through which implementation of than it had ever been. Unfortunately, this policy and programs can take place. It is the committee was disbanded soon after the Non Government women's machinery that Beijing conference. has this network through the Provincial Coun- The functions of the Department of Home cils of Women. Affairs are supposed to be taken on by one 61 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders officer located in each of the twenty provinces Provincial Women's Machineries in the country. In the provinces these offic- Provincial structures of Home Affairs depend ers, whether they be called Women's Offic- on the officer(s) and their ability to use the ers, Community Development Officers or provincial government bureaucracy. Those Welfare Officers come under the provincial who possess good lobbying skills and initia- Department. In most cases one officer looks tive are able to create a unit and develop co- after women, religion, sports, youth and wel- operative working relations with officers within fare in the province. the provincial bureaucracy and the provin- Provincial departments decide on policy and cial councils of women. Often this harmoni- programs for provinces but like the national ous working relationship breaks down when department, they do not have a network a change in personnel occurs in the leader- through which these programs can be imple- ship of the Provincial council as well as within mented. Rather it is the national and provin- the provincial women's office. cial councils of women which have the As an example, there are ten officers in network. the Provincial Department of Home Affairs in In 1994, the National Council of Women the Department of Eastern Highlands. Two (NCW) called for the establishment of an Of- are specifically assigned as women's officers. fice of the Status of Women (OSW). This came They plan and conduct programs for the vari- in the form of a policy submission. This sug- ous women's groups within the province. gestion was incorporated in the department's These two women's officers also act as the Five Year Management Plan. The Women's secretariat for the Eastern Highlands Provin- Division supported the NCW proposal for an cial Council of Women. They have success- OSW. The concept of a separate office of fully lobbied for an executive officer to be paid women appears to have been received favor- by the provincial government to oversee the ably. However, the Department of Home Af- work of the council in the eight districts that fairs' new structure has not been approved come under the Eastern Highlands province. and the concept of an Office of the Status of They are presently negotiating for a credit/ Women has received the green light only in women's/community officer to be hired as a principle. However, the department's budget- casual employee at the scheme that was ary process for 1998 does not include provi- launched by the national Department of Home sion for an OSW. Affairs in 1996. However, only three of the A few government departments have gen- eight district administrators have agreed to der desks or units: Department of Agricul- this arrangement. ture and Livestock, Prime Minister's With the recent Provincial and Local-Level Department, the Department ofPlanningand Reforms (1995) the national Department of Implementation, Investment Promotions Au- Home Affairs presence in the provinces is lo- thority, the Department of Commerce, the cated in the Department of Provincial Affairs Department of Labour and Employment, and in the form of one or two officers, in some until 1997, Fisheries. The working relation- provinces no positions exist to take on these ship of various government departments with functions. In some provinces, women's offic- the Women's Division of the Department of ers have gone down to the districts as com- Home Affairs varies from time to time. munity district officers'. Each district may 62 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders cover from four to seven local level govern- Milne Bay, Manus, Eastern Highlands, West- ments. It varies from province to province. ern Highlands, Enga. New Ireland, There is no direct link between the national Bougainville and East Sepik, most provincial and provincial government women's machin- council do not have an office or staff and so eries. communicating with provincial councils can be a problem. West New Britain, East New NON GOVERNMENT FOCAL POINTS Britain and Western Province have a good operational base. National Council of Women (NCW) Provincial councils organize and run their There is full time secretariat which oversees own programs independent of the provincial the work of the National Council of Women Department of Home Affairs although tech- (NCW). It plans, coordinates and organizes nical assistance may be requested from the programs for its member organizations either provincial department. Provincial councils on its own or in consultation with various may also request direct technical assistance national government departments. It also from the national Department of Home Af- liases with various donors who use the fairs. Where harmonious working relations council's network to run donor-initiated between the Council and the Women's Of- projects. For the first time in 1997 the PNG ficer exist, technical assistance and some sec- NCW became an executing agency for a retariat support is forthcoming from the project, the PNG UNFPA Role Model project. provincial Department of Home Affairs. Fi- A women's congress is held every three nancial support from the provincial govern- years when a new executive is elected. An ments also varies from excellent, as in Manus, Annual General Meeting is held every eigh- to none at all, as in Oro. Most of the councils teen months. The national executive meets in the Papuan Region do not have an office, quarterly. Special national and regional work- or a good working arrangement with the shops and consultations may be called from women's officers. These are Southern High- time to time when the need arises. For ex- lands, Gulf, Western, Oro, National Capital ample, in September 1997, a special national District, Central Province and include consultation on the new provincial and lo- Sandaun Province. At least three provinces cal-level reforms was called with all presidents have male women's officers. and women's officers of member organizations: With the provincial and local-level reforms, some district presidents attended as well. the channels for technical and financial sup- The secretariat is kept busy with consul- port have expanded. The difficulty lies in the tations with government departments, aid ability of local-level and district women's coun- donors, Non Government bodies and project cils to gain access to such resources. Theo- consultants, partly as a result of the empha- retically women's councils at all levels, i.e. sis in development cooperation programs to provincial, district and local, should be able consult with civil society. to submit annual requests for funding projects. However, because local-level coun- Provincial Councils of Women (PCW) cil elections have onlyjust been held, women's The executive members of most provincial knowledge of the new system is limited. Most councils reside in their villages. Except for PCWs and District councils raise their own 63 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders money for administration, travel and program programs for the congregation. The seven costs. The PNG NCW has only been able to mainline churches are grouped together un- run one national consultation on the new der the Papua New Guinea National Council reforms but did not focus on how to access of Churches (NCC). The NCC may conduct government resources now being distributed national programs for its member churches to lower levels of government. from time to time. The Evangelical Alliance An added problem the lack of infrastruc- churches are also grouped together. The ture at the district level. Most districts do not women's network under this alliance is not even have houses for government officers, and functioning at the present time (1997) and government workers (technical staffl are still so individual Alliance churches continue to operating from the provincial headquarters. conduct programs for women and the com- Some provincial governments, such as Oro, munity at the parish and congregation/com- did allocate funding for building new district munity levels. Most of the church women's headquarters, but emergencies such as the organizations are part of the church estab-- drought have drawn on the budgetary allo- lishment and so interventions have to be made cation for the construction of district head- through the churches. quarters for the last two years. With the exceptions of the East Sepik Coun- A number of provincial councils of women cil of Women (ESCOW) and the East New have begun to restructure their councils in Britain Social Action Committee (ENBSAC) -- line with the new reforms. In provinces where both of which are provincially based - all NGOs district and local-level women's council's did mentioned in this study operate nationally not exist, some have since been organized. In through their member organizations or net- Milne Bay Province in the old provincial sys- works throughout the country. NGOs oper- tem, the PCW had seven districts; under the ate autonomously though they maybe a part new reforms, there are only four districts and of a network such as the case of PNG Trust. so the Milne PCW is reorganizing its district which networks with Melanesian Environment: councils into four instead of seven. This is Foundation and Individual and Community happening ahead of the PNG NCW's amend- Rights Advocacy Forum (ICRAF). ment of its constitution, structure and rules. Most NGOs focussing on women's pro- grams are affiliated to the PNG NCW (notable Non Government Organizations exceptions include the YWCA, CWA and Girl The Churches and Non Government Organi- Guides). The Soroptirnists (Lae) and Business zations run programs in support of women and Professional Women's Associations (BPW) independently of the PNG NCW. The program are also affiliated to the PNG NCW. These goals and objectives of these agencies are simi- international women's organizations main- lar to those in the PNG Platform of Action, tain some autonomy in deciding programs although the church's organizations place a and activities to support but with some in- stronger emphasis on spiritual concerns. put from the parent (international) organiza- The church women's networks are well tions. mobilized because of their closeness to the communities they serve. Each parish runs 64 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders Political Networks The Provincial Government and Local-Level The absence of women in public political life Government reforms have ushered in a new and the low level of success by women in the wave of restructuring within the bureaucracy, formal political arena is symptomatic of the which has resulted in the relocation of the infancy of a 'woman's movement' in Papua women's desks or units within departments. New Guinea. The women's movement is over- The new Organic Law on Provincial and whelmingly based on local women's partici- Local Level Governments created two nomi- pation. nated seats for women. The National Council A few women candidates were endorsed of Women is to be consulted on these appoint- by the major political parties in the 1997 ments at the district or provincial levels. This national elections but none were successful. gives greater political power to the National Out of a total of 56 female candidates who Council of Women which now has some in- contested as independents, only two were fluence over who gets nominated to the vari- elected (one of whom is the first female to be ous local government councils throughout the elected as governor). Prior to being elected, country. Women orwomen's groups who want she served a term of three years as the na- to influence the selection of nominees will now tional president of the National Council of have to be affiliated to the NCW at the village, Women, and was elected with support from a district or provincial level, or through their bloc vote of women from the Milne Bay prov- church or NGO membership. Under the re- ince. The second elected female member of forms the provincial and local level govern- parliament, Lady Carol Kidu, is a shadow ments decide on funding allocations, thus minister for the social sector. She received creating a political opening for women to par- strong backing from the United Church, ticipate directly in the development of their women and youth groups and people from communities. NCW has organized consulta- the settlements in her electorate and has tion on the reforms with presidents of all its emerged as a spokesperson for disadvantaged affiliates to enable women to understand the groups both nationally and within her elec- reforms and what they mean for women and torate. for the National Council of Women in par- A female wing of the Peoples Progress Party ticular. was established in the lead up to the 1997 elections but was so strongly associated with Traditional and Indigenous Networks the New Ireland branch of the Party, that since It is difficult to make generalizations about its defeat at the recent (1997) elections, the indigenous networks in a country with over female wing has diminished. 700 cultural and linguistic units butjudging An advisor to the Prime Miinister on women from the voting patterns, the country is still has been appointed as a member of the Prime largely clan/tribal based. In rural PNG women Minister's political staff. However the posi- are tied to the village, lineage, clan and tribal tion remains politicized and appointees are affinities, which remain strong. But in the generally supporters of the Prime Minister and rural areas we also see the strength of church not necessarily well-versed gender special- networks, by parish and denomination. ists. Women (and men) identify strongly with their 65 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders church and its wide networks. These are im- 1996. In 1997 the Women and Fisheries portant when there is a death, a feast or project, to be funded by Japan, was also trans- brideprice is being paid. ferred to the department. Many other projects It is difficult to make a similar character- currently being managed by or through the ization of communities. Where concentrations Division are discussed within the donor sec- of tribal or provincial groups conglomerate tion. These projects include the ADB funded in peri-urban areas, e.g. Engan, Kiwai, Gulf institutional strengthening activity which fa- or Oro peoples in Port Moresby. Among those cilitated the development of the 5 Year Man- in formal middle class employment, wantok agement Plan launched in 1994. and church networks tend to influence the The most innovative program in Home Af- strength of linkage in the urban areas. Tra- fairs addresses the consequences of male vio- ditional affinities have been expanded some- lence. The Men Against Violence (MAV) what with intermarriage (tribal, clan, province, Program within the Department of Home Af- race and nation) and friendships created fairs is the only program to address the issue through sports, church, work, school clubs of male violence directly by offering violent and membership in community organizations. men alternative models of behavior. OUTLINE OF THE GENDER WORK OF National Planning Office STAKEHOLDERS A Gender and Development Unit exists within the Social Planning Division of the National Government of PNG Planning office. The Unit was set up under the UNIFEM Pacific Mainstreaming Project Women's Division, Department of Home to coincide with the endorsement of the Na- Affairs tional Women's Policy. Its principle objective The Department of Home Affairs is the gov- was to initiate a gender sensitive approach in emnment focal point for gender and develop- national policies, programs and projects and ment issues. The Women's Division has been prioritize women's concerns in the process of in existence since 1974 (then known as the national development. The GAD unit exists Women's Unit under the Department of Social to facilitate gender mainstreaming in govern- Development and Home Affairs). Appendix 2 ment departments responsible for policy and outlines the historical development of the planning and to conduct intersectoral work- women's movement in PNG and identifies the shops on gender awareness for department development of various women's machineries. officers at the national and provincial levels. The Division has taken on the implemen- Except for the burst of activity in 1990 when tation of various donor funded projects such planners and other senior officers of depart- as the UNFPA funded Family Life Education ments attended gender sensitive training, its Project, the Population and Family Planning effectiveness has not lived up to its strategic Program funded by the World bank, ADB and location. The number of officers in the Unit Australia and has undertaken two credit has been reduced to one. The National Plan- schemes, one funded by the NZODA limited ning Office operates on a national level from to eight provinces and the second nationwide the office in Waigani, Port Moresby. Provin- scheme funded by the church launched in cial work from the office regarding gender 66 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders issues would be coordinated through Provin- Department of Health (DOH) cial Departments of Home Affairs. The Department of Health operates as a na- Though gender mainstreaming appears to tional body (National Department of Health) have again been marginalized by adding new with provincial departments. responsibilities for this one officer, she has Although a great deal of money has been used the opportunity to mainstream gender invested in the PNG health system over the in the new areas under her responsibility of past couple of decades, it appears that stan- law and order, and administration. dards are decreasing in some areas. Due to A manual 'Gender Training for planners the high rate of maternal and child mortal- in Papua New Guinea' has been completed ity, DOH has a major focus on maternal and by the Unit. child health. In mary provinces the basic services are not available and The Depart- Department of Agriculture and Livestock (DAL) ment adopts a primary health care approach The Department of Agriculture and Livestock to health improvement. The increasing inci- is a national level department and in the prov- dence of tuberculosis, malaria, and sexually inces it combines with fisheries, forestry and transmitted diseases has prompted an ex- other industries as a part of the Provincial pansion of the immunization program tar- Department of Primary Industries (DPI). geting women and children. The 1993 WID sector Review by UNDP iden- Several national and international donors tified key areas for gender sensitization in DAL. are working with the department on projects These included: The development of sex dis- which have women and the girl child as a aggregated and gender specific data in agri- primary focus. WvHO and UNFPA, in conjunc- culture and livestock; recruitment planning tion with the DOH, is completing a technical for women in the Agricultural Training and assistance project in maternal and child health Manpower (sic) Program; planning and sup- and family planning. DOH is also working port for Non Government women's associa- jointly with UNFPA on a project to strengthen tions involved in promoting agricultural reproductive health, focussing on services in production; inclusion of a gender sensitive East Sepik, Madang, Manus and Central. approach to curriculum development for in- The most innovative project on gender service training courses; strengthening of which the DOH has pioneered is the billboard provincial agricultural extension programs to awareness campaign. Titled 'PNG Artists for develop strategies for promoting special Health: Mi Man Tru', the project aims to ad- women to women's extension components; dress issues of the husband's responsibility involvement of women's groups in smallholder for the health of his wife and family. The cam- market access and food supply project; in- paign is aimed to break down the stereotype clusion of women in the Marketed Fruit and of a 'real man' as someone who does con- Vegetable Project; and increasing training for sider the needs and concerns of his family. women and distribution of livestock. The 'real man' pictured in the biflboards takes Women's major role in food production in up some of the family burdens: As a teenager the subsistence sector has been recognized he thinks twice before enjoying in sexual ac- by the establishment of a Women and Devel- tivity; as a 'Midnight Cowboy' he is not afraid opment Unit in 1996. to practice safe sex, and as a father he dis- 67 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders cusses the size of the family with his wife and Department of Commerce is proud of his 'only girls' family. This project The Department of Commerce funded the aims at attitudinal change, and was launched Small Business Development Services project. in August 1997 with billboards throughout One aspect of this project was to 'conduct NCD and a series of national radio scripts in business skills training for women entrepre- Tok Pisin. neurs including participants for credit schemes managed by the Department of Youth Department of Fisheries and Marine Resources and Home Affairs' The National Program for Women in Fisher- At the local level the Provincial Departments ies was established in the late 1980's to trans- of Commerce provide advice for investment fer post harvest technology skills and and business skills training for clients. The knowledge to rural women through informa- Division of Commerce also provides resource tion, education and training. A Women in people for business training courses which Development Officer was appointed to the are run by the Department of Home Affairs. Department of Fisheries and Marine Re- Although not specifically aimed at women, sources. The Women's Division in the DHA some recent projects run by the Department folowed this initiative with training courses ofTrade and Industry are available to women in 1989. The Fisheries Council in 1990 rec- include the Small Business Development Ser- ommended the commitment of funds to fish- vice. eries activities focusing on women. The Department of Home Affairs then appointed Non Government Organizations a liaison officer in DHA to work closely with the Department of Fisheries and Marine Re- National Council of Women (NCW) sources Women In Development Officer. An Act of Parliament in 1979 established the In 1993 there was a cooperative signing of NCW as a statutory authority but it exists as a Memorandum of Understanding between a program of the Department of Home Af- the Fisheries Department and the Department fairs. The NCW reaches out to the twenty of Home Affairs. The Fisheries Authority pro- provinces through its provincial councils vides technical inputs (staff) to the Women's (PCWs). Though the PCWs vary in strength, Division which provides support to women leadership, communications and outreach through the Provincial Councils of Women to and have different links to NGO's in the vil- encourage and increase the participation of lages. The PCWs are supported by Provincial women in fishing industries both as contribu- Government. tors and beneficiaries. The Fisheries Author- The NCW has a large network both across ity sent arepresentative to the United Nations the country and down to the villages. Its Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995. membership includes the provincial councils The Department of Agriculture and Live- of women (20), Non Government organiza- stock (DAL), the Department of Fisheries and tions and most of the churches in PNG un- Marine Resources only has a national level der Papua New Guinea Council of Churches structure. At the provincial level it joins with (PNGCC) or the Evangelical Alliance, Seventh agriculture and livestock as a part of the Pro- Day Adventists and Bahai. The Non Govern- vincial Department of Primary Industry. ment membership includes Women in Poli- 68 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders tics (WIP), UPNG Women's Association, UPNG on the provision of hostels for girls and women, female students, University of Technology vocational and child care centers and pre- Women, the Teachers Union, PNG Nurses schools. However, YWCA is they are now in- Union, Business and Professional Women, volved in a wide range of projects exclusively ICRAF, Ramu-Sugar, Wanchef, the Filipino for women, children and communities Women's Association and YWCA. Except that