-2558+ 1I1c6 WORLD RESOURCES A G U IDE T O T HE G L OBA E NVI R ONt 'ilEFNT - The Urban &. r - -1~~:z- -- - Eniom t 01 a A --I'l 1: ~ ~ ~~ -T . .. .. . I'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . _____ ___ ORDER FORM World Resources 1996-97 Database Diskette To order, indicate quantity, total cost (including shipping charges), and method of payment on the lines provided below. QTY DISK FORMAT PRICE 3.5" IBM compatible Cl I attach purchase order no. high density diskette $99.95 0 1 enclose my check for: $ Subtotal $l Please bill my VISA / MasterCard / Shipping & Handling $ American Express (circle one) US orders: $2.50 for one diskette pack; Account # S1.25 for each additional pack. Expiration Date: Non-US orders: $15.00 for one; Signature: $7.00 each additional. CA & NC residents Please note: all orders from individuals must be add sales tax $ pre-paid by check, money order, or credit card. TOTAL $ Libraries and institutions may use purchase orders. 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Containing 450 essential variables for 170 countries, the World Resources 1996-97 Database Diskette is equally suitable for fast fact finding or extensive statistical analysis. Professionals in business, government, industry, and the environment will find this an invaluable research and reference tool. These .wkl files are compatible with any spreadsheet or database system. The IBM-compatible, high-density diskettes require a hard disk, MS-DOS or PC-DOS 3.0 or greater, and 300K RAM. Order now by completing the coupon on the reverse side. WORLD RESOURCES 1996-97 Program Director Senior Advisors Allen L. Hammond, Resource and J. Alan Brewster, Senzior Vice President, WRI Environmental Information, WR I \Yalter V. Reid, V ice Presidleznt tfo Progra1n, WRI Tlholimas Fox, Vice President Landcl Director. World Resources Center for International De'velopm'nent and Leslie Roberts, Ei ditor-in-Chief Env'ironment, WRI Debor-alh Farmer, Ma7n7a7inlg Editor Ralpli Schinlidt, Senior Programme Advise, Robert*Live mash,Senior Editor Sustainaible Energy and Lnironmient Robert Liverniasli, Seizio0r Eciitor - G regorv Mock, Contributin- Editor Div'ision., UNDP Harvey Croze, Assistant Executive Director, Carolina N.I. Katz, ASsncI,7te Editor Divisio of Environment Information and Eric Rodenbrtg, Research Director Assessment. JIN'EP Dirk Brvant, Research Associate Michael Colhen, Seniior Acdliser, Olfice of tbe Vice Presidcnit. Enviaironmentalt711y Sustalinl.71)e NI arilvin NIl. Powell, ProduftctiOn1 Coordinla7tor Dev'elopmnent, Ti'e WVorld Bank Roseannie Price, Production Edlitor Changhua WLI, Factchecker Special Advisors for The Urban Sharon Bellucci, Production Assistalt Environment, World Resources 1996-97 Elizabeth Glaspie, Prool-eader lMike Douglass, Unmil'versity' of Halwa ii at Malnoa David Foster, Ui.S. A-ciicy t°Or IlstCl-1LItioslL71 Editorial Advisory Board FN Dev.elopment Dr. M.S. Swaniliatlhan (India). Chairmlan Hilda Herzer, Centro Estudios Sociales His Excellenicv Abdlatif Y. Al-Hamad (KuLWait) Anzbwmztak's The Honoral)le Serge Antoine (France) Gordoi McGranaha, Stockholm Enviroment Ms. Elizabeth Dowdeswell (Canada) Institute Dr. QLI Geping (People's Repuiblic of China) jay NMoor; United !N\ations Cenztre for Human Dr. Nikita Glazovsky (RUSSia) Settlements The Honorable Enrique V. Iglesias (Uruguay) Jonas Rabinovitch, UNDP Prof. Hirovuki Ishi (Japan) Carole Rakodi. University o 'Wales, College of Mr. Maximno T. Kala-w, Jr. (Costa Rica) Cardiff Dr. T.N. Khoshoo (India) Raqtiel Rolik, Ilnstitutto Polis Dr. Thomas A. L anibo (Nigeria) David Satterthlaite, International Inistitutte for Prof. Istv.in Ldng (HunLigarv) E1n1iiron1-1ent anld Dev!elopmient Mr. Jonathan LLashI (United States) Car-olvn Stepheis. Londcloni Schbool of Hygienc M9lr. Robert .\'IcNamara (Ulilted States) Tropical AMedicinel Dr. Liberty MNhlaniga (Zimbabwe) Dr. Jose Sarukhidn (Niexico) Dr. Ismail Serageldini (Egypt) Mr. James Gustave Speth (United States) WORLD RESOURCES 1996-97 A joint publication by The World Resources Institute The United Nations Environment Programme The United Nations Development Programme The World Bank New York Oxford Oxford University Press 1996 The cover shows an inner city area in Buenos Aires, Federal District, Argentina. Photo by James P. Blair, National Geographic Society Image Collection. The World Resources Institute, the United Nations Oxford Universitv Press Environment Programme, the United Nations Develop- ment Programme, and the World Bank gratefully ac- Oxford New York Toronto knowledge permission to reprint from the following Delhi Bombay Calcutta Madlras Karachi Kuala Lumnpur Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo sources: Nairobi Dar cs Salaam ( ape Town Melhourne Auckland Part 1: Figure 1.3, Table 4.2, Figure 5.1, and Table 6.1, The arid associaited companies in World Bank; Box 3.1, Figure 1, Scientific American; Berlin Ihadan Box 3.2, Figure 1, National Academv of Sciences; Fig- Copyright © 1996 by the World Resources Institute ure 3.2, Asian Development Bank. Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press Part 11: Box 7.1, Figure 1, The World Bank; Figure 8.4, United All rights reserved. No part of this publication may he repro- Nations Development Programme; Figure 8.6, Figure duced, stored in a rerrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or 8.7, and Table 8.1, World Health Organization; Table hy any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying. rccording, or 9.1, Figure 10.3, Figure 10.4, Table 10.3, Table 10.4, otherwise, without rhe prior permission of Oxford lUniversity Press. and Figure 13.1, Food and Agriculture Organization of Data Tahles mav he reproduced with the permission of the the United Nations; Table 11.1, United Nations Envi- World Resources institLute. ronment Programme; Box 12.1, Figure 1, British Petro- leum; Table 13.2 and Table 13.3, Population Action ISBN 0-19-521 160-X International; Figure 14.3 and Figure 14.4, Intergov- ISBN (PBK) 0-19-521 161-8 erumental Panel on Climate Change. Library of Congress Cataloging Number: 86-659504 JSSN 0887-0403 Printed in the United States of America on recycled World Resources is a biennial puilication of the World Re- paper. sources Institute, 1709 New York, Ave., N.W Washington, DC, 20006 Printing (last digit): 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 iv Contents Preface vii Executive Summary ix Part I The Urban Environment 1 Cities and the Environment 1 Forces driving urbanization; urbaan environmental problemzs; economtic costs of environmental degradation; uirban povzerty; challenges to governments 2 Urban Environment and Human Health 31 Physical and social threats to huiiman health; differences among cities; socioeconomic inequities and health 3 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources 57 Land convtersion; depletion of natural resources; disposal of urban wastes; threats to coastal ecosystems 4 Urban Transportation 81 Urban transportation trends; impacts tcongestion, pollution, accidents, social inequities); managing travel demand and supply 5 Urban Priorities for Action 103 Strategic choices: water and sanitation; water resources management; solid waste management; inidoor and outdoor air pollution; land use planning 6 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability 125 Involving local governiments; community initiatives; cities and sustainable development Appendix A. Urban Data Tables 149 A.] Urbain Indicators, 1975-2025 A.2 Access ro Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation, 1980-95 A.3 Air Pollution in Selected Ciries, 1989-94 A.4 India: Citv Indicators, 1993 Part 11 Global Conditions and Trends and Data Tables 7 Basic Economic Indicators 159 Measuring economic progress; economic growth and the environment 7.1 Gross National and Domestic Product Estimates, 1983-93 7.2 Official Development Assistance and External Debt Indicators, 1981-93 7.3 World Commodity Indexes and Prices, 1975-94 v 8 Population and Human Development 173 Trenls in population aind he7alth; focus oni emerging inflectiOus diseases 8.1 Size and Growth of Population and Labor Force, 1950-2025 8.2 Frends in Births, Life Expectancv, Fertility', aned Age Structure, 1970-95 8.3 Mortalitv and Nutrition, 1 970-95 8.4 Education anld (:hild Heailth, 19-0-93 9 Forests and Land Cover 201 Stalte of thlbe w'(rldS tr'opical ad temperate forests: /oC&is O1n Ruissia and Sutrinzamc 9.1 Land Area and Use, 1981-93 9.2 Forest Resources, 198 1-90 9.3 Wood Prod luCtiOn and Trade, 1 98 1-93 10 Food and Agriculture 225 Trends in gloub ,agricuittural production; getting f6o(d to tbose wi ho need it 10O.1 Food and Agricultural Production, 1982-94 10.2 Agricultural Inputs, 1981-93 10.3 Livestock Populations and Grain Consumed as Feed, 1982-94 10.4 Food Trade and Aid. 1981-9.3 11 Biodiversity 247 Coastal ecosystemls and marine hiodiversity unzzder stress; pressures anzd policies I 1.1 National and International Protection of Natural Areas, 1 994 11.2 Globallv Threatened Species: Mammals, Birds, anld Higher Plants, 1990s 11.3 Globally Threatrenied Species: Reptiles. Amphibians, and Fish, 1990s 11.4 Marine Biodiversity 12 Energy and Materials 273 Energy trenzds; projections of futuire energy demand; available energy resources 12.1 Commerciail Energy Production, 19737-93 12.2 Energy Consumption, 1973-93 12.3 Reserves anid Resources of Conimercial Energy, 1993 12.4 Production, Consumilption, and Reserves of Selected Metals, 1980-94 12.5 Industrial Waste in Selected Countries 13 Water and Fisheries 295 Marine t/isbing trend1s and managing water resources 13.1 Freshwater Resources and Withdrawals 13.2 Wasrewater Treatiient 13.3 Marine Fisheries, Yield and State of Exploitation 13.4 Marine and Freshwater Catches, Aqu.acilrure, and Fish Consumption 14 Atmosphere and Climate 315 Trends in carbon dioxide emissions; -osts anl benefits of stabilizing greenhonise gas emission7s 14.1 CO) Emissions from Industrial Processes, 1992 14.2 Other Greenihouse Gas ismissions, 1991 14.3 Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse and Ozone-Depletilig Gases, 1970-94 14.4 World CO2 Emissions from F7ossil Fuel Consumptioni and Cemiienit Manufacture, 1950-92 14.5 Comimiilon Anthropogenic Pollutanlts, 1980-93 14.6 Inventories of National Greenhouse Gas Emissionis, 1990 Acknowledgments 339 Index 347 World Resources Database Index 363 vi Preface lhe World Resotirces series is published to ing the urban environment and at community-based meet the critical need for accessible, accurate approaches. information on environment and develop- Part 11 continues the tradition of examining in each ment. Wise managemenit of natural re- volunie hasic conditions and trends and kev issues in sources and protection of the global each of the major resource categories, from agriculture environment are essential to achieve sustainable eco- to water resources to atinosphere and climare. Many nomic development and hence to alleviate povertv, of these chapters focus particularlv on future trends; a improve the human condition, and preserve the biologi- brief review of these issues can be found in the Execu- cal systems on which all life depends. tive Summnary. In a change that should make the report WVor/d Resouirces 1996-97 is the seventh report in the easier to use, the core data rables from the World series. Recent reports were prepared by the World Re- Resources Database are now also found in Part 11, at sources Institute (WRI) in collaboration with the United the end of each relevant chapter. Additional informa- Nations Environment Programine (UNEP) and the tion and data can be found in the Human Development United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). For Report, which is published annually by UNDP, and in this report, UNEP and UNDP have become full partners the World Bank's World Deuelopment Report. with WRI and have been joined by the World Bank. We In an effort to make an expanded set of data acces- believe that this new partnership will significantly sible to policymakers, scholars, and nongovernmental strengthen our efforts to make this series the most organizations, WRI also publishes on diskette the obljective and Lip-to-date report of conditions and Wlorld Resources Database-expanded to include addi- trends in the world's natural resources and in the global tional countries, variables, and where possible, a 20- environment. vear data set. Part I of this volumede'votes six chapters to the urbani The audience for the World Resouirces series has environment in support of the June 1996 United Na- steadily expamided, with English, Spanish, French, Ara- tions' Habitat 11 Conference in Istanbul, Turkev. Ur- bic, German, Japanese, and Chinese editions now in banization is a major global trend with a complex print, as vell as an Indian edition, which is published in varietv of impacts. It can have manv positive effects, English but printed in New Delhi. A Teacher's Guiide to such as improvements in productivity and access to World Resouirces is also available to make the series services. As we examine in the first three chapters, accessible and useful to teachers and stuLdents. however, it can also have a wide variety of adverse We commend the WYorld Resources staff for its efforts impacts on both people and the environment. Many of in assembling and analvziig this unique collection of the most difficult urban issues cut across political, eco- information and for producilIg the volume in a timely nomic, and institutional boundaries; one such issLie is fashion. The Editorial Advisory Board, chaired by Dr. tramisportatioin, which we examine in Chapter 4. The M.S. Swaminathan, provided active advice and sLipport concluding chapters look at priority areas for improv- at all stages of the project. Similarly, the senior advisors vii for the special section on the urban environment pro- Spanish edition; the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign vided invaluable assistance. Affairs for assistance in distribution of the report; and the We wish to thank the U.S. Agency for International Swedish International Development Authority and the Development for its support of the urban chapters; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for support ro Inter-American Development Bank for support of the expand and strengthen the World Resoturces Database. Jonathan Lash Elizabeth Dowdeswell President Executive Director World Resources Institute United Nations Environment Programme James Gustave Speth James D. Wolfensohn Administrator President United Nations Development Programme The World Bank viii Executive Summary T