throughout PNG. The major sectors of work of the national secretariat, all the work done are house, education and refugee support. in member organizations is voluntary. The YWCA also has a handicraft shop in Port most pressing need is to strengthen the net- Moresby which sells handicrafts created by work with an office, full time staff and com- PNG women. munications links to the provinces and One of the most successful projects the districts. YWCA is currently running is supported fi- Of the Non Government organizations af- nancially through its Australian counterpart fihiated to the NCW, most are NCD-based (the YWCA. This is a rehabilitation program for exception is the Nurses Union). The Teachers women prisoners to teach skills to assist these Union is affiliated but not a member of NCW. women to reintegrate into their communities. Although there has been an increase in the The development of a support peer network number of NGO's in the country in recent for women prisoners is another aspect of this years, many NGO's exist only in the provinces project. and do not have a national organization. The YWCA in Goroka has been running a highly successful literacy project for several PNG Watch Council /NANGO years. Adult literacy and numeracy classes In 1996 a number of NGOs were requested are given to women who have never had ac- to affiliate to an umbrella NGO known as the cess to formnal schooling to provide them with PNG Watch Council for Socioeconomic jus- basic skills, such as being able to read bank tice. This alliance was basically a resurrected statements and other essential documents. National Alliance of NGOs (NANGO) which had become defunct in 1995 (due to internal Women in Politics politics and leadership struggles). However, Formed in 1987, the group aims to increase the PNG Watch Council has been active in women's awareness of political processes, to political issues and NANGO may reemerge lobby political parties and pre-select women as the national NGO alliance. A meeting of to stand for seats in national and provincial stakeholders was held in Port Moresby in late elections. Many of the active members of the September 1997 to discuss the network. group stood themselves as candidates in the 1997 election. Dame Josephine Abijiah, one YWCA of the two women voted into parliament at YWCAis one of the oldest NGOs in PNG (since the recent election, has been an active mem- 1962). The YWCA has a national office in Port ber of the group. Moresby as well as branches in Port Moresby, Lae, Goroka and Tabubil. Business and Professional Women The current President is Dame Rose The Association of Business and Professional Kekedo. Initially YWCA's activities centered Women is a voluntary association of women 69 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders within professions and private enterprises. vision ofbasic services. The association is com- The group's primary aim is to provide sup- prised of mostly expatriate women although port for other professional and business there are attempts to attract more PNG women women, although it has also lobbied govern- members. The CWA in PNG tends not to get ment and the private sector to increase the involved in women's NGO meetings, and did recognition for, and participation of women not participate in the Beijing Conference in professional and business activities. The preparations. group has been active in promoting the edu- cation advancement of young women through PNG Family Planning Association scholarship schemes. The Papua New Guinea Family Planning As- sociation has been involved in family planning Public Employees Association (PEA) advocacy and service delivery. It has recently Approximately one seventh of the members lost its funding source from the United States of the PEA are women. It is the only union of America. A small group of members are try- organization with a Women's Unit. Although ing to maintain the work of the association. the unit is under-resourced, priorities for the unit include: Terms and conditions of em- Girl Guides ployment; selection and promotion procedures The Girl Guides, like the YWCA, is also active and other personnel practices; sexual harass- in hostel accommodation and leadership train- ment; housing; superannuation, and child ing. It has a large membership base and ac- care. tive groups in Port Moresby, Lae and all major urban areas. However, unlike the YWCA it is PNG Teachers Association (PNGTA) not as involved in advocacy issues or project Over 50% of the PNGTA are women. The fo- work aimed at the empowerment of women cus of the group is on the professional devel- (such as the YWCA's prisons project). opment of teachers and on improving the social and economic aspects of teaching. The ICRAF PNGTA plans to develop an office for women The Individual and Community Rights Advo- and to increase the participation of women cacy Forum Inc. (ICRAF) has a Women's Desk and improve their terms and conditions of (staffed by Ms Hilan Los). The organization employment. has developed policy (March 1997) on Gen- der equality which incorporates equal par- PNG Nurses Association ticipation, education, employment, familylaw, Many of the members of this association are and domestic and sexual violence against also members of the PEA. The association women, and it has drafted amendments to focuses on the working conditions of its mem- the Criminal Code Act, Health and Safety, bers. and Equality in the Legal System. ICRAF focuses its work on strategic gen- Country Women's Association der needs of women and aims its project work This is traditionally a more conservative group at eliminating or decreasing structural forms dealing with welfare issues facing women in of discrimination against women. health and education, particularly in the pro- ICRAF has been providing awareness pro- 70 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders grams on women's legal rights and discrimi- government and private sector. The founda- nation. ICRAF also operates the only Rape tion is involved in research, community aware- Crisis Center forwomen in Papua New Guinea. ness, policy development and project work and aims to reduce crime and violence through East Sepik Council of Women (ESCOW) community development. The training pack- The East Sepik Council of Women is the most age for community capacity building includes successful provincial Council of Women in a section on women and gender equity. PNG. For many years it has been the leading organization in rural based gender projects. Australian NGO Development Agencies Its programs have included: Awareness pro- There are numerous Australian NGOs work- grams on womens' and childrens' rights; ing in PNG, many with funding assistance health and environment issues; police vio- through AusAID. They play a key role in de- lence and training issues, and; community velopment projects in PNG and are major discussion of gender issues using drama, ra- stakeholders in policy, project identification dio and song. and implementation. The Australian organizations which deal PNG Integral Human Development Trust exclusively in women and gender projects are This Trust acts as an umbrella organization Soroptomists Overseas Development Program, for a large network of literacy organizations. International Women's Development Agency It has been active in working with local com- (IWDA) and the Young Women's Christian munities to identify their development needs Association (YWCA) which runs a very small and has provided literacy materials relevant program in PNG (outlined in the YWCA sec- to small communities. The Trust provides tion of PNG NGOs). The Soroptimists ran a training for Tok Priskuls and adult literacy. small business training course in Lae in 1995. The IWDA has been working closely with the East New Britain Social Action Committee East Sepik Council of Women in a rural sup- A small provincial based NGO, the ENBSAC port program, the training of birth attendants has a good reputation for running effective in villages, and in a women's environment extension volunteer programs. The group has and awareness project. IWDA also played a been in existence for over 20 years. The pro- major role in the preparations of some PNG grams are aimed at supporting and strength- NGOs in the lead up to the United Nations ening village based women's organization, Fourth World Conference on Women. Funded adult education, literacy, leadership and throughAusAID, theyran the Pacific Women's health. It works closely with Save the Documentation Project. which involved the Children's Fund and it has attracted a great development of materials of PNG women, with deal of other funding for specific projects over other Pacific women, and participation in the the past decade. NGO Forum in China. The Adventist and Development Relief Foundation for Law, Order and Justice (FLOJ) Agency focuses in water supply housing and The Foundation for Law, Order and Justice small industry. Rotary has also been active is Non Government, non church organiza- in water supply projects. World Vision Aus- tion with a Board of Trustees drawn from the tralia ran a preschool and adult literacy project 71 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders through their PNG counterpart and the lic Women's Federation. The main areas of Bunapas integrated health project. Save the work focus to strengthen Christian networks Children's Fund has operated the Madang and spiritual development, human resource kindergarten project. The Credit Union of development and health, family life educa- Australia is active in financing cooperatives tion, law and order, literacy and refugees. in rural regions, Caritas Australia in Civic Education. Catholic Women's Federation Many Australian NGOs have been active The Catholic Women's Federation is a well es- in Bougainville restoration or refugee pro- tablished Catholic women's network. It has grams including Australian People for Health, been operating for ten years. It is a voluntary Education and Development Abroad organization but it is serviced by a full time (APHEDA), Australian Refugee Council, Com- secretariat at the national level. Twenty dio- munityAid Abroad, Overseas Service Bureau, cese (provincial) associations are linked to the Marist Mission Center and Moral Rearma- Catholic Women's Federation. All projects are ment. ran at the diocesan level; the national body concentrates on coordination and the train- Churches ing of trainers. A new three year plan (1998- The churches are extremely active in PNG 2000) has been prepared. The plan focuses and have a strong base in the provinces. The on: Spiritual development; family life which churches have the most extensive network includes family planning; primary health care; amongst all NGOs and often workjointly with economic empowerment with a strong empha- the Provincial Councils of Women and the sis on self reliance; literacy, and; management Women's Office of the Department of the Prov- skills, budgeting and planning. They also carry ince in implementing projects. out campaigns on drug abuse and domestic violence. The bulk of their programs are funded Papua New Guinea National Council of by the church including the development of Churches materials for their literacy programs. The Papuan New Guinea Council of Churches (PNGCC) replaced the Melanesian Council of United Church Women's Fellowship Churches and consists of the seven mainline The United Church Women's Fellowship has churches. These are: The evangelical Lutheran been in existence since 1971 and has a na- Church; the Baptist Union of Papua New tionwide membership of 64,000 women. It Guinea; the United Church; Salvation Army; has a network which reaches down to the Goodnius Lutheran; the Catholic Church and congregation or village level. In addition to the Anglican Church. There is a women's desk spiritual development, it runs literacy pro- (full time) at the PNGCC and it is affiliated to grams, sporting fixtures, seminars on topi- the National Council of Women. The PNGCC cal issues and carries a prison and hospital runs ecumenical activities and trainers train- visitation program. A national secretariat ing programs for member organizations, serves this voluntary organization. Programs Women's programs are run by individual are funded by the church, but funding is also churches such as the United Church Women's sought from other churches outside PNG and Fellowship, Anglican Mothers Union, Catho- from other donors. 72 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders Salvation Army New Britain, Central and the National Capi- The Salvation Army has been in PNG since tal District. Office bearers including the na- 1954. Its network exists in NCD, Gulf, Cen- tional president are appointed by the church tral, Eastern Highlands, Morobe, West New council. Britain and Western Highlands provinces. The Women's Ministry forms a division within the Evangelical Alliance command and the network reaches down to The Evangelical Alliance, affiliated to the Na- the corp (parish) level. Projects include spiri- tional Council of Women, consists of 40 de- tual, sports and other recreational programs, nominations. Some denominations are more hospital and prison visitations, craft, health, active than others - the most active groups literacy for youth and women and early child- are in West Sepik and Western Highlands. hood education. They undertake projects in spiritual devel- opment, literacy and primary health. Evangelical Lutheran Church of PNG The Lutheran women's work has been car- Private Sector ried out by Wokmeri which has existed infor- Over the past decade women have become mally since the 1950s. It has strengthened more active in business and the private sec- its network in recent years reaching out from tor. Their involvement ranges from small scale the national down to district, circuit, parish rural enterprises such as farming and gar- and congregation levels. Wokmeri organiza- dening, production of handicrafts, running tions exist in Morobe, Simbu, Southern High- trade and food stores, to larger scale private lands, Western Highlands, Eastern Highlands, enterprises. An example is Web Books, a com- Madang, New Ireland, East and West New pany owned and run by Mrs Winifred Abijiah Britain and Bougainville provinces. Wokmeri in Port Moresby. Support for women in pri- has not been active in Bougainville in the last vate sector enterprises has been provided by nine years due to the Bougainville crisis. the PNG government and by national and in- Projects undertaken include: Spiritual ternational donors through the provision of development; health; literacy; AIDS educa- small credit schemes. There are several net- tion; environment, political education, agri- works which have been established forwomen culture, and; violence against women and in business. This includes BEST (a Canadian children. Funding for these programs come funded business enterprise for women), Meri through the church in PNG and from abroad. Bung (women in business) and various local cooperatives such as Wok Meri in the High- Bahai lands. Bahai Women has a well established network The Business and Professional Women's reaching down to the provincial and local level. Association (BPWA) is another network of An affiliate of NCW, Bahai Women run family women focused on the private sector and life, health, literacy and spiritual development women in management and professional po- activities. The Bahai faith has only recently sitions in the Public Service. Although women been introduced to PNG but already has some are not in management and decision making 60,000 adherents. They are in all twenty prov- levels of the private sector to any extent, there inces but are concentrated in Milne Bay, West are some women pioneering in these areas (a 73 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders high proffle example is AivaTauvasa, the Man- Wok Meri aging Director of the Investment Promotion This is a women's credit cooperative that has Authority). The BPWA of PNG encourages been successful in the Highlands in promot- women and their business initiatives and lob- ing women in business. bies for greater recognition of the needs and concerns of women in the private sector. Women in Business Associations Several provincial regions have active Women Investment Promotion Authority (IPA) in Business Associations. These associations The Investment Promotion Authority is a support women in the urban informal sector Government funded authority. Although it through loans and/or training. The training does not currently have provincial offices, staff may include an educational component on from IPA have assisted in the setting up of literacy and bookkeeping, as is being provided the National Women's Entrepreneur Associa- by the Women in Business Association of East tion, and provincial branches of this are cur- Sepik and Simbu. rently being established. A loose network has The Toma Women in Business Association been formed, consisting of IPA, the Rural Bank of East New Britain runs a 'Toma Ningit of PNG, departments of Commerce, Agricul- Group'. This group own 50% of a garment ture and Livestock, Home, Affairs and the factory in Lae and a health, beauty and home Small Business Development Center (SBDC). services company. This network aims to collaborate in explor- Other areas which Women in Business ing ways to improve and advance national associations encourage are village market- women entrepreneurs in management train- ing and handicrafts. In West New Britain which ing, business planning, investment and busi- has a shop outlet for handicrafts has been ness opportunities, loans and credit. established in Kimbe. South Pacific Appropriate Technology BEST Foundation (SPATF) This is a Papaua New Guinea NGO established This is a national self supporting institution in 1990 with financial support through Ca- in PNG which was originally established in nadian grants. This group promotes the 'in- the 1970s. Although it is not a government tegration of small business development and institution it still receives an annual grant of equitable sustainable community development K100,000 from the Government. in rural PNG'. The program focuses on women The Community Enterprise Support Unit as a target group. '01 Meri I Ki bilong Go Het (CESU) within the SPATF promotes appro- bilong Papua Nuigini' (Women are the Key to priate technology and services for creating PNG's Future Growth) is a program consist- employment and improving productivity. Ser- ing of slides and a video. These are distrib- vices range from information, training, mar- uted to groups as an awareness tool to raise keting and research, supply of tools, awareness of the value of women's work and equipment and machines. Women have been to build the self confidence of women. direct beneficiaries of courses on food pro- A business consulting service is provided cessing and handicrafts. to rural small business groups by BEST. This addresses problem areas for businesses in- 74 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders kling problem solving, settingrealisticexpec- Australia (World Bank contribution US $6.9 tations, conflicts which arise between tradi- million). This project has two main elements, tional customs and business, bookkeeping Through family planning services in five prov- and planning. inces and the National Capital District to upgrade health facilities and training. Sec- Chamber of Commerce ondly, institutional strengthening in the De- There are currently no projects or components partment of Health and other delivery agencies of programs in the Chamber of Commerce to support service delivery and health pro- which deal directly with women as the target motion. group. Gender sensitive training is required The other World Bank project with a gen- for this area. der component is the Oro Smallholder Oil Palm Development project (US$ 27 million) Donors which has conducted consultations with women to ensure land is available to the World Bank women for food production. rural health and The World Bank currently concentrates its education facilities are available and economic PNG Program in agriculture, infrastructure opportunities for women in the conservation and urban development, education, health, program are provided. human resources as well as an adjustment Apart from project work, the World Bank loan (US$100 million 1996-1997). has recently undertaken several studies in In 1992 the World Bank commissioned a PNG including a Poverty Assessment in 1996, paper on women in development in Papua which identified issues affecting women and New Guinea. This paper outlined a strategy children and concerns in project development. for WID in PNG in regard to World Bank projects. This detailed the need for women to Asian Development Bank (ADB) increase access to and control over income. ADB's work in PNG has focused on the sec- land policy, the forestry industry and non- tors of agriculture, transport, industry, finance formal education and training. It also called and the social sector. Women have been di- for regulatory measures to reduce the con- rect beneficiaries in the social sector programs sumption of alcohol, as well as the use of a through population, family planning, higher checklist for involvement of gender sensitized education projects, urban development and NGOs, and the development of useful statis- housing, urban water supply and sewerage, tical information from socioeconomic surveys. and rural health services. The gender component of the World Bank A Report on WID in the Asian Development program in PNG is limited to several projects Bank's program was developed in 1987 with at present. This includes a US$35 million loan a recommendation for gender analysis to be for education development for increased ac- included in appropriate Advisory and Opera- cess to upper secondary education for boys tional Technical Assistance (AOTA) and in loan and girls. The other major project is the 'Popu- processing at the Project Planning Technical lation and Family Planning' Project jointly Assistance (PPTA) stage. Some of the firstADB funded through the World Bank, Asian De- projects implemented adopting these recom- velopment Bank, the Government of PNG and mendations include the Fisheries and Coastal 75 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders Resource Management and Development lists/guidelines for the implementation of aid Project. The women's component of this project projects in different sectors. was to commission a study of how women The Australian aid program to PNG is ad- could be mainstreamed into the fisheries sector ministered through the Australian Agency for to participate more effectively. International Development (AusAID). The key The Third Rural Health Services Project projects targeting the needs ofwomen fall into targeted women for assistance in family plan- the sectors of health, education, and credit ning and health and the Central Province schemes. Appendix 3 identifies the location Rubber Schemes and Smallholder Rubber of the major Australia projects. Development in Selected Provinces (Western, Several small grants are funded from Aus- Gulf and East Sepik) contained WID Compo- tralia direct to local PNG NGOs. These projects nents to identify gender issues for inclusion are limited to approximately K40,000 each. in the design phase. The TOR included an The sectors which target women and chil- extension and training program for women, dren are education and health, small busi- effective ways to channel the project activi- ness enterprises, agriculture (fishing and ties to female farmers and to examine women's water supply) and various small scale social income generating opportunities such a tap- sector projects. In the 1995-1996 period the ping, weeding and fertilizer application. following community based organizations were The first of the ADB's technical assistance funded through this program: East Sepik specificaily for WID in PNG was the project Council of women, Cheshire Homes, World for institutional strengthening of the Women's Vision PNG, Gulf Christian Services, Rotary Division in the Department of Home Affairs International, Church Medical Council, Bulolo and in Sandaun and Gulf Provinces. This en- Hospital, Aroma Development Committee, tailed the services of an institutional plan- Wandi and Kusbau Community Schools ning consultant and a management Board of Management, Mohkolo and Seagull information system expert. These technical Fishing Groups, Pipi Community School, specialists were employed over a 2 year pe- Ombudsman Commission, Dongan Bosman riod to develop the Five Year Management Plan Community and others. and an implementation guide for the Women's In health AusAID is funding: Medical of- Division, as well as 5 Year Development Plans ficer, nursing and allied health science train- for both Sandraun and Gulf Provinces. The ing; tertiary health services consisting of Asian Development Bank contribution to the Australian specialist surgical teams; hospi- Population and Family Planning project is tal operations and management improvement; US$6.8 million. pigbel vaccine supply to prevent child deaths; malaria vaccine trials; health sector support Australia program; technical assistance for the Depart- Although Australia is the largest donor to ment of Health and contributing to the Fam- Papua New Guinea, very few of the projects ily Planning project discussed under the World are gender specific. However most of the Bank section. (More detail on these and other projects do have a gender component. projects conducted by AusAID can be found In 1997 Australia released a new Gender in the accompanying booklet Australian and Development Policy and a set of check- Agency for International Development Pro- 76 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders file ofActivities, Australia- Papua New Guinea concerns. AusAID also funds many NGO run Cooperation Program). projects both through Australian NGOs and A sexual health and STDs project will sup- National PNG NGOs. These projects will be port community based programs strengthen discussed in the final section. clinical services, train health workers and plan and implement HIV prevention and care edu- NZODA cation programs. The location of this project New Zealand Overseas Development Assis- is in the Highlands, Morobe, East New Brit- tance (NZODA, within the NZ Department of ain and NCD. Foreign Affairs) in PNG has a sectoral focus AusAID is implementing a gender specific on agriculture and forestry. In directly tar- education project titled 'Female participation geting women in these sectors the program in education, training and employment. There has included training awards and assistance is also a major gender component in the pri- for women's participation in conferences and mary and Secondary teacher education Project seminars, small scale equipment purchase which will employ a gender specialist for 9 and small agricultural marketing projects. months to work on issues of teacher training NZODA is working jointly with the Gov- and gender equity in the curriculum. emient of PNG on the National Women's Other education projects include: Institu- Credit Scheme. It is being piloted in 10 dis- tional strengthening for the Department of tricts of 8 provinces in the four years from Education: upgrading provincial high schools 1995-1998 at a cost of $2 million. It has been in Simbu, Western Highlands, New Ireland the first major credit project aiming at self and Manus: volunteer teacher support; el- employed women, and is aimed to extend to ementary teacher training; Australian spon- the remaining 12 provinces throughout PNG. sored training scholarships; Australian Other current programs run through Development Cooperation Scholarships; sec- NZODA include study scholarships for ter- ondary school students project; technical col- tiary students in PNG and a fresh food mar- lege course transfers, amongst others. Within keting program. the scholarship program AusAID identifies quotas for girls and women, although they Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) are not able to strictly reinforce this. It is of- The development cooperation program of the ten the case that the selections made in PNG FRG in Papua New Guinea has focussed on favor boys over girls. the sectoral areas of food security, rural de- AusAID is funding the LikLik Dinau Micro velopment, environmental protection, im- Credit Project for disadvantaged rural women. proved energy supply and population policy. AusAID is providing seed funding for a trial Throughout the program emphasis is given of this credit scheme. to women and the poorest sections of the Other major AusAID projects in transport population. and communications, renewable resources, law and justice, institution building, Gazelle Canadian University Service Organization Peninsular restoration and Bougainville res- (CUSO) toration, do not have major gender compo- CUSO has a history of involvement in gender nents, although all aim to integrate gender issues. In 1986 the CUSO Women's Advisory 77 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders Committee commissioned the CUSO Women advice for the integration of gender issues into in PNG Development Report and in 1991 it its current program. supported the printing of the National Women's Training Package. United States Agency of International CUSO has an office in Port Moresby from Development (USAID) which it runs its volunteer program and mi- The focus of the USAID program in PNG has cro projects. The national program for the been in the social sectors with the objective organization identifies education and health 'to promote and consolidate democracy and as major sectors of work. governance, population and family planning, promoting market principles, conservation US Peace Corps and environment, promoting peace to achieve As with the German Development Service and the stability essenlial for economic growth CUSO, the Peace Corps has been active in and political freedom, sustainable develop- recruiting volunteers for placements in the ment, protecting against transitional threats sectors of education and health in PNG. and meeting urgent human needs'. The Government of PNG and the US signed International Center for Ocean Development adevelopmentcooperationagreementin 1990. (ICOD) The yearly bilateral assistance is approxi- The ICOD contributed funding for the Women mately US$ 13 million. Major projects in the in Fisheries Project, discussed in the section bilateral program included child survival sup- on Department of Fisheries and Marine Re- port, malaria and immunology vaccine tri- sources. als, social marketing test project, family planning service expansion and technical sup- Japan International Cooperation Agency port project, the Pacific islands marine re- (JICA) sources project, and the Johns Hopkins Japan's ODA focuses mostly on economic University Project on strengthening reproduc- infrastructure (transport, energy, telecommu- tive health. In November 1993 the US Con- nications), social infrastructure (education, gress decided to close the Port Moresby Office health, water supply and sewerage, human in late 1994 with tlhe foreclosure of various resource development) and the productive projects listed above. Scholarship funding sector (agriculture, fisheries, industry, trade continued until 1996. and tourism). In 1994 a PNG-Japan high level consulta- European Union tion was held on development cooperation. European Union aid to PNG comes through This meeting reaffirmed the direction of Japa- agreements made under the Lome Conventions, nese assistance to focus in its technical co- of which PNG is a signatory. The PNG Govern- operation in basic needs in the social sector ment has consistently identified rural and hu- (support of rice and grain development by man resources development as principal sectors DAL), with OECF loans in infrastructure. for development assistance from the EU. JICA has recently commissioned a gender The European Union has also provided study to be undertaken in PNG to provide assistance for capital works in particular for building the Women's Center in Milne Bay. 78 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders WHO UNIFEM The World Health Organization focuses on The key areas of UNIFEM support over the health projects. Two of its projects are run past few years has been through: The Gen- jointly with UNFPA and the Department of der Mainstreaming project: a feasibility study Health. One is the technical assistance in in credit for self employed women; the Pacific maternal and child health and family plan- NGO preparations for the United Nations ning, and the other the strengthening of re- Fourth World Conference on Women; the productive health in East Sepik, Manus, Women in Politics program; training work- Central and Madang Provinces. shops, and; assisting Pacific NGO consulta- tions on Lome 2000. UNITED NATIONS AGENCIES UNIFEM has been active in mobilizing women in the Pacific region. particularly in United Nations Development bringing together women for training. The Programme UNIFEM mainstreaming project was trialed The United Nations Development Program in the Pacific with PNG as one of the 4 pilot commissioned a review of WID policy issues countries. Handbooks were developed for in PNG (1993) as a part of the Fifth Country planners, community workers and trainers Program preparation exercise. in gender sensitization and planning. Addi- The sectors which were identified for WID tional funding for the project in PNG has been recommendations from this report were ag- provided from Australia. This has lead to PNG riculture, fisheries and marine resources, and specific training manuals developed from the central government agencies including the De- National Planning Office. partment of Finance and Planning (to set up The UNIFEM regional office in Fiji, and the a Population Planning and Coordination Unit), South Pacific Commission Women's Desk, also and the Economic Policy Unit, Social Affairs acted a major focal points for Pacific prepa- Division and National Statistical Office to rations for the United Nations Fourth World provide sex disaggregated data. Conference on Women held in China in 1995. Under the terms of this program, the UNDP Women from PNG played an active role in is required to work with other donors in sup- Pacific preparations and were assisted fman- porting work to mainstream women's issues cially in this role through UNIFEM, as well as into all areas. the Australian International Women's Devel- The social and education sectors are the opment Agency and AusAID which acted as main areas of focus for UNDP. and its cur- the South Pacific lead donor for the region. rent projects impacting on women concen- UNIFEM, Pacific YWCA and the Fiji National trate on literacy and education programs for Council of Women have worked to establish girls and women. a Pacific NGO Post Beijing monitoring mecha- Although the UNDP had a full-time WID nism. Program Officer in the beginning of the 1990's this position was not continued. The UNDP UNFPA is about to funded a gender specialist for a UNFPA leads in the identification and imple- period of approximately 6 months to look at mentation of UN funded projects addressing gender specific work. issues related to women and girls in PNG. 79 Appendix 4: Profile of Major Stakeholders Projects currently being funded by UNFPA fit UNICEF into the health and education sectors. UNICEF has had a country office in Port Education projects include a 'Family Life Moresby for over a decade and has spent over Education' project being implemented through $1 million in WID related activities and pro- the Department of Home Affairs, and the grams including assisting small business population education project conducted groups, as well as programs in mother and through the Department of Education. The child health and education. most innovative project is the 'Gender Sensi- UNICEF is currently implementing a ma- tization through Role Models' project, which jor Child Survival Program, which is also is being implemented through the National funded through AusAID. This focuses on gov- Council of Women. This project involves fe- ernment and church based preventative male role models visiting schools, and the de- health services through the provision of mo- velopment of an education kit on gender bile health clinics and patrols and training equity. for health personnel. Other major aims of the The UNFPA is also working with the Uni- project center on an effort to eradicate and versity of PNG on health projects addressing decrease the polio virus, measles, vitamin A adolescent reproductive health. This involves deficiency, salt ionization, and increase the training for university students to become peer use of oral rehydration therapy. educators on sexuality issues. The 'Integra- tion of population factors into development United Nations High Commission for planning' is a project run jointly between Refugees (UNHCR) UNFPA, ILO and the National Planning Of- UNHCR has been active in programs for fice. This project focuses on the implementa- Bougainville and for refugees from Irian Jaya tion of the National Population Policy in the in settlement camps in Westera and West provinces. Sepik Provinces. As noted above, there are two health projectsbeingjointlyrunbytheUNFPA, DOH United Nations Educational Social and and WHO in the area of health. One is a tech- Cultural Organization (UNESCO) nical assistance project currently being com- Focusing in education, UNESCO has been pleted in maternal and child health, and the working jointly with the Women's Division in other is in reproductive health. DHA and the Curriculum Division of the De- A 'Tok Stret' radio project is also being partment of Education (DoE) on piloting a funded through the YWCA to provide infor- skills based literacy program for young girls mation on gender and adolescent sexuality and women in the Banz area of the Western issues. Highlands Province. 80 Appendix 5 Resource Persons LIST OF RESOURCE PERSONS IN PNG AND EXPERTS ON GENDER PLANNING AND ANALYSIS As part of the consuLtations on this report, a core Focus Group wasformed to assist in the identification of priorities and support the consultant team in thefield work and stakeholder discussions. Those members of the Focus Group are indicated in bold with an asterisk. GOVERNMENT PORT MORESBY Dame Josephine Abaijah Governor Milne Bay, Member of Parliament Hon. Bernard Naraokobi, MP Member of Parliament Dr Mila Gena Department of Home Affairs, Secretary Ms Josephine Gena Department of Home Affairs Ms Felicia Dobunaba Department of Personnel Management Mrs Molly Manukayasi* Head of Women's Division, Department of Home Affairs Ms Leonie Rakanangu Deputy Head, Women's Division, Department of Home Affairs Ms Cheryl Kelly Women's Division, Department of Home Affairs, Project Coordinator Family Life Education Project. Mrs Monica Sungu Women's Division, Department of Home Affairs, Specialist in women and fisheries Mrs Ruby Zarriga* National Planning Office, Principal Adviser Ms Edoa Veneo Department of Education, Coordinator Teacher Education Ms Tanai Kavana Department of Education, Superintendent Guidance Ms Marlene Tamaki Department of Works, Senior architect Ms Maura Gavan Department of Works, Draftsperson Mrs Patrina Dikin Crime Prevention Office, Police Officer Dr Hilda Polume Department of Health Ms Cecilia Kuman Department of Commerce and Industry Mrs Maria Lovaga Department of Labor and Employment Ms Theresa Siaguru Prime Ministers Department Ms Grace Dom Department of Foreign Affairs, Acting Head of Inter- national Treaties Section Mrs Majorie Andrews Department of Health 81 Appendix 5: Resource Persons NON GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS PORT MORESBY Mrs Susan Setae MBE* National Council of Women, President Ms Ume Wainetti* National Council of Women, General Secretary Mrs Hilan Los* ICRAF: Individual and Community Rights Advocacy Forum Inc, Women's Desk Hon. Peti Lafanama PNG Watch Council for Socio-economic justice, Member of Parliament,Governor of Eastern Highlands Ms Au Aruai Women in Politics Dame Rose Kekedo National YWCA of PNG, President Mrs Elaine Karvosso Girl Guides of PNG, Head Quarters Commissioner Mrs Elaine Alexander Country Women's Association, President Mrs Elizabeth Karava Bahai Women's Association, 'President Mrs Leontine Tamate Prime Minister's Personal Staff Ms Susan Haroe PNG Nurses Association, President Mr Taina Dai PNG Teachers Association, President Mrs Rose Mojica Philippines Women's Club, President Mrs Ann Barnabas Catholic Women's Federation, Vice President Mrs Gwen Tulo PNG Council of Churches Mrs Helen Pilon PNG Trust Mrs Ruta Sinclair Lifeline, Specialist in women in prostitution and maternity services Mrs Anne Kerepia YWCA, NCW Mrs Tau Malaga Mea United Church Women's Fellowship Mrs Harietta Jack BDA DORCAS PROVINCIAL Mrs Enny Moaitz National Council of Women, Momase Vice President Mrs Rita Ramu Sugar Women's Association, Lae, Morobe Ms Gayle Carrick Soroptimist International, President, Lae, Morobe Mrs Joyce Samuhulal Unitech Women's Association, President, Lae Mrs Maureen Ambo Anglican Mothers Union, President, Popondetta, Oro Ms Joy Numki Wamsa YWCA, Tabubil, Western Province Sister Yvonne Taiwai East Sepik Council of Women Wewak, East Sepik Ms Anna Pianga Female Students Association UNITECH, Lae, Morobe Ms Linda Passingan ENBSEK, Rabaul, East New Britain Ms Josie Pandakusi Evangelical Alliance National Women's Coordinator, Wewak, East Sepik Mrs Agnes Titus Bougainville Transitional Government Mr Simon Passingan East New Britain Social Action Committee (ENBSAK) Rabaul 82 Appendix 5: Resource Persons Ms Sarah Garap* Simbu Women's Resource Centre Ms Monica Power East Sepik Council of Women Mr Gabriel Molok East Sepik Local Environment Foundation Ms Anna Maben Goroka, YWCA Ms Miriam Layton Save the Children's Fund, Goroka, Eastern Highlands Mrs Diane Niangi Wanchef Women's Association, Lae Mrs Rita Tavatuna Sporoptomists, Lae PRESIDENTS OF PROVINCIAL COUNCILS OF WOMEN (PCW) Highlands Region Mrs Paula Paka Mek Mount Hagen, Western Highlands PCW Mrs Roselyn Kua Kundiawa, Simbu PCW Mrs Racheal Okpio Mendi, Southern Highlands PCW Mrs Julie Soso Goroka, Eastern Highlands PCW Ms Scholla Waria Wabag, Enga PCW Momase Region Mrs Eneka Gath Lae, Morobe PCW Mrs Regina Kambe Madang, Madang PCW Mrs Eva Waramapi Wewak, East Sepik PCW Mrs Leon Ramram Sandaun. West Sepik PCW Papua Region Mrs Taboro Morea Central, PCW Mrs Didi Nipuega Alotau, Milne Bay PCW Mrs Tete Keko Kerema, Gulf PCW Mrs Maureen Apini Daru, Western PCW Mrs Olive Bunari Popondetta, Oro PCW Mrs Kathy Tani NCD PCW Islands Region Mrs Patrenila Pake Kimbe, West New Britain PCW Mrs Nahua Rooney Lorengau. Manus PCW Mrs Kivung Esau Rabaul, East New Britain PCW Mrs Daisy Baitman Kavieng, New Ireland PCW Mrs Theresa Jaingong Bougainvifle PCW 83 Appendix 5: Resource Persons DONOR ORGANIZATIONS PORT MORESBY Ms Margaret O'Callaghan* UNFPA Country Representative (departing end of 1997) Ms Miriam Midire* UNFPA National Program Officer Mrs Kathy Lepani UNDP Program Officer Lady Mina Siaguru UNDP Program Officer PROVINCIAL Ms Elizabeth Cox Save the Children's Fund New Zealand Wewak, East Sepik PRIVATE SECTOR PORT MORESBY Ms Margaret Daure The National newspaper, Women's Editor Ms Ruth Waram Post Courier, Business columnist Mrs Nora Brash Tanorama Consultants Mrs Winifred Abaijah Web Books Ms Dorothy Tekwie* Private Consultant Mrs Majorie Andrew Private Consultant Ms Anne Chikali-Westcott Private consultant, UPNG graduate Mrs Jospeha Kanawi Lawyer PROVINCIAL Ms Kellie Amos Paradise Arts and Handicrafts President, Women in Business Ass Inc., Kimbe, West New Britain. Ms Lydia Garua Gah* Business and Professional Women, Businesswoman, PO Box 277 Kimbe, West New Britain ACADEMICS PORT MORESBY: Mrs Betty Lovai* University Papua New Guinea Dr Anne Dickson Waiko* History Department, University Papua New Guinea (also executive member of the National Council of Women) Mrs Aileen Natera Teaches at UPNG in social work Ms Ann Dickson Currently completing PhD on National Council of Women, Lectures at UPNG on Gender and Development 84 Appendix 5: Resource Persons OTHER INDIVIDUALS PORT MORESBY Ms Anne Ryan* Deputy Principal, Port Moresby National High School Ms Ruth Dom Welfare Officer/ family counseller UPNG Ms Maria Kopkop Bambi Childcare 85 Appendix 6 Annotated Bibiliography AGRICULTURE Adamson, E; Fett, L; Huntsman, A, and Scarlett, G. 1984 (West Nakanai Oil Palm Scheme, Papua New Guinea: Social, Economic and Environnmental Aspects.) Environmental Report No. 20. Melbourne: Graduate School of Envirornmental Science, Monash Uniiversity. Case study of oil palm workers in West New Britain. Discusses differential gender implications of labour. Provides useful statistical comparisons. Allen, 13J and Bourke, R.M. "Poverty Assessment: Papua New Guinea: In-depth Description of Six Agricultural Systems," draft working papers, World Bank Poverty Assessment Project 1996-1997. In PNG, unlike most developing countries, higher cash incomes have not been reflected in increased nutritional status. The relationships between low cash incomes and malnutrition and underdevelopment are found to be complex, but gender does not form part of this analysis. Barnes, Helen, n.d. "Women in Highlands Agricultural Production" in Donald Denoon and Catherine Snowden, eds, A Time to Plant and a Tirme to Uproot:' A History of Agriculture in Papua New Guinea, Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, Port Moresby. A survey of women in the change from subsistence to plantation and then commercial agriculture. Dwyer, P.D. and Minnegal, M. 1994 "Sago Palms and Variable Garden Yields: A Case Study from Papua New Guinea," Man and Culture in Oceania, No. 10, pp. 81-102. Technical case study of labour on sago palm plantations. Good outline of gender differentials in work allocations. Fairbairn-Dunlop, Peggy 1994 "Mother, Farmer, Trader, Weaver: Juggling Roles in Pacific Agriculture" in'Atu Emberson-Bain 1994 (ed) Sustainable Development or Malignant Growth? Perspectives of Pacif ic Island Women, Marama Publications, Suva. Pacific women play an important and increasingly significant role in agriculture, but their access to agricultural training and resources is limited. Women are also involved in trading for cash both within and outside their communities. In some Pacific cultures they weave the walls of buildings, the mats for the floor as well as smaller items like baskets and bags. Hide, R. L. 1981 "Aspects ofPig Production and Use in Colonial Sinasina, Papua NewGuinea." PhD thesis. New York: Columbia University. Thesis on pig production, addresses issues of gender in pig ownership and work. 87 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Kasaiwabi, EbiTeddy, 1977 'Training ofWomen inAgriculture," in B.A.C. Enyi and T. Varghese, eds, Agriculture in the Tropics (Tenth Waigani Seminar), University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby. Describes agricultural training programs for graduate women and identifies eight recommendations. Kelly, R. C. 1993 Constructing Inequality: The Fabrication of a Hierarchy of Virtue among the Etoro. Michigan: Ann Arbor. Includes a case study of gendered labour in an agricultural context. Rooney, Nahau, 1994 "Logging Our Heritage" in 'Atu Emberson-Bain 1994 (ed) Sustainable Devel- opment or Malignant Growth? Perspectives of Pacific Island Women, Marama Publications, Suva. Observes the breakdown of subsistence agriculture as logging operations encroach near villages, men join the paid work-force, girls may be enticed into prostitution, water quality is affected and mosquito breeding sites increase. When operations end, with likelihood that recovery of forests will take hundreds of years, communi- ties have difficulty adjusting. Samana, Fungke Z, 1989 "Participation in a Subsistence Agriculture Improvement Programme, Morobe Provincial Government, Papua New Guinea" in Vanessa Griffen, 1989 (ed) Women, De- velopment and Empowerment - A Pacific Feminist Perspective, Report of the Pacific Women's Work- shop, Naboutini, Fiji, 23-26 March, 1987. Asian and Pacific Development Centre, Kuala Lumpur. Morobe Provincial Council of Women withdrew from National Council of Women in 1979. Subsistence Agriculture Improvement Programme integrates all stages of the food production, processing and marketing as self-employment, thus providing food for subsistence cash. Sagir, Bill F. 1994 "Gender and Forestry Development in Wasab Village, Madang Province," in Research in Melanesia, Vol 18, pp 93-109. In a context where so little is known about the social impacts of large scale logging operations in PNG, our knowledge about their impact on women is minimal. In Wasab, women's situation has not been improved by forestry activities. Samana, Fungke Z. 1986 "Subsistence Agriculture in Papua New Guinea; Future Develop- ment for Women," in Nesbitt, June, 1986 ed. What Women Say; Development in the Pacific, Australian Council for Overseas Aid, Canberra. Discussion of traditional roles and projects strategies for women in commercial and cash economy agriculture. 