h his volume devotes special attention to the urban environment, a major focus of Habitat 11-the United Nations Conferenice on Human Settlements-scheduled for June 1996 in Is- tanhul, Turkey. Urban environmental conditions are imporrant to the health ind quality of life of a city's inhabitants and can impose siginificant costs on economic and social develop- ment. The impact of urban areas on the surroundinig environment is also aii issue of grow- ing concerin. More than half of humankind will live in urbani areas by the end of the century, and 60 percent by 2020. In most nations, cities generate a majority of the economic activity, ultimately con- sume most of the natural resources, and produce most of the pollution and waste. Thus, urban environ- mental issues, although often overlooked, are important both locally and on national and global scales. Neglect of these issues could compromise larger econonmic, social, and environmental goals in both de- veloped and developing countries. This volume also survevs a number of current trends in the global environment and their implications for the future. Most of these trends show worseninig environmental problems, suggesting that maniy na- tional and international environmental goals will not be met withiout extensive policy reform and signifi- cant changes in current practices and strategies. On the positive side, however, this volume also reports a significant environmental milestone, the partial phaseout of production of ozone-depleting chemicals. THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT Cities embody the diversity and energy of human pursuits. They are iti many ways remarkable engines of economic and social progress. Cities offer employment opportunities, entertainment and other amenities, and potential efficiencies not found elsewhere, as well as advantages in the delivery of education, health, and other social services. On average, urban dwellers have higher incomes and live healthier, easier lives than their rural counterparts, althoughi these advantages are often not shared hy all urban inhabitants. But cities also play a central role in degrading the physical environment and in shaping the social envi- ronments in which most of the world's people will soon live. Dysfunctional urban environments have high costs, making more difficult the economic growth needed to improve living standards and helping to perpetuate inequities. The developed world is already largely urbanized. In the developing world, the rapid urbanization now under way will increasingly concentrate both popUlation and economic growth in cities-as much as 90 percent of future population growth and a maijor share of ftutire econonlic growth-intensifying the problems of the urban environmient. (Chapter 1.) In recent decades, urban areas in developed countries have made manjor progress in cleaning up local environmental problems, but theyv remain significaiit contributors to regional arid global enviromnental WVorld Resources 1 996-97 ix bLurdens. At the same time, the urbani social enviroiinment in developed coun- tries-which includes factors such as violence and drug abuse-poses major Urban Population Growth rhreats to hlinian health and productivity. In developing couLitries, urban ar- (population in billions) i s ura eas often have huge populatiois living n poverty and facing the same urban 8 U rban Developed social threats that conifronit residents of cities in the developed regions. Dis- 6 _ Urban Developing parities amonig different income groups are often more extreme in cities of 4 the developing world. In maniy cases, for example, overall improvement in 2 uirban health indicators masks a widening split between the poor and the 0 well-to-do. The problems of the urbani poor are similar to those of the rural 1950 1975 2000 2025 poor-lack of access to clean water, sanitation, and adequate housing-com- pounded h; overcrowdinig and exposure to industrial wastes aLid urban air pollution. (Chapter 2.) Burgeoniing cities are expanding into fragile ecosvstemls-nearly 40 per- cent of cities larger than 500,000 are located on the coast. Cities sometimes deplete nearbv areas of water and firewood, renedering them less capable of supporting ruiral populations and thus adding to the pressures fot urban mi- in] ll/U Il( , z les/willf gration. Air pollution already exceeds health standards in many megacities in developing countries. Sewage and industrial effluents are released into water- '/layvs with minimal or no treatment, threatening humain healtlh and aquatic 111 I)i.d/lxllll( ',1 ''( ''l r life. Some urban enviromnental problemils such as access to safe drinking tiinlcr l 1U Iv 1 ill vwater improve with economic growth, while others tend to worsen. Thus in iII(TC,1,;1SIIv1 the absence of policy reform, stronger instittitions, and enlightened political -o( ^JI/(l; ;, s1 bw leadership, economic