88 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Sillitoe, P. 1985 "Divide and No-one Rules: The Implications of Sexual Divisions of Labour in the Papua New Guinea Highlands," Man No. 20, pp. 494-522. Highlands study of labour detailing case studies in agriculture. Good outline of major issues with substantial statistical data. Slatter, Claire 1984 "Women's Roles in South Pacific Agriculture - A Preliminary Partial List of Organizations, Projects, Conferences and Contacts," Transnational,Knowledge Utilization Project, Institute of Culture and Communication, East-West Center, Honolulu. Identifies individuals, agencies and organisations involved with women and rural development in several Pacific countries, including PNG. Slatter, Claire 1984 "Women's Roles in South Pacific Agriculture - Traditional, Transitional and Modem Roles of Women with Specific Focus on Papua New Guinea, Fiji, West Samoa and Tonga." Transnational Knowledge Utilization Project, Institute of Culture and Communica- tion, East-West Center, Honolulu. Melanesian women are the principal agriculturalists but plantation agriculture recruited men as temporary indentured labourers, leaving women in villages to maintain village life. This set up a conceptual dichotomy between men as economic producers and women as uneconomic subsistence gardeners. Few PNG projects are geared towards women's needs as agriculturalists. Stephens, Alexandra 1991 "Papua New Guinea: Gender Roles and Agricultural Education," in Agricultural Information Development Bulletin, Vol 13, No 3, September 1991, pp 12-14. The innovative 'Rural Life Development' curriculum in PNG's agricultural colleges, geared towards women as the traditional agriculturalists, is considered by the author to have changed the way some key men and women make decisions. Suda, K. 1994 "Methods and Problems in Time Allocation Studies," Anthropological Science, Vol. 1, No. 102, pp. 13-22. This article outlines many of the problems associated with time allocation studies including the inaccuracy of estimates, lack of quantification of women's work, and variation in measurement tools. Thomas, Pamela and Hill, Helen 1987 "Major Issues in Non-formal Education in the South Pacific" in C.D. Throsby, 1987. Human Resources Development in the Pacfic, Pacific Policy Papers No 3, NCDS, ANU, Canberra. Agricultural training for male school-leavers is the major type of non-formal education, and provides inadequately for women who are used, instrumentally, to improve health and nutrition. Women's participation is restricted by time, location and children. Small-scale village programs proposed. 89 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography CHURCHES Forman, Charles W. 1984 "Sing to the Lord a New Song: Women in -the Churches of Oceania" in Denise O'Brien and Sharon W. Tiffany (eds) 1984. Rethinking Women's Roles - Perspectives from the Pacific, University of California Press. Charts the changes in women's role in Pacific churches from the 1960s to the 1970s and notes that all-female groups started by the wives of male missionaries were the first local organisations for church women, later developing into national organisations in the churches which gradually became indigenised. The increase of women's involvement reflect worldwide forces and global patterns. Gostin, Olga 1986 Cash Cropping, Catholicism and Change - Resettlement among the Kuni of Papua, Pacific Research Monograph 14, NCDS, ANU, Canberra. The effects of resettlement and Catholicism on Kuni culture due to resettlement by Catholic missionaries is found to have changed the former balance between payment of bride-wealth, residential patterns and descent. CREDIT Brown, Bungtabu 1987 "Women in Business in Papua New Guinea" in Susan Stratigos and Philip J.Hughes (eds) 1987. The Ethics of Development: Women as Unequal Partners in Devel- opment, Volume 3 in The Ethics of Development, Workshop proceedings of the 17th Waigani Seminar, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Banking policies on lending and labour and employment laws favour males. Requests government to set clear guidelines for women's participation in develop- ment and remove discriminatory polices to enable women to move beyond the margins of business. Department of Home Affairs 1996 Papua New Guinea Women's Credit Project, Capital Fund and Training Component - requestfor training and seed money_funding by World Bank. Development of this proposal began in the 1970s in response to lack of access to credit for women at commercial banks. Implementation is by Community-Based Women's Organisations. Department of Home Affairs 1996 Papua New Guinea Women's Credit Project, Training Compo- nent - request for Training Funds to World Bank. This incorporates the Training Document produced after Training Needs Research. The loan facility is directed at mothers and skills at management are considered necessary to ensure repayment. Finch, John 1992 "Women Work Harder Than Men" in Cultural Survival Quarterly, Winter 1992, pp 44-46. 90 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Women in the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea play major roles in the local economy, but not beyond it. They are highly successful in credit and saving schemes due, Finch believes, to their primary identification as women. He recommends that PNG deliver on its expressed commitment to enhancing women's participation at all levels. Hailey, John M. 1987 Entrepreneurs and Indigenous Business in the Pacific, Research Report Series No 9, East-West Center, Hawaii. Women form a significant minority of Pacific entrepreneurs, and most have responsibilities as wives and mothers and members of their village community as well. Lack of political power is a major constraint upon their participation. Kuman, Cecilia and Ponong, Ehzabeth 1987 "Women and Banking Policy" in Susan Stratgios and Philip J.Hughes (eds) 1987. The Ethics of Development: Women as Unequal Partners in Development, Vol 3 in The Ethics of Development, Workshop Proceedings of the 17th Waigani Seminar, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. It is difficult for PNG women to obtain financial assistance due to emphasis on collateral. Village-based banking policies should be changed to enable women to obtain loans. A bank for women, serviced and financed by institutions like the World Bank, could be negotiated by government. Sexton, Lorraine Dusak 1982 Customary and Corporate Models for Women's Development Organizations, LASER Discussion Paper 41, Institute of Applied Social and Economic Re- search. Port Moresby. Assesses the types of associations that help rural women of PNG to participate more fully in development. Concentrates on two multivillage organisations - Wok Meri and the Goroka Women's Investment Corporation. Sexton, Lorraine 1984 "Pigs, Pearlshells, and Women's Work: Collective Response to Change in Highland Papua New Guinea" in Denise O'Brien and Sharon W. Tiffany (eds) 1984. Rethink- ing Women's Roles - Perspectivesfrom the Pacific, University of California Press. Describes the Wok Meri group in which women have established quasi-Western banks and a series of exchanges patterned after customary transactions initiated by marriage. By investing their capital in business ventures, women increase their participation in both modern and traditional sectors of the economy. Sexton, Lorraine 1986 Mothers of Money, Daughters of Coffee - The Wok Merl Movement, UMI Research Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Women in Highland New Guinea have responded collectively to events since 1930, when Australian gold prospectors first walked into the mountains. Since 1960 women in the eastern end of the Highlands have developed a savings and exchange system called Wok Meri (women's work). This is an effort by women to 91 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography enhance their rights to property and to set up a system by which they can gain status. They establish joint enterprises and take on the public role in ritualised transactions patterned on traditional exchanges. Tengdui, Mary and Rakanangu, Leonie 1996 "Women's Credit Project: Operations Manual," PNG Department of Home Affairs. The National Women's Credit Project, instituted in 1991, is seen by the PNG government as a 'tool to empower' women to gain financial independence. It is targeted towards women as trainers of children and controller of the family finances. The project's main component is institutional capacity building of District Women's Associations and entrepreneurial development programs through training. The major concern is to create employment among women and their immediate families by lending funds to Women's Associations to lend to individual women, providing them with training, marketing and management assistance. Warry, Wayne 1985 "Politics of a New Order: The Kafaina Movement" in Maeve O'Collins et al 1985. Women in Politics in Papua New Guinea, Working Paper No 6, Department of Political and Social Change, RSPAS, ANU, Canberra. Kafaina is also known as Wok Meri, a social, economic and political movement created and controlled by women which began in Chauve in early 1960s. The women save and lend money to start small businesses, at this point, managed by men. By working in groups, women gain control over resources and can assert political identity in their village. CULTURE and ETHNOGRAPHY Bolton, Lissant, 1994 "Bifo Yumi Ting Se Samting Nating; The Women's Culture Project at the Vanuatu Cultural Centre," in Lamont Lindstrom and Geoff White, eds. Culture-Kastom-Tradi- tion. Developing Cultural Policy in Melanesia, East-West Centre, Honolulu. Description of the Women's Culture Project (WCP) and particular emphasis on the recording, promotion and revival of women's custom in Vanuatu. Dickerson-Putman, Jeanette 1986 "Finding a Road in the Modern World: The Differential Effects of Culture Change and Development on the Men and Women of an Eastern Highlands Papua New Guinea Community," Ph D thesis, UMI Dissertation Information Service. Development transformed residents of Eastern Highlands into peasants and this local level analysis supports the assumption that the unintended effects of change and development result from the failures of governments and individuals to understand or consider in policy-making the traditional cultural systems of target groups. 92 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Dickerson-Putman, Jeanette 1992 "Women, Development and Stratification in the Eastern High- lands Province of Papua New Guinea" in Human Organization, Vol 51, No 2. 1992 pp 109-12 1. By examining how choices and opportunities of women in this community in PNG are shaped by pre-contact systems of age and gender construction, the author concludes that the first step in the development of women is to focus on the creation of ties among women across ages. Goodale, Jane C. 1995 To Sing with Pigs is Human - The Concept of Person in Papua New Guinea, University of Washington Press, Seattle. Based on fieldwork in Umbi in Kandrian district of southwestern New Britain. Attempts to describe the Kaulong people's culture through their concept of the place of humanity in the world they have constructed. Gostin, Olga 1986 Cash Cropping, Catholicism and Change - Resettlement among the Kuni of Papua, Pacific Research Monograph 14, NCDS, ANU, Canberra. The effects of resettlement and Catholicism on Kuni culture due to resettlement by Catholic missionaries is found to have changed the former balance between payment of bride-wealth, residential patterns and descent. Knauft, Bruce M. 1989 "Bodily Images in Melanesia: Cultural Substances and Natural Meta- phors" in Michel Feher et al (eds) 1989 Zone 5: Fragments for a History of the Human Body, Urzone, NY. This article attempts to describe aspects of bodily imagery and practices in PNG, considers concepts of gender, conception and birth, indicating similarities and diversities of beliefs of various groups, and concludes that cultural notions of gender vary in PNG. Lutkehaus, Nancy C. and Paul B. Roscoe 1995 GenderRituals - FemaleInitiation inMelanesia, Routledge, New York. This volume expands the knowledge of female initiation practices in PNG. Some (Townsend, Lutkehaus and Sexton) describe the female body as a metaphor for aspects of the social body. Lutkehaus asserts that initiation practices reveal the differences in gendered forms of power. Mantovani, Ennio 1993 "The Child and Melanesian Values" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 2, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Argues that children represent value in Melanesian communities, a constancy which remains within modernisation, based on research results and data from the Melanesian Institute of Marriage and Family Life in Melanesia. Notes that education, involvement in paid work, youthfulness and urbanisation are factors which decrease reliance upon childbearing for social status. 93 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Marshall, L.B. (ed) 1985 Infant Care and Feeding in the South Pacific, Gordon and Breach Science. Presents a series of anthropological reports focusing on culture and feeding practices in Pacific Island nations, including PNG. Looks at nutrition from a paediatrician's viewpoint, at the effect of women's work and the contributions of anthropology and development research. Mydans, Seth 1997 "When the Bartered Bride Opts Out of the Bargain," New York Times May 6, 1997. Describes the repercussions of a PNG woman's refusal to be bought with pigs as a bride. Nash, Jill 1984 "Women, Work and Change in Nagovisi" in Denise O'Brien and Sharon W. Tiffany (eds) 1984. Rethinking Women's Roles - Perspectives from the Pacifc, University of California Press, Berkeley. Looks at the matrilineal society of the Nagovisi people of Bougainville and concludes that Western innovations have strengthened matrilineal institutions. O'Brien, Denise 1984 "Women Never Hunt: The Portrayal of Women in Melanesian Ethnogra- phy" in Denise O'Brien and Sharon W. Tiffany (eds) 1984 Rethinking Women's Roles - Perspec- tives from the Pacific, University of California Press, Berkeley. After surveying the ethnographic published literature the author concludes that women's economic roles are ignored while their role as mother is emphasised. Women ethnographers are attempting to redress that balance. Preston, Rosemary and Wormald, Eileen 1987 "Culture, Ideology and the Subordination of Women in Transitional Society" in Susan Stratigos and Philip J. Hughes (eds) 1987. The Ethics of Development: Women as Unequal Partners in Development, Volume 3 in The Ethics of Development, Workshop Proceedings of the 17th Waigani Seminar, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. It is argued that the ideology of development reduces the status and dynamism of traditional indigenous culture, which, though rooted in gender inequality, gave women an important sphere of influence. Development has fostered further subordination of women's role through the shift away from subsistence agricul- ture. The ethics of promoting policies for national development which cannot be fulfilled because of the processes of development need questioning. Pulla, Venkat Rao (ed), 1996 The Family: Asia Pacific Perspectives, Northern Territory Univer- sity, Australia. A compendium of conference papers on issues relating to families in the Asia Pacific Region (Centre for Southeast Asian Studies). 94 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Strathern. Marilyn, 1988 "The Gender of the Gift: Problems with Women and Problems with Society in Melanesia," Book Review Forum. in Pacific Studies, Vol 15, No 1, 1992. Dialogue between commentators and the author over the approach taken to identifying women's role in reciprocity, exchange and production. DONORS Asian Development Bank Asian Development Bank 1992 "Report on Technical Assistance to the Independent State of Papua New Guinea for Institutional Strengthening of the Women's Division of the Department of Home Affairs and Youth," ADB. Philippines, December 1992. Asian Development Bank report on technical assistance for institutional strength- ening of the women's division. Details the objectives, scope and implementation. Appendices include listings of other donor assistance in PNG and roles of government and aid agencies in women in development Schoeffel-Meleisea, Penelope 1987 "Women in Development: Papua New Guinea," Country Briefing Paper, December 1987 Asian Development Bank, Programs Department (East). Written to brief ADB staff and consultants, providing a general description of the economic and social position of women in PNG. AusAID Australian Agency for International Development 1996 "Profile of Activities -Australia - Papua New Guinea Development Cooperation Program" August 1996. Lists the activities AusAID is supporting in PNG as well as examples of projects undertaken. Australian International Development Assistance Bureau 1993, "Women in Development in Papua New Guinea Sector Program Development," Briefing for PNG Sector Working Groups, March 1993. The briefing paper provides policy context for the integration of women in development in the PNG program, relevant lessons learned in programming and project design, information on women's roles in each sector and constraints to fuller participation, and suggested action for teams during the programming mission. Australian Agency for International Development 1996 "Report on Gender and Development Workshops," Port Moresby, PNG. 25 - 28 March 1996 (prepared by International Develop- ment Support Services Pty Ltd). The workshops were designed to assist participants to examine AusAID and GoPNG policies with respect to gender and development: assess achievement levels with respect to the application of key policy initiatives in AusAID funded projects; 95 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography analyse and discuss techniques and strategies for overcoming specific constraints; and develop an improved understanding of effective approaches to gender equal project design and implementation. United Nations United Nations Children's Fund 1996 "Children, Women and Families in Papua New Guinea - A Situation Analysis," UNICEF, PNG October 1996, Port Moresby. A comprehensive profile of children and women in PNG; identifies and analyses trends and issues with direct significance for development policies and programs. Disease and malnutrition are immediate causes of infant and maternal mortality; underlying causes are lack of resources at the household level, behaviours, practices and poor access to basic health services. Basic causes are structural and due to economic and social factors. United Nations Development Programme 1991 "Papua New Guinea: Women in Development - Presentation of Priorities and List of Indicative Projects," May 1991, Port Moresby. Describes national government structure and mechanisms for WID, but finds a lack of recognition and awareness of women's contribution to development and the technical expertise at government level to integrate women into the mainstream of development planning and programs. A number of initiatives are proposed at the institutional and program level in education, literacy and training, agriculture and fisheries, industry and business, health and family planning and NGOs. ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION Adamson, E., Fett, L., Huntsman, A., and Scarlett, G. 1984 West Nakanai Oil PalTn Scheme, Papua New Guinea Social, Economic and Environmental Aspects. Environmental Report No. 20. Melbourne: Graduate School of Environmental Science, Monash University. Case study of oil palm workers in West New Britain. Discusses differential gender implications of labour. Provides useful statistical comparisons. Brown, Bungtabu 1987 "Women in Business in Papua New Guinea" in Susan Stratigos and Philip J. Hughes (eds) 1987 The Ethics of Development: Women as Unequal Partners in Devel- opment, Volume 3 in The Ethics of Development, Workshop Proceedings of the 17th Waigani Seminar, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Banking policies on lending and labour and employment laws favour males. Requests government to set clear guidelines for women's participation in develop- ment and remove discriminatory polices to enable women to move beyond the margins of business. Cleland, Rachel 1996 Grass Roots to Independence and Beyond: The Contribution by Women to Papua New Guinea 1951-1991, Dame Rachel Cleland, Claremont, Australia. 96 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography An insight into the life and times of women in a developing territory. Case studies of various women's NGOs including the girl guides and the YWCA. Also profiles individual women and the pioneering work they have done in various fields. Cox, Elizabeth 1987 "Women in Rural Resettlement Schemes - Institutionalised Gender Bias and Informal Gender Abuses" in Susan Stratigos and Philip J. Hughes (eds) 1987. The Ethics of Development: Women as Unequal Partners in Development, Volume 3 in The Ethics of Devel- opment, Workshop Proceedings of the 17th Waigani Seminar, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Resettlement programs, being planned, offer great scope to redress the balance of male biases in the general development process, yet the situation for women is usually worsened. Women's work is invisible to planners and previous studies either indicate a lack of data or provide no empirical evidence. Cox's study of women in the Gavien Rubber Settlement Scheme provides empirical evidence of systematic gender bias. Cox, Elizabeth and Aitsi, Louise 1988 "Papua New Guinea" in Taiamoni Tongamoa (ed) 1988 Pacific Women: Roles and Status of Women in Pacific Societies, UPNG. Port Moresby. A succinct outline of women's status and roles in PNG over a wide range of issues with the general observation that women's contribution to development continues to be overlooked. ESCAP 1982 "Report of the Pilot Project Planning Workshop on Improving the Socioeconomic Condition of Women in Fisheries," 22-26 November 1982, Suva. Reviews the progress of the project and the impact of development on women in developing countries. Presents the findings of the surveys on women's contribu- tion to income in small fishing communities, and outlines income-generating projects for women. Fahey, Stephanie 1985 "Producers or Consumers? Women's Entry into the Cash Economy in Madang, Papua New Guinea" in Women in Development in the South Pacific, Barriers and Opportunities. published report of the Conference on Women in Development in the South Pacific, 11-14 August 1984, Port Vila, Australian National University. Discusses the origins and consequences of low female participation in the cash economy of Madang region. Problems facing women are discussed in three sections: traditions in the pre-colonial socioeconomic system; the problems arising in the colonial period; and contemporary barriers. Fairbairn-Dunlop, Peggy 1997 "Gender, Culture and Sustainable Development," a paper de- livered at the UNESCO Conference on Culture and Sustainable Development, Suva, 1997. Discussion of work, models of development and women's role in economic development. 97 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Goodman, R, Lepani, K. and Morawetz, D. 1985 "The Economy of Papua New Guinea: An Independent Review," Pacific Policy Paper, Development Studies Centre, ANU. Presents an overview of progress and problems in PNG since independence in 1975. Assesses general economic policies, looks at the principal economic and social sectors. Considers the under-representation of women in public life and government departments, in education and training. Goodwillie, Diane and Lechte, Ruth 1985 'Women and Development Programmes in the Pa- cific Islands" in Peter King, Wendy Lee and Vincent Waraki (eds) 1985 From Rhetoric to Real- ity? Papua New Guinea's Eight Point Plan and National Goals after a Decade, UPNG, Port Moresby. Attempts to provide an overview of what is happening for and with women in the Pacific. The first SPC conference on The Role of Women in Development in the South Pacific had only two women among 200 delegates while women silently demonstrated outside. Describes government and NGO programs for women but concludes that these advance their proponents' agendas and not the needs of women, for whom reverse discrimination is needed. Hailey, John M. 1987 Entrepreneurs and Indigenous Business in the Pacific, Research Report Series No 9, East-West Center, Hawaii. Women form a significant minority of Pacific entrepreneurs, and most have responsibilities as wives and mothers and members of their village community as well. Lack of political power is a major constraint upon their participation. Hetler, Carol B. and Khoo, Siew-Ean 1987 Women's Participation in the South Pacfic Econo- mies, Islands/Australian Working Papers No 87/4, National Center for Development Studies (NCDS), ANU, Canberra. Data suggest that while most South Pacific women are active in traditional economies, they have little access to waged employment due to slow economic growth and their lack of education and vocational skills. PNG has the lowest rate of women's participation at 5%, reflecting the high proportion of rural population. Hetler, Carol B. and Khoo, Siew-Ean 1987 "Women's Participation in the South Pacific Econo- mies" in C.D. Throsby 1987 Human Resources Development in the Pacfic, Pacific Policy Papers No 3, NCDS, ANU, Canberra. Assesses women's participation in South Pacific economies and the factors which affect it. Policy options are discussed to improve their economic status. The authors recommend a rapid improvement in education and training, establish- ment of women's legal rights to land and collateral for credit and full integration of women into commercial enterprises at all levels. 98 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Heyzer, Noeleen and Sen, Gita (eds) 1994 Gender, Economic Growth and Poverty Market Growth and State Planning in Asia and the Pacific, Kali for Women, International Books and Asian and Pacific Development Centre, New Delhi. Provides an overview from a gender perspective of issues and experiences related to market economies in Pacific Island and Asian countries, and presents a series of country case studies, including one on gender sensitive approaches to poverty in PNG (see Cox 1994). Heyzer, Noeleen 1989 "Critical Appraisal of the Idea of Using Projects as Strategies for the Advancement of Women" in Vanessa Griffen (ed) 1989 Women, Development and Empower- ment - A Pacfic Feminist Perspective, Report of the Pacific Women's Workshop, Naboutini, Fiji, 23-26 March 1987, Asian and Pacific Development Centre. Kuala Lumpur. Need for projects to be set in context of women's participation in social and economic structures. Considers income generating projects to utilise women's (cheap) labour in manufacturing and agriculture; pilot projects are limited: water supply and other infrastructure is provided without consultation; programs focus on women as mothers; credit programs were more likely to be successful if women's needs are reflected in design. Hogan, Evelyn 1985 "Controlling the Bodies of Women: Reading Gender Ideologies in Papua New Guinea" in Maev O'Collins et al 1985 Women in Politics in Papua New Guinea Working Paper No 6, Department of Political and Social Change, ANU, Canberra. In PNG, man's definition of himself as independent is tied up with his difference from women. Considers three debates on policing of women's roles to show some of the characteristics of structured inequality which accompany women's participation in modern waged labour force. International Centre for Ocean Development and South Pacific Commission 1989 "Report on Papua Regional Women's Workshop on Fish Processing and Marketing," Port Moresby, Sep- tember4-15, 1989. Recognition of important role played by women in fisheries: training in techniques of processing, marketing, administration and development of pilot projects. Josephides, Lisette 1985 The Production ofInequality - Gender and Exchange among the Kewa, Tavistock, London. Attempts to locate the sources of inequality and to understand how they are engendered and perpetuated within social practice through an examination of production, exchange and gender relations and the way they are socially validated among the Kewa people of the New Guinea Highlands. The author concludes that increased participation in the cash economy will increase inequalities and establish new status groups. 99 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Litau, Jennifer 1993 "Uneven Development and Migration in Papua New Guinea: Implications of 1980 Interprovincial Flows" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 1, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Migration viewed in context of larger socioeconomic changes; policy a strong influence, and a need to 'balance' migration and economic investments is proposed; extended family and wantok system directly influence migration flow and direction. Young men are the groups most mobile, with flow-on effects to the women and children in their families. Ojuka, Onedo 1994 "Market Women Entrepreneurs and Social Innovation: Examples from Papua New Guinea" in Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Change, Vol 3, No 3, 1994. This article considers the participation of women, otherwise involved in full-time domestic duties, in market activities, leading to them save money as social insurance. Some of these women are now full-time business people. "Papua New Guinea Recent Economic Developments and Medium-term Prospects," The World Bank, Prepared for Consultative Group Meeting, Singapore, September 26-27, 1995. Looks at economic development in recent years, the reform agenda and 1996 budget stance, private sector development and supply response, restructuring the public sector, medium-term prospects, external financing requirements and improving implementation and aid coordination. Ritterbush, S. Deacon and Pearson, Janice 1988 "Pacific Women in Business: Constraints and Opportunities" in Te'o I. J. Fairburn 1988 Island Entrepreneurs - Problems and Perfor- mances in the Pacific, Pacific Islands Development Program. East-West Center. Women are still ignored in national development programs and encounter restraints in both policy-related and traditional spheres. Women with strong networks both in and outside their states, and those with supportive spouses, are more likely to succeed. Sagir, Bill F. 1994 "Gender and Forestry Development in Wasab Village, Madang Province," in Research in Melanesia, Vol 18, pp 93-109. In a context where so little is known about the social impacts of large scale logging operations in PNG, our knowledge about their impact on women is minimal. In Wasab, women's situation has not been improved by forestry activities. Schoeffel, Penelope 1983 "Women's Work and Development in the South Pacific" in Lyn Melville, (ed) 1983 Women, Aid and Development - Proceedings of a Workshop Co-sponsored by ACFOA, Development Studies Centre of ANU, Women and Development Network of Australia (WADNA). Melanesian women do 80% of all the work and 60% of this is agriculture. Reports on Slatter's work in 1982 found that PNG women want more emphasis on 100 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography community development, business development, leadership skills and skills to make groups work better. Dependency on cash cropping leads to fluctuating incomes. Schoeffel-Meleisea, Penelope 1985 "Women's Clubs and the Sexual Division of Labour in East New Britain and Western Samoa: Development or Marginalisation?" in Peter King, Wendy Lee and Vincent Warakai (eds) 1985 From Rhetoric to Reality? Papua New Guinea's Eight Point Plan and National Goals after a Decade, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Women's associations in (Western) Samoa are more customary than among the Tolai of East New Britain. Observes that women have been adversely affected by development in both countries where programs emphasise their unpaid work, or try to involve them in agriculture for cash, while their children are malnourished (Maprik, East Sepik Province). South Pacific Commission 1994 "Gender Sensitisation Workshop Notes." Notes form a workshop run for SPC staff on gender analysis. Includes marine resource case study. Strathern, Marilyn, 1972 "Women in between; Female Roles in a Male World," London Classic now dated study of social power, political and economic roles political. Thomas, Pamela, et al. (eds) 1994 "Managing Resources in the South Pacific," special issue of Development Bulletin, Vol 31. Contains 28 short commentaries and essays on issues in the South Pacific, including three on PNG. UNESCO 1985 Women in Fisheries: Report on Socio-economic Surveys in Fji Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines. Bangkok, ESCAP, 1985. This publication aims at wider dissemination of the information gathered and the experience gained in the implementation of the project on "Improving the socio- economic condition of Women in Fisheries in Fiji, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines". It includes information on (a) traditional fisheries in the four participating countries, (b] the methodology adopted for the surveys, (c) the results of the surveys, and (d) the implementing of the pilot projects in the selected fishing communities of the participating countries. EDUCATION Avalos, Beatrice 1994 Women and Development in Papua New Guinea, Economic Division Working Papers, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, 1994. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of gender differentials in health, education, employment and participation in decisionmaking. It discusses current 101 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography initiatives to improve gender equity and women's participation in and benefit from development, and suggests possibilities for the future. Avalos, Beatrice 1995 "Women and Development" in Paciftc Economic Bulletin Vol 10, No 1, July 1995. The author concludes that the PNG approach to WID has been welfare, rather than equality oriented and in the light of gender differentials in health, education, employment and decision making, calls for renewed commitment from intellectu- als, senior public servants and politicians to remove injustice and provide women with the support 'owed to them'. Chapman, Deborah 1996 "Women's Literacy and Environmental Issues in Papua New Guinea" in HeatherWallace ted) 1996 Developing Alternatives - Community Development Strategies and Environmental Issues in the Paocfic, Victoria University of Technology, Melbourne. Material derived from Women's Training Centre in Goroka, adult non-formal; education and literacy project, run for and by women, based around local issues, including environment. Cox, Elizabeth and Daure, M. (eds) 1991 "Changes, Challenges and Choices: Women in Devel- opment in Papua New Guinea - Part 2: A Trainer's Handbook," The National Women's Train- ing Package on Women's Health, Changing Family Life and Participation in Development, Women's Division of the Department of Home Affairs and Youth. The book is for women's trainers, leaders, educators, communicators and other resource people to make the best and widest possible use of the book 'Issues and Information. Gannicott, K.G. 1987 Education in Papua New Guinea - A Case Study in Wasted Resources, Islands/Australian Working Paper No 87/9, NCDS, ANU. Uses rate of return analysis to assess economic payoff of investment in education in PNG. Social rates of return are found to be low at all levels by the standards of other developing countries while private returns are high. High costs and low achievements are the reasons. Gannicott, K.G. (ed) 1990 Education for Economic Development in the South Pacific, Pacific Policy Paper No 6, NCDS, ANU. This is a selection of articles which assesses Pacific education from the point of view of provision of appropriate workforce skills for economic development. It is argued that curricula are too 'academic', and that economic growth is promoted most effectively by school curricula emphasising mathematics and science Ganriicott, K.G. andAvalos, B. 1994 Women'sEducationandEconomicDevelopmentinMelanesia, Pacific 2010, Policy Paper 12, National Centre for Development Studies, Canberra. 102 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography At every level of education, women's participation is greatly below men's, except in nursing. Girls spend more time on home and market chores, especially in poor households. The idea that educating girls yields a higher rate of return than any other investment in developing countries is reiterated. Gibson, John 1996b Women's Education and Child Growth in Urban Papua New Guinea, Working Paper No 2, August 1996. Quantitative evidence is provided to support the claim of Gannicott and Avalos (1994) that investing in women's education has a high payoff in improved health, particularly of young children. These results are achieved through higher income, greater efficiency due to wider understanding of health and nutrition and through increasing women's say in household decision-making. Children are considered to gain height by one-half centimetre for each year of education completed by adults in the household, especially women. Johnson, Dianne D. 1985 "Women, Education and Bureaucratic Leadership" in Peter King, Wendy Lee and Vincent Waraki (eds) 1985 From Rhetoric to Reality?Papua New Guinea's Eight Point Plan and National Goals after a Decade, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Considers how changes in PNG's education system have affected women's participation in the upper levels of democracy. Notes that in 1970s, PNG govern- ment gave prominence to a talented group of Western-educated PNG women but will need to apply affirmative action to fulfil its promise of sexual equality in a regime of cutbacks to the bureaucracy. Mandie, Angela 1985 "The Role of an Educated Woman in Women's Organisations in Papua New Guinea" in Maev O'Collins et al 1985 Women in Politics in Papua New Guinea Working Paper No 6, Department of Political and Social Change, ANU. Canberra. The communication gap between women, especially old and young, is PNG women's main problem in working together. Educated women can bridge the gap and protect existing PNG women's organisations, eg National Council of Women. Martin, Naomi T. 1985 "Women's Education and Social Change" in Peter King, Wendy Lee and Vincent Warakai (eds) 1985 From Rhetoric to Reality? Papua New Guinea's Eight Point Plan and National Goals after a Decade. UPNG, Port Moresby. Education has potential to change society but modern education hasn't always benefited women, due to the low status and work done by rural women and girls. Women's Studies programs at tertiary level can provide information to planners about women's needs. Mathie. Alison and Cox, Elizabeth (eds) 1987 "New Directionsfor Women in Non-formal Educa- tion" Office of Women's Affairs and Ministry of Home Affairs and Youth, Waigani, PNG. 103 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography A broad coverage of issues relevant to women in the areas of work, technology, the media, education, violence and the law, health, community and formal politics and business. Prepared with the participation of over thirty women, this is a source book for use in women's informal education programs. Oliver, Joan A. 1987 "Women Students at the University of Papua New Guinea in 1985" in Susan Stratigos and Philip J. Hughes (eds) 1987 The Ethics of Development: Women as Un- equal Partners in Development, Volume 3 in The Ethics of Development, Workshop Proceed- ings of the 17th Waigani Seminar, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Describes the problems faced by women at UPNG and includes specific recommen- dations to give women a more equal position. Poole, Fitz John P., Herdt, Gilbert 1982 "Sexual Antagonism, Gender, and Social Change in Papua New Guinea," Journal of Cultural and Social Practice, Adelaide, December 1982. Although quite dated this contains seminal work in gender analysis in PNG from an anthropological perspective. The case studies investigate gender relations in specific contexts, however it is one of the first collections of gender (as opposed to women) analysis. Rennie, Sandra 1987 Education and TrainingforMelanesian Women-Australia's Role, Janu- ary 1987 AIDAB, Canberra. Since few girls complete primary school, let alone secondary school, there are few highly educated women in the Pacific, particularly in Melanesian countries. The current system of nomination for Australian education awards disadvantages women, especially in rural areas. Therefore, it is proposed that AIDAB support provide practical training courses such as book-keeping in country areas. Rich, Sydney 1982 "The Status of Women PNG-style" pp 39-41 in CUSO Forum, Fall 1982. The author sees lack of education as the biggest problem faced by PNG women. Projects run by East Sepik Women's Council, which combine practical courses with business training and access to retail outlets are described as a solution. Schoeffel-Meleisea, Penelope 1987 "Non-formal Education in the Pacific Islands: An Over- view," pp 13-25 in Michael Crossley, Joseph Sukwianomb and Sheldon Weeks 1987 Pacific Perspectives on Non-formal Education, UPNG, Port Moresby. Argues that the orientation of non-formal and adult educators has been shaped by needs and priorities which do not reflect those of the Pacific Islands. Lack of coordination between delivery agencies is a problem, but centralised control also inappropriate. 104 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Soondrawu, Mary 1993 "Women Educating for Change" in Robert Nowak and Jeff Atkinson (eds) 1993 Development in Papua New Guinea An Alternative Perspective Community Aid Abroad/Freedom from Hunger, Melbourne. The work of the East Sepik Council of Women, now self-reliant, is a source of innovative and independent education for change and human development Thomas, Pamela and Hill, Helen 1987 "Major Issues in Non-formal Education in the South Pacific" in C.D. Throsby 1987 Human Resources Development in the Pacific Pacific Policy Papers No 3, NCDS, ANU, Canberra. Agricultural training for male school-leavers is the major type of non-formal education, and provides inadequately for women who are used, instrumentally, to improve health and nutrition. Women's participation is restricted by time, location and children. Small-scale village programs proposed. UNESCO 1982 "Regional Workshop on Women's Education in a Rural Environment"- Report on the Workshop, Chiangmai, Thailand, 11-21 January 1982. Reports on a workshop attended by fifteen country representatives in order to share innovative experiences in promoting access to and participation in educa- tion for girls and women in rural areas. Includes information on village study visits, field exercises in problem identification and assessment of needs. Makes conclusions and recommendations for programs and strategies to improve education for women in rural areas. Wormald, Eileen and Anne Crossley (eds) 1987 Women and Education in Papua New Guinea and the South Pacific papers from the Women in Education Conference 1987, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. The articles explore the low degree of involvement of PNG girls and women in all levels of education, consider the special problems for women in distance education and non-formal education, providing strategies for action. Yeomans, Lyn 1987 "Universal Primary Education: Factors Affecting the Enrollment and Retention of Girls in Papua New Guinea Community Schools" in Susan Stratigos and Philip J. Hughes (eds) 1987 The Ethics of Development: Women as Unequal Partners in Development Volume 3 in The Ethics of Development, Workshop Proceedings of the 17th Waigani Seminar, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Female participation in development in PNG varies from region to region depend- ing upon the community's length of exposure to western concepts of progress, accessibility of services and patterns of inequity promulgated by rapid rate of change. Yeoman analyses the reasons for this, identifies the most vulnerable groups and proposes that more sustained efforts be made to achieve primary and secondary education for girls. 105 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography GOVERNMENT POLICY Burain, Elizabeth 1995 "Report on the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women by the Papua New Guinea Delegation" November 16, 1995. The PNG delegates to the Beijing Conference made recommendations for the preparation of delegations to further conferences, proposing that they be given more time to acquire the necessary skills and that Beijing Conference delegates be used in preparation for future international conferences. Delegates note that PNG women united with other South Pacific delegates on issues of importance to the region: nuclear disarmament, indigenoujs knowledge and land rights, colonisation and foreign domination. Department of Finance and Planning, 1991 "An Integrated National Population Policy for Progress and Development." The national population policy identified goals and objectives, strategies for implementation of the policy, and the identification of population data collection issues. It also identified the implications of population on health, education, family planning and fertility regulation, the role and status of youth and children, training and research. An appendix articulates the broad roles of implementation agencies. Department of Home Affairs 1993 "Expansion of Women's Role in Development" PNG 1988- 93. An outline of how the Women's Division was designed to expand during the 1988- 1993 period, outlining the role of projects such as the National Council of Women, the National Women's Training Package, communication and network building, credit assistance, community women's organisers scene, literacy projects, fish marketing and other projects. Department of Home Affairs 1994 "Five-Year Management Plan of the Women's Programme Unit," October 1994. Puts forward goals and strategies designed to bring into reality the promise made in the country's Constitution that women would be given the opportunity to participate equally in the economic, cultural, political and social life of Papua New Guinea. Department of Home Affairs 1995 "Partners in Development - National Non-government Organisations Policy," Papua New Guinea. Considers that potential of the NGO community to contribute to PNG's develop- ment is not being realised. The tendency of NGOs to be more responsive and efficient than government is noted. Many community NGOs, operating at the local level, include women's and youth groups and experience difficulty in raising funds. 106 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Department of Home Affairs 1995 "Report on the Implementation of FYve Year Management Plan of Women's Program Unit in 1995," unpublished. This report considers the first year of implementation of the Women's Division's Five-Year Management Plan, launched in 1994. It provides an overview and evaluation of government programs for women and makes recommendations for more effective achievement. Department of Home Affairs 1996 A Guide to Social and Commnunity Programs Implemented by the Different Program and Support Units of the Department, June 1996. The guide is to educate the government, other line Departments, institutions, the general public and the staff of the programs and functions of the Department of Home Affairs. Department of Home Affairs 1987 Women's Policy PNG 23 September 1997. The Policy spells out very clearly what Governments role and response is to women and development issues. It places responsibility on a number of key government departments to better plan its policies and programs so that the impact of women is considered before such activities are implemented. A specific role for the Women's Division is also identified, in relation to the role of the National Council of Women. Department of Health undated Papua New Guinea: National Health Plan, Volume One, 1996- 2000. The National Health Plan was prepared in a context of lack of improvement, and in some cases, deterioration of health status in PNG. Volume One is the first in a (promised) series and describes national health policies, goals and objectives. Five key national priorities are chosen from recommendations made by a Ministerial Advisory Committee; they are to: increase services to the rural majority; expand health promotion and preventive services; reorganise and restructure the national health system; develop staff professional, technical and management skills; and upgrade and maintain investment in health infrastructure. Although topics generally regarded as specific to women are discussed (eg family planning) there is little attention to gender-related issues. Government of Papua New Guinea and United Nations System 1996 Country Strategy Note 1997-2001 "Sustainable Human Development: Integrating Economic, Social and Environ- mental Development in Papua New Guinea" Final Draft for Submission to NEC. The Country Strategy Note helps focus United Nations (UN) areas of support towards the nation's most pressing national priorities where UN agencies have a comparative advantage, permitting enhanced coordination between UN agencies and other actors in international development. 107 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Kekedo, Rose 1985 'The Role of the Department of Community and Family Services in Women's Advancement" in Peter King, Wendy Lee and Vincent Warakai (eds) 1985 From Rhetoric to Reality? Papua New Guinea's Eight Point Plan and National Goals after a Decade UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby Assesses the role of this government department from Independence to 1982, noting that its division for women's services raised the status of women but lacked the necessary people to plan and implement programs. When abolished in 1982 its functions were shifted to the new Office of Youth, Women, Religion and Recreation where it was even more poorly resourced. King, Peter, Lee, Wendy and Warakai, Vincent (eds) 1985 FromRhetoric to Reality? Papua New Guinea's Eight Point Plan and National Goals after a Decade UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Papers from the 1982 Waigani Seminar which aimed to begin national self- evaluation. In the Introduction, the editors ask whether the National Aims are in conflict with 'development' as popularly desired. The women and development section of the seminar tried to assess progress on the seventh point of the Eight Point Plan and saw that talk of equal development was accompanied by increasing differentials of power and wealth. The authors saw this as the first expression by PNG women of their grievances and needs and the first time PNG women, so written about, articulated their reality themselves. Loko, Margaret 1995 Post-Besing Declaration for Action on the Development of Women 22 November, 1995 Inservice College, Port Moresby The attendees at the Joint Government/Non Government Organisation Post Beijing Conference signed this statement to reaffirm support for the development of PNG women, calling for immediate action in partnership with NGOs on priorities for improving the status of women between 1995-2005. Specific proposals are made in the areas of access to economic resources, establishment of an Office of Status of women, Foundation for Equality, Development and Peace, mainstreaming gender and improving women's political participation. Mandie, Angela 1985 "Institutional and Ideological Control of Gender in a Transitional Soci- ety" in Peter King, Wendy Lee and Vincent Warakai (eds) 1985 From Rhetoric to Reality? Papua New Guinea's Eight Point Plan and National Goals after a Decade UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Considers the role of women in development and obstacles to their participation and concludes that this will advance if the government removes obstacles and reforms institutions so that men will accept women as co-workers. Mowbray, David 1993 "Limits to Papua New Guinea's Population Growth - A Critical Review of the National Population Policy - Papua New Guinea, and Its Environmental Implications" in 108 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Heatth and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar 16-22 June 1991 Volume 1, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Notes that issues relating to ecological context of PNG population size are not addressed in the National Population Policy and proposes that research into carrying capacity of regions be carried out. National Steering Committee, Beijing Conference 1995 Papua New Guinea - Country Report: United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women Beying September 4-15, 1995 Department of Home Affairs, Port Moresby. A detailed examination of the progress in achieving improvements for women in nine critical areas in the decade since 1985 to be presented at Beijing. Statistics and studies indicate that little progress has been made in some areas. Political participation, women in development, legal instruments, poverty, economic participation, health, education. employment, violence against women, effects of militarism on women. O'Collins, Maev 1993 Social Development in Papua New Guinea 1972-1990: Searching for Solutions in a Changing World, Department of Political and Social Change, ANU, Canberra. Chapter 23, Women and Youth: groups with special needs? looks at recent policy and planning issues in PNG relating to youth and women to discern success at integrating them into development and argues the importance of integration. Ritterbush, S. Deacon and Pearson, Janice 1988 "Pacific Women in Business: Constraints and Opportunities" in Te'o I.J. Fairburn 1988 Island Entrepreneurs - Problems and Perfor- mances in the Pacific Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Center. Women are still ignored in national development programs and encounter restraints in both policy-related and traditional spheres. Women with strong networks both in and outside their states, and those with supportive spouses, are more likely to succeed. Samana, Fungke Z. 1989 "Establishing a National Machinery for Women's Development in Papua New Guinea" in Vanessa Griffen (ed) 1989 Women, Development and Empowerment - A Pacific Feminist Perspective, Report of the Pacific Women's Workshop Naboutini, Fiji 23-26 March, 1987 Asian and Pacific Development Centre, Kuala Lumpur. Decision by PNG women's conference in 1975 to set up Provincial Councils of Women to support the National Council. Grass roots, village women were excluded due to illiteracy and isolation. Some key women's groups, including church networks, were excluded from the National Council of Women. Funding rarely got to women in interior areas. Provincial governments withdrew funding from the NCW and in 1986 it collapsed. NCWs were more successful in some other Pacific countries. 109 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography HEALTH Alto, William A, Albu, Ruth E and Irabo, Garabinu 1993 "An Alternative to Unattended Deliv- ery - A Training Program for Village Midwives in Papua New Guinea" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991 Volume 2, UPNG. Several language groups in PNG lack the tradition of indigenous birth attendants due to fear of blood contamination (eg. Angal, Heneng). Notes that women avoid health clinics if they are more than one hour's walk, if they care for traditional gardens, if clinics are staffed by men - leading to re-instigation of a midwife training project in 1986. Mortality rates of infants and childbearing women have improved since the onset of the program. Avalos, Beatrice 1994 Women and Development in Papua New Guinea, Economic Division Working Papers, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, 1994. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of gender differentials in health, education, employment and participation in decision-making. It discusses current initiatives to improve gender equity and women's participation in and benefit from development, and suggests possibilities for the future. Avalos, Beatrice 1995 "Women and Development" pp 73-83 in Pacfic EconomicBulletin Vol 10, No 1, July 1995. The author concludes that the PNG approach to WID has been welfare, rather than equality oriented and in the light of gender differentials in health, education, employment and decision making, calls for renewed commitment from intellectu- als, senior public servants and politicians to remove injustice and provide women with the support 'owed to them'. Badcock, Jacqui 1988 'Women and Food and Nutrition in the Pacific" in South Pacific Com- mission 1988 Fourth Regional Confer-ence of Pacific Women - Report of meeting, Suva, 17-23 September 1988. The three main concerns for women's nutritional health are anaemia, obesity, diabetes and hypertension and breastfeeding. The author identifies some causes, many of which are related to changing lifestyles. Biddulph, John 1993 "Priorities for Emerging Problems in Maternal Child Health in Papua New Guinea" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar 16-22 June 1991, Volume 2, UPNG. Notes that while infant mortality has fallen in PNG, maternal mortality remains among the highest in the world. Only 68% of women have used antenatal care, and the quality of services is not consistently good. A number of strategies to improve the situation are offered by this ex SSMO of Child Health in PNG. 110 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Bukenya, Gilbert 1993 "Sanitation and Health in Urban Settlements of Papua New Guinea" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 1, UPNG. One-third of PNG's urban population lacks access to potable water, proper disposal systems for human and other wastes, low standards of personal and domestic hygiene and intense crowding, with resulting plagues of rodents and insects. Children under 5 are most vulnerable to diseases such as typhoid, diarrhoea which result from faecal-oral diseases. Gonorrhoea is three times more -prevalent in settlements than in prosperous neighbourhoods, raising fears that AIDS may follow similar route. Coordinated effort and introduction of new technologies are recommended. Counts, Dorothy Ayers 1984 "Revenge Suicide by Lusi Women: An Expression of Power" in Denise O'Brien and Sharon W. Tiffany (eds) 1984 Rethinking Women's Roles - Perspectives from the Pacific, University of California Press. Presents suicide as a realistic and effective political strategy, its threat a deterrent to the use of coercive power against women. Department of Health undated Papua New Guinea National Health Plan, Volume One, 1996- 2000. The National Health Plan was prepared in a context of lack of improvement, and in some cases, deterioration of health status in PNG. Volume One is the first in a (promised) series and describes national health policies, goals and objectives. Five key national priorities are chosen from recommendations made by a Ministerial Advisory Committee; they are to: increase services to the rural majority; expand health promotion and preventive services; reorganise and restructure the national health system; develop staff professional, technical and management skills: and upgrade and maintain investment in health infrastructure. Although topics generally regarded as specific to women are discussed (eg family planning) there is little attention to gender-related issues Dickson, Rumona 1993 "Proceedings of the National Strategy Meeting on the Health of Women in Papua New Guinea" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991 Volume 2, UPNG. The meeting, attended by health and development specialists, most of them women, was held in conjunction with 1991 Waigani Seminar. It was noted that governments at provincial and national level lack political will to engage women as equal partners in development, that they are under-valued by the men in their families, that women do not, in general, support other women, and that PNG women often suffer low self-esteem. Lack of coordination in government, lack of 111 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography expertise on gender issues, lack of leadership skills among women, language barriers, lack of basic necessities such as sanitation and clean water are as major obstacles to overcome. Doiwa, Seb 1985 "Mental Health and Women Living in Urban Centres" in Peter King, Wendy Lee and Vincent Waraki (eds) 1985 From Rhetoric to Reality? Papua lVew Guinea's Eight Point Plan and National Goals after a Decade UPNG, Port Moresby. Urbanisation can add to stress levels of women in a situation where there are very poor services. Eyford, Helgi 1993 "Healthy Men, Healthy Families: The Need for Personal Growth" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991 Volume 2, UPNG. There is no systematic research being done on men's development in PNG. Emphasis seems to be on women and children, with men portrayed as perpetra- tors of violence. Vision of healthy men which is culturally appropriate needs to be created for PNG. Sees judicious use of selected myths along with emotional education of boys at school as useful strategies. Gena, Josephine 1993 "A Women's Training and Awareness Program on Women's Health, Women's Participation in Development and Networking and Communication" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991 Volume 2, UPNG. Gena was Assistant Secretary of the Women's Division in the Department of Home Affairs and Youth. Here she describes and evaluates projects set up by the Women's Division, which she believes increase ability to make the right choices about family life and family size. Gillett, Joy E. 1990 The Health of Women in Papua New Guinea, Monograph series no 9, Institute of Medical Research, Papua New Guinea, Goroka, PNG. The importance of PNG women's health is discussed, especially rural women's in a context where their needs are poorly understood and given low priority in the provision of services. Children's health needs are so great that services are unable to deal with their mothers. The health of women is the key to the health of children and families and to their contribution to the development of PNG. Actions to overcome some of these problems are proposed. Hughes, Jenny and Dyke, Timothy 1993 "Barriers and Bridges to the Spread of Sexually Transmitted Diseases among the Huli of Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 2, UPNG. 112 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Numbers of people attending clinics for STDs doubled between 1987 and 1989 - and then the clinic closed because it ran out of drugs. Extra-, rather than pre-, marital sex more significant, and blame placed upon women by men, as tradition- ally intercourse with women is considered polluting. Knowledge of risk factors is poor, particularly among women, and consequences of sterility considered dire in Huli society. Jenkins, Carol 1996 Poverty, Nutrition and Health Care in Papua New Guinea A Case Study in Four Communities Report submitted to the World Bank, Washington. Research was undertaken in two urban squatter communities, in two rural cash cropping communities and in a remote rural area where people subsisted on their own land. The author concludes that land ownership is insufficient to ensure good nutrition and health if access to services is poor and cash to pay for them is insufficient. Johnson, Felix Y Attah 1993 "A Study of Completed Suicide in the National Capital District and Central Province of Papua New Guinea" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991 Volume 2, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Examines cases in 1986 and 1987; in first year, twice as many females as males killed themselves, while in following year, the situation was reversed. Concludes that suicide is common in PNG compared to other developing countries, usually due to interpersonal conflict with significant family members, and usually by hanging and poisoning. More research on this matter is recommended. Marshall, L.B. (ed) 1985 Infant Care and Feeding in the South Pacific Gordon and Breach Science. Presents a series of anthropological reports focusing on culture and feeding practices in Pacific Island nations, including PNG. Looks at nutrition from a paediatrician's viewpoint, at the effect of women's work and the contributions of anthropology and development research. Murphy, Terence 1996 "Women in the Papua New Guinea Health System" in Development Bulletin No 36, Jan 1996. The author sees women as a powerful force for positive change to ensure stability and productivity for the future. He details problems of running health clinics (isolation, theft, lack of resources) yet clinic staff, mostly women, continue to provide care for patients. Changing the status of women is seen to be difficult where men hold all the official power in law-making and enforcement. He sees women's education and family planning as two areas with potential to greatly benefit women. 113 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Naraqi, Sirus 1993 "Life and Death: Facts and Figures, Myths and Fantasies" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991 Volume 2, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Compares costs of training health workers at various levels from village health worker to specialists, and the costs of treatment of specific diseases, such as malaria compared to myocardial infections. Piau-Lynch, Andonia 1993 "Family and Mental Health: Traditional Versus Modern Concepts of a Family" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991 Volume 2, UPNG. Asserts that just being modern is a source of much stress in families in PNG, that more education about basic human rights and family planning should be directed at men, that bride price be eradicated, that housing be made more widely available. Reuben, Rachel 1993 "Women and Malaria - Special Risks and Appropriate Control Strategy" in Social Science and Medicine, Volume 37, No 4, pp 473-80. Malaria seen as a disease of poverty to which pregnant, non-immune women are most vulnerable. Chemoprophylaxis is recommended for pregnant women in high- risk areas, but distribution is seen as a problem. Poor women weighed down by domestic chores don't often attend clinics and are likely to be missed in preven- tion/treatment programs. Sairere, John 1993 "Women in Health and Development - Aupik Village, East Sepik Province" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991 Volume 2, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Describes a participatory health research project involving women in a village where women's role has changed drastically although society still firmly patrilin- eal. The project has led to greater cooperation and coordination of activities among women, but this ceased with the election of a new (male) local government councillor who felt that his position was threatened by new women leaders. Problems about who 'owned' the project were major impediment to its acceptance. Street, Margaret R. 1993 "Promoting Safe Childbirth" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993: Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Semi- nar, 16-22 June 1991 Volume 2, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Proposes that no woman should deliver her child alone, that each should have three attendances and examinations at antenatal clinics, that 'at risk' women thus identified be attended by trained health worker and that each woman of child- bearing age should have access to contraception and information. 114 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Taylor, Richard, Lewis, Nancy and Levy, Sue 1993 "Societies in Transition: Mortality Patterns in Pacific Islands Populations" in International Journal of Epidemiology, Volume 18, No 3, September 1989, pp 634-646. Using data from around 1980, although it is in some areas deficient, finds that in PNG, prenatal conditions are responsible for 10% of all deaths (cf 28%, due to infection) and that life expectancy is low, less than 60 years. Thomason, Jane 1993 "The Implications of Uncontrolled Population Growth for the Provision of Rural Health Services" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991 Volume 1, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. High levels of population growth combined with slow economic growth mean that there are insufficient public resources to satisfy public needs for health services. A multisectoral approach to the improvement of health, with due consideration of the status of women and education, will complement the necessary delivery of effective health services. UNICEF 1994 Crisis in Paradise - The State of Papua New Guinea's Children PNG Department of Health. Considers issues relating to PNG's children, including maternal and infant mortality, lack of access to safe water, malnutrition of children, poor coverage of immunisation programs and inadequate spending on education and calls for major efforts to address these problems. WOMEN AND LAW Aleck, Jonathan 1992 "The Village Court System of Papua New Guinea" in Research in Melanesia, Vol 16, pp. 101-128. Useful article outlining the inherent bias in the village courts sydtem against women. Includes case study material. Banks, Cyndi 1993 Women in Transition - Social Control in Papua New Guinea Australian Studies in Law, Crime and Justice, Australian Institute of Criminology. A study of social control in four cultural groups: Bena Bena, Arapesh, Tolai and Orokova, which concludes that systems of social control imposed under colonial rule and continued since Independence are inappropriate to PNG because they didn't take into account traditional values and systems of social control. Imported laws have provided mechanisms for partly freeing women from some of the extreme controls exercised over them through custom. Borrey, Anna 1992 01 Kalabus Merl - A Study of Female Prisoners in Papua New Guinea, Occasional Paper No 21, Law Reform Commission, Boroko. 115 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography This paper discusses the operation of PNG's prison system in relation to female detainees and concludes with suggestions for alternative means of treatment of women who break the law. Women are most frequently gaoled for violence related to sexual jealousy and domestic violence, incarcerated in prisons which follow the western model, with gender bias operating to make their position more difficult, eg their exclusion from agricultural projects of male prisoners. Bradley, Christine 1988 "Some Thoughts on Education and Women's Legal Rights," pp 178- 195 in E. Wormald and A.Crossley (eds) 1988 Women and Education in Papua New Guinea and the South Pacflc, UPNG Press, Port Moresby. Noting that only a small number of highly educated women have knowledge of their legal rights, the author recommends that reliable, concrete and accessible information is needed to provide a basis for women's groups to educate and work for PNG women's human rights. Craill, Sergeant Jane 1995 Report on Westem South Pacific Policewomen's Forum held in Port Vila, Vanuatu, from 7-11 November 1994. PNG, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji and Australia were represented. The major issue of concern was the disadvantage for women due to lack of EEO and anti- discrimination legislation; even policies agreed to are not enacted. Women form 3- 5% of the Pacific police force, and are not entitled to the same conditions as men, eg housing. Department of Corrective Institutions, ca. 1991 A Report on the Prisons of Papua New Guinea 1963-1 986. Port Moresby. Report detailing prison system in PNG. Limited information on women as prisoners. Department of the Attorney General Probation Service, Chief Probation Officer, 1992 Annual Report. Port Moresby. Annual report contains general information with some relevant statistics. Garap, Sarah 1997 "Struggles of Women and Girls: Experiences, Constraints, Cases and Plans of Action from Simbu Province" paper for Violence in Melanesia Workshop 11-12 De- cember 1997. Outlines issues of violence against women in Simbu province and how it affects the status of women. Describes the distortion of custom and customary law. Details case studies of women in village court cases. Individual and Community Rights Advocacy Forum Inc. 1997 Justice and Freedom: An NGO Prograrnfor Human Rights, Gender Equality, Land Rights and Natural Resources for the 21 st Century, University of Papua New Quinea, Waigani, 1997. 116 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography This NGO program developed in 1997 articulates essential components of a gender equality policy including equal participation, education, employment, family law, domestic and sexual violence against women, amendments to the Criminal Code Act, health and safety and equality in the legal system. Mitchell, Barbara H. 1985 "Family Law in Village Courts: The Woman's Position" in Peter King, Wendy Lee and Vincent Warakai (eds) 1985 From Rhetoric to Reality? Papua New Guinea's Eight Point Plan and National Goals after a Decade, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Melanesian women are disadvantaged in village court system because most magistrates are men and customary marriage laws discriminate against women. Conflict between recognition of Melanesian family and equality of women. Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary Development Project (undated) "Working Together for a Better Police Force in Papua New Guinea." A brochure on policing, crimes and the project objectives. MINING Emberson-Bain, 'Atu 1994 "De-romancing the Stones: Gender, Environment and Mining in the Pacific" in 'Atu Emberson-Bain (ed) 1994 Sustainable Development or Malignant Growth? Perspectives of Pacfic Island Women, Marama Publications, Suva. Describes mining in the Pacific as destructive, unsustainable and increasing dependency upon international capital, using up agricultural land. Notes that effects are most severe at household level, but that there is a lack of gender analysis in studies on social impact of mining. Gerritson, Rolf and McIntyre, Martha 1991 "Dilemmas of Distribution: The Misima Gold Mine, Papua New Guinea" in Connell, John and Richard Howitt (eds) 1991 Mining and Indigenous Peoples in Australasia, Sydney University Press. Notes the social effects, particularly in regard to violence against women, since the development of the mine. Robinson, Kathy, 1996 "Women, Mining and Development" in Richard Howitt, John Connell and Philp Hirsch (eds) Resources, Nations and Indigenous Peoples, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Theoretical survey of gender relations, sexuality and the impact of large multi- national mining operations on women in traditional settings. 117 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Bonnell, Suzanne 1985 "Equal Participation by Women: The Role of Women's Councils at National and Provincial Level" in Peter King, Wendy Lee and Vincent Warakai (eds) 1985 From Rhetoric to Reality? Papua New Guinea's Eight Point Plan and National Goals after a Decade, UPNG, Port Moresby. Argues for strengthening of women's councils to ensure women's viewpoints are expressed in a country with almost no female parliamentarians. Delkin, Tony, 1992 "Culture and Democracy in Papua New Guinea; Marit Tru or Giaman Marit?" in Ron Crocombe, et al (eds) Culture and Democracy in the South Pacific, Institute of Pacific Studies, Suva. Survey of women and political development, focussing on PNG. Griffen, Vanessa 1989 "Women, Development and Empowerment Strategies" inVanessa Griffen (ed) 1989: Women, Development and Empowerment - A Pacific Feminist Perspective, Report of the Pacfic Women's Workshop, Naboutini, Fiji 1987 Asian and Pacific Development Centre, Kuala Lumpur. Defines power and considers how to add to women's power in society. Identifies the health system as an area where women's participation can improve services. Women's organisations need to examine their own structures, to create working groups at the level where they are most effective and organise in ways which encourage power-sharing. Proposes strategic use of women's resources to ensure that expenditure helps women and girls. Strategic support of other struggles for social change, to strengthen movements against unequal power relations in the Pacific. The article is followed by strategies to achieve the vision (see Griffen, Arlene 1987, above). Josephides, Lisette 1985 "Bulldozers and Kings or Talk, Name, Group and Land: A Kewa Political Palindrome" in Maeve O'Collins et al 1985 Women in Politics in Papua New Guinea, Working Paper No 6, Department of Political and Social Change, ANU Canberra. Argues that political subordination has an economic base. Where women do not own land, and leave, upon marriage for their partner's land, women's power is reduced. Women see politics as men's domain. Macintyre, Martha 1985 "Women and Local Politics in Tube Tube, Milne Bay Province" in Maeve O'Collins et al 1985 Women in Politics in Papua New Guinea, Working Paper No 6. Department of Political and Social Change ANU, Canberra. Women are removed from a role of leadership as local politics increasingly become state politics. 118 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography O'Collins, Maev 1985 "Women and Politics in Papua New Guinea: External Influences and Internal Constraints" in Maev O'Collins et al 1985 Women in Politics in Papua New Guinea, Working Paper No 6, Department of Political and Social Change, RSPAS, ANU, Canberra. Women's roles in PNG politics low at provincial and national level, and decreasing at the local level, constrained by traditional attitudes towards leadership. Preston, Rosemary 1987 "Hidden and Open Agendas: Social Policy Issues in the 1987 Elec- tion" in Michael Oliver (ed) 1987 Eleksin - The 1987 National Election in Papua New Guinea, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Local commitments were emphasised in order to gain votes and a wide range of issues were ignored. Rooney, Nahau 1985 "Women and National Politics in Papua New Guinea" in Maev O'Collins et al 1985 Women in Politics in Papua New Guinea, Working Paper No 6, Department of Politi- cal and Social Change ANU, Canberra. Women are the main source of labour but have little political representation. The author was a member of parliament and she looks at her life and those of two other elected women as indicative of the problems faced by PNG women in political participation. Sepoe, Orovu 1994 "How Democratic Is Our Democracy? Women and Politics in Papua New Guinea" in 'Atu Emberson-Bain (ed) 1994 Sustainable Development or Malignant Growth? Perspectives of Pacfic Island Women, Marama Publications, Suva. In PNG, women's integration into the political domain has yet to occur due to lack of resources and membership of a political culture. Analyses the 1992 election from point of view of women's participation and success and notes that few elite women are conscious of the gender gap. Relatively high education is seen as prerequisite to political participation. Turner, Mark 1987 "Gender, Age and Education of Candidates and Members" in Michael Oliver (ed) 1987 Eleksin - 7he 1 987NationalElection in PapuaNew Guinea, UPNG, Port Moresby, Port Moresby. Notes that only 1.3%, of candidates, numbering 19, were women, seven of whom gained party endorsement. No female candidates were elected. Education levels of candidates were higher at this than at previous elections. vom Busch, Werner, et al (eds) 1994 New Politics in the South Pacfic, Institute of Pacific Studies, Suva. Includes a special "Women in Politics" section, containing an introduction and two essays by Jean Drage, Women's representation in the Pacific Islands, and Marjorie Crocombe on Polynesia. 119 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Wormald, Eileen 1987 "Women Candidates in the Election" in Michael Oliver (ed) 1987 Eleksin. - The 1987 National Election in Papua New Guinea, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. The total of 41 women who contested national elections up to 1987 faced considerable resistance in the light of strong belief of the gendered role of women. Candidates in 1987 were community leaders and businesswomen capable of participating actively in the decision-making process. Neither of the major parties show commitment to their policies on women. More success may be available to women at provincial level with direct support from women's groups. Obstacles to overcome are their position in PNG culture and their own ambivalence about entry into political structures. POPULATION AND FAMILY PLANNING Ahlburg, Dennis A. 1987 Is Population Growth a Deterrent to Development in the South Pacific? Islands/Australian Working Paper No 87/6, NCDS, ANU. Notes that increased population is accompanied by lower quality of life and decreased life expectancy and increased infant mortality, not necessarily causally related. A shift of resources into developing skills and reforming institutions such as land ownership and balancing family planning with investment in people is proposed. Bakker, M.L. 1996 The Integration of Population Factors into Development Planning in Papua New Guinea UNFPA/ILO Project PNG/94/PO1 Port Moresby, PNG, September 1996. This status report outlines the historical development of the National Population Policy from pre-independence to today. It focuses on demographic trends and population projections. In reviewing the policy it also considers the institutional framework for the implementation of the document in a provincial and national context. Chung, Margaret 1993 "Population and Sustainable Development in Pacific Island Coun- tries," prepared for the Fourth Pacific Island Conference of Leaders, Tahiti, June 24-26, 1993. Suggests that the juncture of growing populations, concentration of economic activity, along with poorly planned development, weak urban government and overtaxed urban services is a threat to sustainable development in many Pacific countries. Fertility decline will be more likely to occur if women have higher status, better access to education, and paid work and family planning services. Department of Finance and Planning, 1991 AnlntegratedNationalPopulationPolicyforProgress and Development. The national population policy identified goals and objectives, strategies for implementation of the policy, and the identification of population data collection 120 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography issues. It also identified the implications of population on health, education, family planning and fertility regulation, the role and status of youth and children, training and research. An appendix articulates the broad roles of implementation agencies Gena, Josephine 1993 "A Women's Training and Awareness Program on Women's Health, Women's Participation in Development and Networking and Communication" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991 Volume 2, UPNG. Gena was Assistant Secretary of the Women's Division in the Department of Home Affairs and Youth. Here she describes and evaluates projects set up by the Women's Division, which she believes increase ability to make the right choices about family life and family size. Griffen, Vanessa 1994 "Women, Development and Population: A Critique of the Port Vila Declaration" in'Atu Emberson-Bain (ed) 1994 Sustainable Development or Malignant Growth? Perspectives of Pacific Island Women, Marama Publications, Suva. T'he Port Vila Declaration was presented as the official Pacific position for the ICPD in 1994. Here it is analysed as a political text with implications for the reproduc- tive health and population programs which affect women. Notes concentration upon family planning and token mention of women's empowerment, the concen- tration upon women while ignoring men's reproductive health and behaviour, and lack of mention of gender violence. Hayes, Geoffrey 1996 Estimates of Mortality in Papua New Guinea Based on the 1990 Census and the 1991 Demographic andHealth Survey UNFPA/ILO Project PNG/94/PO 1 Integration of Population Factors into Development Planning, Port Moresby, PNG July 1996. A technical paper, this outlines and analyses demographic information from the 1990 census and 1991 DHS data, including infant and child mortality, adult mortality and crude death rates. Ivarature, Henry (compiler) 1996 Population and Family Planning in Papua New Guinea, 1975- 1995:A Bibliography, National Planning Office, PNG, 1996. Provides a bibliographic database as a guide for intending researchers in the fields of population studies and family planning. Jenkins, Carol et al 1994 National Study of Sexual andReproductive Knowledge and Behaviour in Papua New Guinea PNG Institute of Medical Research Monograph No 10, Goroka, PNG. A study conducted to increase knowledge of cultural differences in sexual and reproductive knowledge and behaviour with the aim of reducing transmission of STDs. 121 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Klufio, Cecil A. 1993 "Family Planning and Family Health" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 2, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Argues that family planning reduces maternal and infant deaths. One thousand PNG women are estimated to die in pregnancy or childbirth, due to: poor health (malaria, malnutrition, hookworm, anaemia, too-frequent pregnancies), low educational and social status, inadequate/inaccessible health services and dangerous reproductive health behaviour. McMurray, Christine and Lucas, David 1990 Fertility and Family Planning in the South Pacific, Islands/Australian Working Paper No 90/ 10, NCDS, ANU, Canberra. The discussion of PNG indicates poor quality of pre 1990 census data. Low prevalence of modern contraception and adherence to traditional beliefs have slowed down fertility decline. Mowbray, David 1993 "Limits to Papua New Guinea's Population Growth - A Critical Review of the National Population Policy - Papua New Guinea, and Its Environmental Implications" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 1, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Notes that issues relating to ecological context of PNG population size are not addressed in the National Population Policy and proposes that research into carrying capacity of regions be carried out. Nakikus, Margaret 1993 "Keynote Address to the National Strategy Meeting on the Health of Women in Papua New Guinea" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 2, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Notes that fewer than 3% of women use modern contraception and that many cases of maternal and infant mortality, STDs, violence are never reported. Reports on preparatory work to identify key areas of discussion. These are expounded upon in the Proceedings (see Dickson 1993, above). National Statistical Office 1993 "Population Trends in Papua New Guinea" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 1, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Provides a historical overview of population trends in Papua and New Guinea since population statistics have been available and notes that natural increase of population is higher in rural than in urban areas. 122 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Papua New Guinea 1995 People Count: A Summary of the 1990 Population and Housing Cen- sus in Papua New Guinea National Statistical Office, United Nations Population Fund, Port Moresby. The census, conducted 9-13 July 1990, found that 3,607,954 lived in PNG, excluding North Solomons Province (Bougainville). Population growth is consid- ered high at 2.5% each year; 85% of the population lives in rural areas. Most people over 30 are married, though divorce rates have doubled since 1966. 97% of the population describes itself as Christian; 35% of these as Catholic. 40% of females and 50% of males are literate. Unemployment is rising, particularly among the young. Piller, Andrew 1993 "Social Marketing of Contraceptives in Papua New Guinea" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 2, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Lack of access to contraception led to PNG government seeking assistance from USAID's social marketing of contraception through The Futures Group, a private company. Research into appropriate strategies to launch Protector condoms and Mycrogynon low dose pills PNG government has provided appropriate legislative environment. Pust, R.E., Newman, J.S., Senf, J. and Stotik. E. "Factors Affecting Family Size among Preliterate Papua New Guinea Mothers" in International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Vol 23, No 5, October 1985, pp 413-420. Reports findings of a survey of Enga mothers in PNG about number of births needed to reach desired family size, infant and child mortality, amount of interest in and sources of information about family planning. Sialis, Dr. Levi 1993 "Keynote Speech on Family Planning, Family Health, Health and Devel- opment" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Devel- opment, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 2, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Identifies need for research into traditional methods (which are breaking down) of family planning; conflict of interest between partners when women desire fewer children than men; alarm at rapid population growth; and wider availability of Pill and Depo Provera than other methods. Suggests reducing levels of fertility, by limiting women's fertile period, increasing male role in family planning and improvements in primary health services. Sukwianomb, Joseph 1993 "Strengthening Family Planning Programmes in the South Pa- cific" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Develop- ment, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 2, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. 123 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Author is secretary-general of South Pacific Alliance for Family Health, which provides technical and financial assistance to member country organisations, and proposes grass roots involvement in family planning, involving the private sector, motivating men and increasing government support. Tucker, G.S. 1993 "Vasectomy as a Method of Family Planning in Papua New Guinea" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population. Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 2, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Author has found vasectomy to be an acceptable method of family planning in Balimo area, with many men now requesting the operation, and medical staff recommending it after four children. Believes family planning clinic staff as well as clients, need to be educated in the viability of the method. Thomason, Jane 1993 "The Implications of Uncontrolled Population Growth for the Provision of Rural Health Services" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health andDevelopment, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 1, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. High levels of population growth combined with slow economic growth mean that there are insufficient public resources to satisfy public needs for health services. A multisectoral approach to the improvement of health, with due consideration of the status of women and education, will complement the necessary delivery of effective health services. Taylor, Richard 1993 "Mortality in Pacific Island Countries Circa 1980 in Relation to Socioeco- nomic, Demographic, Health Service and Other Variables" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993 Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 1, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby.PNG Found to have lower life expectancies than would be expected from GDP, due to unequal distribution of income, and disparities between economic and social development. Education proved to be a positive predictor for life expectancy and a negative predictor of mortality rates, particularly for women and infants. Melanesian ethnicity proved to be prominent indicator of high mortality, especially for females; contributors to this situation are malaria, socioeconomic status and distance from service centres. Underhill-Sem, Yvonne 1994 "Blame It All on Population: Perceptions, Statistics and Reality in the Population Debate in the Pacific" in 'Atu Emberson-Bain (ed) 1994 Sustainable Devel- opment or Malignant Growth? Perspectives of Pacfic Island Womren, Marama Publications, Suva. Questions simplified assumptions about the linkages between population, environment and economic growth in the Pacific and suggests that detailed 124 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography studies, drawing on the insights of all social sciences, be conducted into past and current demographic behaviour. UNFPA 1997 UnitedNationsPopulationFund inPapuaNew Guinea UNFPA PNG Field Office, 1997. Information on UNFPA in PNG and the projects being support and PNG's demo- graphic situation and the issues to be faced. STATISTICAL DATA Booth, Heather 1991 Papua New Guinea A Statistical Profile on Men and Women, prepared for the UNDP/UNIFEM Pacific Mainstreaming Project. A comprehensive set of statistics covering: labour force, migration, economic sector, social and community development, education, health and women's affairs. The author concludes that data on women's participation in the economic sector are less than adequate, leading to their exclusion altogether from many studies, including agriculture, where their work is so important. Gibson John 1996c Baseline Poverty Estimatesfor Urban Areas ofPapua New Guinea, Work- ing Paper No 3, October 1996, Institute of National Affairs, PNG. A detailed methodology and extrapolations from the Household Survey to gain a set of poverty lines for areas surveyed which can be used to make comparisons between areas and households, but not persons within households. Gibson, John 1996a Testing for Boy-Girl Discrimination with Household Expenditure Data: Resultsfor Urban Households, Working Paper No 1, August 1996. By measuring the reduction of household expenditure on adult items after the birth of a child, it is discovered that such expenditure falls after the birth of a boy but remains substantially the same after the birth of a girl. More girls than boys were found to be underweight, so author concludes that there is evidence of parental preference for boys. Gibson, John 1997 "The Household Survey Component of the Papua New Guinea Poverty Assessment," paper presented to Seminar on Poverty Assessment in Papua New Guinea. held in Port Moresby 27-28 February, 1997. Data are collected from rural and urban households relating to nutrition, access to water, educational levels and literacy, and correlated. An additional year of education for women was considered to have six times more effect on the length of children than an additional year for men. Gibson, John and Rozelle, Scott 1997 "Results of the Household Survey Component of the 1996 Poverty Assessment for Papua New Guinea" paper presented to Seminar on Poverty Assessment in Papua New Guinea, held in Port Moresby 27-28 February, 1997. 125 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Detailed analysis and methodology of the Household Survey Component (see Gibson 1997a). Kivung, Peri, Doiwa, Maria and Cox, Susan "Women and Crime: Women and Violence" in Peter King, Wendy Lee andVincentWarakai (eds) 1985 FromRhetoric toReality?PapuaNew Guinea's Eight Point Plan and National Goals after a Decade, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Two lawyers in the Public Solicitor's Office look at crime statistics involving women as perpetrators and victims between 1979 and 1982. The paper believes the problem of women and violence should be given national priority. Kopkop, Maria 1992 Country Report: Papua New Guinea - Status of Women 1992, presented at the Seminar on Improving the Status of Women, Tokyo, September/October 1992. This report compiles statistics and other evidence to present a picture of women's position in PNG, covering the areas of tradition, education and literacy, agricul- ture, industry and business, health and family planning and approaches used by government to raise the status of women in each of these areas and in economic and political terms generally. Morauta, Louise 1985 "Women in Households in Papua New Guinea" in Women in Develop- ment in the South Pacific: Barriers and Opportunities published report of the Conference on Women in Development in the South Pacific, 11- 14 August 1984, Port Vila, Australian Na- tional University, Canberra. Discusses women's role in rural and urban households in PNG. Papua New Guinea 1995 People Count: A Summary of the 1990 Population and Housing Cen- sus in Papua New Guinea National Statistical Office, United Nations Population Fund, Port Moresby. The census, conducted 9-13 July 1990, found that 3,607,954 lived in PNG, excluding North Solomons Province (Bougainville). Population growth is consid- ered high at 2.5% each year; 85% of the population lives in rural areas. Most people over 30 are married, though divorce rates have doubled since 1966. 97% of the population describes itself as Christian; 35% of these as Catholic. 40% of females and 50% of males are literate. Unemployment is rising, particularly among the young. Rofeta, John et al 1994: Pacific Human Development Report, UNDP, Suva. Presents a wide range of social and economic indicators for assessing sustainable human development. Argues for broadening of development agenda beyond economic growth. Notes that improving education and health and status of women is a major objective of the Pacific development strategy. 126 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography South Pacific Commission 1987 Workshop on Socio-Economic Statistics on Women - Report of workshop, Noumea, New Caledonia, SPC 16-19 February 1987. Contains a summary of the meeting which was part of a joint project of the Pacific Women's Bureau and the Population Programme to survey and review data collecting systems in the region with the view to improve data on women. Reports on a background paper for the workshop which included five country case studies of socioeconomic statistics on women. Presents a detailed list of the recommenda- tions emerging from the workshop. STATUS OF WOMEN Cleland, Rachel 1996 Grass Roots to Independence and Beyond: The Contribution by Women to Papua New Guinea 1951-1991, Dame Rachel Cleland, Claremont, Australia. An insight into the life and times of women in a developing territory. Case studies of various women's NGOs including the girl guides and the YWCA. Also profiles individual women and the pioneering work they have done in various fields. Cox, Elizabeth 1994 "Gender Sensitive Approaches to the Identification and Alleviation of Poverty in Papua New Guinea" in Noeleen Heyzer and Gita Sen (eds) 1994 Gender, Economic Growth and Poverty Market Growth and State Planning in Asia and the Paqfic, Kali for Women, International Books and Asian and Pacific Development Centre, New Delhi. Emphasis on export-oriented growth has led development in PNG, taking role of women, the environment and social cohesion of local communities, for granted. Such development brings short-lived gains to some people, excludes the participa- tion of women and results in poverty and powerlessness for many. Carefully planned and coordinated application of the new PNG Women's Policy, the building of planning processes, sensitive to gender, class and environment, and increasing the opportunity for women's networks to work together and with government is proposed. Cox, Elizabeth and Aitsi, Louise 1988 "Papua New Guinea" in Taiamoni Tongamoa (ed) 1988 Pacific Women: Roles and Status of Women in Pacific Societies, UPNG, Port Moresby. A succinct outline of women's status and roles in PNG over a wide range of issues with the general observation that women's contribution to development continues to be overlooked. Cox, Elizabeth and Daure, M. (eds) 1991 Changes, Challenges and Choices: Women in Devel- opment in Papua New Guinea - Issues and Information, The National Women's Training Pack- age on Women's Health, Changing Family Life and Participation in Development, Women's Division of the Department of Home Affairs and Youth. 127 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography The book is a guide for women development workers to use in training, education and 'the implementation of good development'. The three main topics are: women's health, women's participation in development, communication and networking education, training. Fairbairn-Dunlop, Peggy 1993 'Women's Status in the South Pacific," a paper prepared for ESCAP, Bangkok Office. This document details the natural structures, policies and action plans of Pacific countries implementation of the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies for Women. It then identifies measures of women's status through health, education, political participation, employment, macro economic policies, law and violence against women. Specific issues for migrant, elderly and disabled women are documented. Filer, Colin 1993 "Working Paper on Social Impact and Gender Equity Issues in the Renewable Resources Sector" Report to the PNG Department of Finance and Planning and the Australian International Development Assistance Bureau, Final Draft, September 1993, PNG - Australia Development Cooperation Program. Cross-sectoral analysis of social impacts including gender equity (women in development), youth and age-related issues and community participation. Identifies that government policy is unlikely to produce more gender -sensitive processes unless relationships between men and women are discussed, with sensitivity to traditional cultural forms. Gopal, Gita 1992 "Women and Development in Papua New Guinea" paper produced for World Bank, East Asia and the Pacific Region, Washington, D.C. A succinct report based upon a desk study which identifies the obstacles to and contribution of women's participation in development. Individual project interven- tion without changes to the regulatory framework is considered inadequate. Several areas where the WB could improve women's situations are identified: increasing access to and control over income, land policy, forestry projects, collection of gender-differentiated data, education and training, involving women's NGOs and evaluating the impacts of projects on women. Josephides, Lisette 1985 The Production oflnequality - Gender and Exchange among the Kewa., Tavistock, London. Attempts to locate the sources of inequality and to understand how they are engendered and perpetuated within social practice through an examination of production, exchange and gender relations and the way they are socially validated among the Kewa people of the New Guinea Highlands. The author concludes that increased participation in the cash economy will increase inequalities and establish new status groups. 128 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Kopkop, Maria 1992 Country Report: Papua New Guinea - Status of Women 1992, presented at the Seminar on Improving the Status of Women, Tokyo, September/October 1992. This report compiles statistics and other evidence to present a picture of women's position in PNG, covering the areas of tradition, education and literacy, agricul- ture, industry and business, health and family planning and approaches used by government to raise the status of women in each of these areas and in economic and political terms generally. Kopkop, Maria 1993 'The Status of Women in Papua New Guinea" in Tukutau Taufa and Caroline Bass (eds) 1993: Population, Family Health and Development, papers from the 19th Waigani Seminar, 16-22 June 1991, Volume 2, UPNG. At the time President of the National Council of Women, the author notes that women and children are still seen as welfare problems dependent upon the economy. The NCW is concentrating upon the strengthening of networks. Laura, Sharon 1995 "Women Speak" a two-part documentary on the women of Bougainville, broadcast on Indian Pacific, ABC National Radio, March 25 and April 1 1995, transcribed by Nikki Burns, IWDA, Melbourne. Bougainville women talk about the effects of conflict in Bougainville on women's lives and their desire for peace. Lepowsky, Maria 1993 Fruit of the Motherland - Gender in an Egalitarian Society, Columbia University, New York. Based on residency 1977-79, 1981 and 1987, describes the society of Vanatinai, a small remote island south-east of PNG which challenges the concept of male dominance and contests the assumption that the subjugation of women is inevitable. Overlap of male and female roles, abhorrence of violence, shared political power and exchange activity in which both sexes participate characterise gender relations. Low population density, lack of ascribed status and a conscious decision to retain key cultural practices are the basis for the dynamic continuous competition for status and influence through ceremonial contributions to the community at large. Loko, Margaret 1995 Post-Beying Declaration for Action on the Development of Women, 22 November, 1995, Inservice College, Port Moresby. The attendees at the Joint Government/Non Government Organisation Post Beijing Conference signed this statement to reaffirm support for the development of PNG women, calling for immediate action in partnership with NGOs on priorities for improving the status of women between 1995-2005. Specific proposals are made in the areas of access to economic resources, establishment of an Office of Status of women, Foundation for Equality, Development and Peace, mainstreaming gender and improving women's political participation. 129 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Nakikus, Margaret 1985 'Planning for Women's Advancement in Papua New Guinea" in Peter King, Wendy Lee and Vincent Waraki (eds) 1985 From Rhetoric to Reality? Papua New Guinea's Eight Point Plan and National Goals after a Decade, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Nakikus claims that the early welfare approach to women has changed to one where their needs are considered in the planning process and suggests women get involved in traditionally male activities such as cash cropping and advance their interests through existing institutions. Calls for a national policy on women. Nakikus, Margaret, Andrew, Maijorie, Mandie-Filer, Angela and Brown, Bungtabu 1991 Papua New Guinea Women in Development Sector Review, August 1991, UNDP. Four provinces selected for review: Eastern Highlands; Morobe; East New Britain; and East Sepik. Report recommends that Government of PNG adapt existing programs and change its approach, and involve women as participants and beneficiaries of development in all spheres of activity. Women's Divisions and women's organisations recommended as coordinators of all training initiatives to enhance women's participation in development. Agriculture and fisheries; industry and business; education and literacy; health and family planning. O'Brien, Denise and Tiffany, Sharon W. (eds) 1984 Rethinking Women's Roles - Perspectives from the Pacific. University of California Press, Berkeley. A collection of papers about women in Melanesia presented at meetings of the Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania. The authors note the importance of work to notions of identity and personhood and to relations of differential control and status. Relevant papers are referred to by author. Poole, Fitz John P., Herdt, Gilbert 1982 "Sexual Antagonism, Gender, and Social Change in Papua New Guinea," Journal of Cultural and Social Practice, Adelaide, December 1982. Although quite dated this contains seminal work in gender analysis in PNG from an anthropological perspective. The case studies investigate gender relations in specific contexts, however it is one of the first collections of gender (as opposed to women) analysis. South Pacific Commission 1988 "Fourth Regional Conference of Pacific Women" - Report of meeting, Suva, 17-23 September 1988. A report of biennial gathering of Pacific women, with workshops on Pacific Women's Resource Bureau, development, appropriate technology, employment and self-employment, women as decision-makers, women and the law, agriculture, fisheries and forestry, women in environmental education, education, networking and communication. Relevant reports are listed by author. 130 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography South Pacific Commission 1989 "Interagency Meeting on Training for Women," Suva July 31 - August 2, 1989. The meeting was held to strengthen women's training programs in the Pacific, with emphasis on training in family life, parental education, family break-ups and alcohol-related problems. South Pacific Commission 1991 Report of Fifth Regional Conference of Pacific Women, held in Agana, Guam, 2-5 December 1991, SPC, Noumea. Attended by 400 women from the Pacific region with the aim of providing the PWRB and women in the region the opportunity to evaluate progress over the previous three years. Action plans were devised to address health and develop- ment needs of women over the next three years. South Pacific Commission 1994 "Gender Sensitisation," Report of workshop for SPC staff, December 8-10, 1993, Noumea. A training session to provide development workers with a basic framework for gender analysis. Strathern, Marilyn 1984 "Domesticity and the Denigration of Women" in Denise O'Brien and Sharon W. Tiffany (eds) 1984 Rethinking Women's Roles - Perspectivesfrom the Pacific, Univer- sity of California Press. Argues that Hagen women are full persons through a division of labour between spouses which emphasises mutuality and that women's association with the domestic domain gives a particular value to femaleness. Turner, Ann 1993 ViewsfromInterviews: - The ChangingRole of Women inPapuaNew Guinea, Oxford University Press, Oxford. In interviews with six women, the author shows that women in PNG are not all confined to household and village activities. UNFPA 1996 PNG Role Models - Successful Women in Their Own Right, UNFPA PNG Field Office, March 1996, PNG. A collection of role model stories on PNG women. Yeates, Donald Bruce 1987 "Women as Unequal Partners in Development: An Introduction" in Susan Stratigos and Philip J. Hughes (eds) 1987 The Ethics of Development: Women as Un- equal Partners in Development, Volume 3 in The Ethics of Development. Workshop proceed- ings of the 17th Waigani Seminar, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Outlines the papers in this volume (see above, under individual authors). Notes that while polices are formulated to protect women and involve them in develop- 131 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography ment, questions of implementation and assessment are yet to be addressed and recommends further research and analysis of practice. VIOLENCE Borrey, Anou 1997 "Sex? Gender? Violence?" paper for Violence in Melanesia Workshop 11- 12 December 1997. Discusses AusAID baseline study on NGO work on addressing violence against women and children. Mentions work of Carol Jenkins and her statement that rough sex is considered desirable by both genders in PNG. Bradley, Christine 1985 "Attitudes and Practices Relating to Marital Violence Among the Tolai of East New Britain" in Toft, Susan (ed) 1985 Domestic Violence in Papua New Guinea, Law Reform Commission of PNG, Monography No 3, PNGLRC. With decline in traditional lineages, the nuclear family has become the most important social unit in a society where all the sources of power are in the hands of men. Traditional opportunities for externalising aggression have declined but domestic violence has risen. Payment for bride price legitimates men's desire to control their wives. Family planning is suggested to reduce wife-beating because larger families are worse off. Bradley, Christine 1994 "Why Male Violence against Women is a Development Issue: Reflec- tions from Papua New Guinea" in Miranda Davies (ed) 1994 Women and Violence - Realities and Responses Worldwide, Zed Books, UK. The author was Principal Project Officer for the PNG Law Commission, running a national program on violence against women. Her research indicates that most women have experienced wife beating as a normal part of married life. Inappropri- ate development strategies have exacerbated this practice. Arguments as to whether this is a 'private' affair or whether indeed it is a development issue at all. An international information exchange and support network urgently needed to link developing countries and programs to eliminate violence aimed at men as well as women. Bradley, Christine and Deutrom, Brian 1990 Let's Talk it Over, Women and Law Committee. This comic book presents, in simplified form, gender -related issues pertinent to the lives of village PNG women. It uses a case study of a domestic violence situation. Chowning, Ann 1995 "Women and Violence: The Context of Wife-Beating in a West New Britain Society" in Toft, Susan (ed) 1985 Domestic Violence in Papua New Guinea, Law Reform Commission of PNG, Monography No 3, PNGLRC. 132 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Wife-beating is common in Kove where major causes are sexual jealousy and men's desire to obtain shell money by putting pressure on women. Women are seen to provoke aggression by insulting and independent behaviour, encouraged in them as children. Legislation alone is unlikely to alter their situation. De Roeck, Denise 1988 "Alcohol and Drug Abuse in the Pacific: The Impact on Women" in South Pacific Commission 1988: Fourth Regional Conference of Paciftc Women - Report of meeting, Suva, 17-23 September 1988. Alcohol abuse a problem mainly of men but results in increased violence on women, family break up, loss of jobs and less household funds for food and other needs. Measures are proposed to reduce the extent of the problem. Dinnen, Sinclair 1993 "Big Men, Small Men and Invisible Women - Urban Crime and Inequal- ity in Papua New Guinea," in Australian and New Zealand Journal of Crininology, Vol 26, No 1, March 1993, pp 19-34. Broader structural inequalities of recent origin may be a primary cause of contemporary urban criminality in PNG. Garap, Sarah 1997 "Struggles of Women and Girls: Experiences, Constraints, Cases and Plans of Action from Simbu Province," paper for Violence in Melanesia Workshop 11-12 December 1997, pp. 10. Outlines issues of violence against women in Simbu province and how it affects the status of women. Describes the distortion of custom and customary law. Details case studies of women in village court cases. Griffen. Arlene and Souder-Jaffery, Laura 1989 "Defining Pacific Feminism" inVanessa Griffen (ed) 1989: Women, Development and Empowerment - A Pacific Feminist Perspective, Report of the Pactftc Women's Workshop, Naboutini, Fiji, 23-26 March, 1987, Asian and Pacific Develop- ment Centre, Kuala Lumpur. In the final discussions on feminism, areas covered were: the family, violence in the family, education, religion, tradition, the economy, the environment and women's power. 'Our Vision' pp 111- 115 is the product of these discussions. Josephides, Lisette 1985 "The Politics of Violence in Kewa Society (Southern Highlands)" in Susan Toft (ed) 1985: Domestic Violence in Papua New Guinea, Law Reform Commission of PNG, Monography No 3, PNG Law Reform Commission, Port Moresby. Found no evidence that violence towards women had increased in the wake of other social change. Calls for a widening of the debate to include symbolic violence and the threat of physical violence. 133 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Kivung, Peri, Doiwa, Maria and Cox, Susan 1985 "Women and Crime: Women and Violence" in Peter King, Wendy Lee and Vincent Warakai (eds) 1985 From Rhetoric to Reality? Papua New Guinea's Eight Point Plan and National Goals after a Decade, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Two lawyers in the Public Solicitor's Office look at crime statistics involving women as perpetrators and victims between 1979 and 1982. The paper believes the problem of women and violence should be given national priority. Lak, Father Robert, et al 1992 Final Report on Domestic Violence Report No 14, Papua New Guinea Law Reform Commission, Boroko. This is the final report of a ten year process to investigate and report on domestic violence in PNG, seen to affect over two-thirds of PNG families. The final report recommends measures for the protection of victims, the prevention of further violence and the improvement of married life, gender and violence Makail, Maxine (1997). "Domestic Violence in Port Moresby," paper for Violence in Melanesia Workshop 11-12 December 1997. Discussion of physical, sexual and emotional violence and women's relucance to report crimes. Outlines to work of the Individual and Community Rights Advocacy Forum (ICRAF) in addressing issues of violence against women. O'Callaghan, Mary-Louise 1996 'Till Death Us Do Part," TheAustralian Magazine, March 23- 24, 1996, pp 26-30. This article explores the difficulties for women in polygamous marriages, where husbands can afford the price of several wives but lack the sense of responsibility to care for all equally. The number of murders of wives by other wives is increas- ing as divisions between women are exacerbated. O'Collins, Maev 1997 "Images of Violence in PNG" paper for Violence in Melanesia Workshop 11- 12 December 1997. Outlines to prevalence of violence in PNG compared to other countries in Melanesia and globally. Discussed the perception of violence as threatening as violence itself. Talks of preventative measures to address violence. Scaglion, Richard and Whittingham, Rose 1985 "Female Plaintiffs and Sex-related Disputes in Rural Papua New Guinea" in Susan Toft, (ed) 1985 Domestic Violence in Papua New Guinea, Law Reform Commission of PNG, Monography No 3, PNGLRC. Explores cases where sexual jealousies, rape and incest are the root of disputes taken to village courts. Women are plaintiffs in one quarter of all cases and have less status in courts than men. 134 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography Toft, Susan and Bonnell, Suzanne 1985 Marriage and Domestic Violence in Rural Papua New Guinea, Law Reform Commission and Administrative College of PNG. This is a collection of studies of domestic violence within marriage. Students living for one month in selected villages collected quantitative data. 'Women's failure to meet obligations' seen as sufficient cause for wifebeating and divorce. Toft, Susan (ed) 1986 Domestic Violence in Urban Papua New Guinea, Law Reform Commis- sion, Goroka. The authors explore violence on women in an urban context, and generally observe that rapid development causing conflict with traditional mores and roles exacerbates wifebeating. Toft, Susan 1985 Domestic Violence in Papua New Guinea, Papua New Guinea Law Reform Commission, Goroka. A collection of articles based upon case studies, with an introduction by Marilyn Strathern. Most domestic violence inflicted by men trying to retain control of the marriage relationship. "Husbands want complete submission from their wives" Wilson, Maggie 1987 "Beer and Shotguns - Is This Development?" in Susan Stratigos and Philip J. Hughes (eds] 1987 The Ethics of Development. Women as Unequal Partners in Devel- opment, Volume 3 in The Ethics of Development, Workshop proceedings of the 17th Waigani Seminar, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. Considers the disadvantages of the bride-price system in which the obligations continue. In a poem, considers the disinterest of leaders in the people and predicts a violent society unless leadership and guidance are offered. UNITED NATIONS WOMEN'S CONFERENCE MATERIAL Burain, Elizabeth 1995 Report on the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women by the Papua New Guinea Delegation. November 16, 1995. The PNG delegates to the Beijing Conference made recommendations for the preparation of delegations to further conferences, proposing that they be given more time to acquire the necessary skills and that Beijing Conference delegates be used in preparation for future international conferences. Delegates note that PNG women united with other South Pacific delegates on issues of importance to the region: nuclear disarmament, indigenous knowledge and land rights, colonisation and foreign domination. Department of Religion, Home Affairs and Youth (Women's Division) 1995 Papua New Guinea in Pacific Women's Resource Bureau 1995 National Reviews of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategiesfor theAdvancement ofWomen, South Pacific Commission on behalf of the Melanesian Island Countries of the Pacific. 135 Appendix 6: Annotated Bibliography The authors list government strategies to improve the status and participation, and attempt to evaluate the progress, of women in 10 key areas as identified in the Forward-looking Strategies over the 1980s and early 1990s. Fairbairn-Dunlop, Peggy 1993 Women's Status in the South Pacific, a paper prepared for ESCAP, Bangkok Office, November 1993. This document details the natural structures, policies and action plans of Pacific countries implementation of the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies for Women. It then identifies measures of women's status through health, education, political participation, employment, macro economic policies, law and violence against women. Specific issues for migrant, elderly and disabled women are documented. Griffen, Vanessa (ed) 1989 Women, Development and Emrpowernent - A Pacflc Feminist Per- spective, Report of the Pacific Women's Workshop, Naboutini, Fiji, 23-26 March, 1987, Asian and Pacific Development Centre, Kuala Lumpur. Report of workshop to assess the needs of Pacific women and review progress made in the UN Decade for Women in which money, energy, resources flooded into Pacific for women's projects. Describes process by which a Pacific feminist perspective was developed. Women's projects are critically assessed. Loko, Margaret 1995 "Post-Beijing Declaration for Action on the Development of Women," 22 November, 1995, Inservice College, Port Moresby. The attendees at the Joint Government/Non Government Organisation Post Beijing Conference signed this statement to reaffirm support for the development of PNG women, calling for immediate action in partnership with NGOs on priorities for improving the status of women between 1995-2005. Specific proposals are made in the areas of access to economic resources, establishment of an Office of Status of women, Foundation for Equality, Development and Peace, mainstreaming gender and improving women's political participation. South Pacific Commission 1997 "Report of Women's Expert Group Planning Meeting," held in Noumea, December 11-13 1996, SPC, Noumea. Discussions between eight women policy-makers from Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia on issues raised by involvement in the Pacific's preparatory process for Beijing. Issues highlighted are health, education and training, economic empower- ment, agriculture and fishing, legal and human rights, shared decision-making, environment, peace and justice, poverty and rights of indigenous peoples. PNG women were not represented. 136 References Adamson, E; Fett, L; Huntsman, A, and Barnes, Helen, n.d., "Women in Highlands Scarlett, G. 1984: West Nakanai oil palm Agricultural Production" in Donald Denoon scheme, Papua New Guinea: Social, economic and Catherine Snowden (eds) A Time to Plant and environmental aspects. Environmental and a Time to Uproot; A History of Agriculture Report No. 20. Melbourne: Graduate School in Papua New Guinea, Institute of Papua New of Environmental Science, Monash Univer- Guinea Studies, Port Moresby. sity. 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Education: Factors Affecting the Enrollment and Retention of Girls in Papua New Guinea Warry, Wayne 1985: "Politics of a New Or- Community Schools" in Susan Stratigos and der: The Kafaina Movement" in Maeve Philip J.Hughes (eds) 1987: The Ethics ofDe- O'Collins et al 1985: Women in Politics inPapua velopment: Women as Unequal Partners in De- New Guinea, Working Paper No 6, Depart- velopment, Volume 3 in The Ethics of ment of Political and Social Change, ANU, Development, Workshop proceedings of the Canberra. 17th Waigani Seminar, UPNG, Port Moresby Press, Port Moresby. 147 T H E W o R L D B A N K 188 H Street, N.W Washington, D.C. 20433 USA Telephonie 202 477-1234 Facsimile: 202-477-6391 Telex: MCI 64145 WORLDBANK MCI 248423 WORLDBANK World Wide Web: http://fww.worldbank.org/ E-mnail: books@vworldbank.org 9 780821 343944 ISBN 0-8213-43941-7'1; | li !