and population growth in developing countries in the ,/)i )/)/Iafi,, Ill/ near tern may lead ro a detcrioration of the urban environmeint, both physi- 0()l 1/C'Ii cal and social. Stresses on the global environment fronm urbani activities are also likelv to accelerate. A malor share of greenhouse gas emissions already -li/iS. i;z/~'si/\comes from the use of fossil fuels in wealthv urban areas, especially in the de- /)1 1+'/n' 4lis x 't //h veloped countries. (Chapter 3.) Itl) r1 IIliI l'/ )7//Ws 1/i. Transportation issues illustrate how enviro[inienital, social, and economic factors interact in the urban environiment. Transportation demanld and mo- tor vehicle owniership are concentrated in urban areas, and energy use for transportation is rising faster than that for any other sector. Motor vehicles in turn are a primary cause of congestioni and local air pollution, which are posing a growing threat to econoinic productivitV and humnall health. Yet the dispersed form of many urban areas makes motor vehicles virtuallv es- World Motor Vehicle Ownership ... World( MotorvVehiclesOwnershipnsential. It also contrilbutes to social inequities, for examiple, limitinig access (vehicles In millilons) F] Developed countries to jobs and other opportunities for those who cannot afford vehicles or re- 80O Developind countries 800 Developing countries quiring long trips by pLublic transit or on foot. (Chapter 4.) 60 and Eastern Europe_--_-- qu 600 400 Priorities for Action 2000 _ _TFhree issues emerge as particularly critical: water supply and sanitation and o water resource management, solid waste managemllent, and air pollution. In 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 each area, there are compelling ccononilc, social, aind environmental ration- ales for changC. Successful efforts, however, art likely to require significant clhanges in urbLan practices and strategies. x World Resources 1996-97 Improving access to clean water and sanitation, for example, has been cited as "the single most effective means of alleviating human distress." Past experience shows the need for a shift away from centralized systems and to- Access to Water and Sanitation in Urban Areas ward more flexible, comiimunity-oriented strategies. In hopes of cutting the (population in millions) costs of solid waste management while improving service, many cities are ex- 1,800 D Unserved perimenting with public-private partnerships and informal, cornmunity- 1,500 r Served based approaches. Focusing on pollution prevention and on energy 1,200 Serve conservation, in part bv fixing distorted prices and using other novel eco- 900 - nomic tools, is lilkel to be central to reducing air pollution. Underlving 600 vs an many urban environimental problenis-from congestion and air pollution to the lack of affordable housing to urban decay-are land use patterns and 1980 1t994 1980 1994 practices. Morc effective land use planning is critical to improving access to urban services for the poor and to reducing resource consumption and im- proving the quality of life in more affluent communities. (Chapter 5.) Community-Based Strategies Beyond the immediate priorities for improving the urban environment lies the need to strengthen local governments, to implement new approaches to al- Itt il/ i 11/ X/1 leviating poverty and supporting communities, and to develop more environ- /)1 /1('s IX 1I X mentally friendly cities. Virtually all of the policies needed to improve the 111/nI (I '( I/IJlulll urban environment require more effective urban governance. That will re- til, 711Ml11/UC(11 1CC/I1 1,1 quire not onlv strengthened governmients but also the involvement of many / , / I' dl other actors in the urban environment-including the poor and the private ., I11,011 ( .' sector. Communitv-based approaches are essential if urban services are to reach those who need them and if there is to be broad-based support for lilt !ii li needed changes in strategies and practices. The sheer size of urban popula- 1110h1 ".11 b'i 1 '1 bei/1 tions and economies means that cities must lead the way toward more envi- 11i p /n r( u 111t ronmentally sustainable practices for the world as a whole. (Chapter 6.) P 1-11t'11t' .C ch /- IMPLICATIONS OF CURRENT GLOBAL TRENDS Population Growth Current population trends are cause for both optimism and concern. Some developing countries are moving rapidlv toward population stabilitv. But other countries are experiencing rapid population growth, usualiv accompa- World Population Growth nied bv high levels of poverty, limited progress for women, and high levels (population In bilions) 10 the word popuation s in- Developed regions * of internal and international migration. Overall, the world population isDeveloping regions 8 creasing bv more than 86 million people every year. Such rapid growth 6 places enormous pressure on natural resources, urban infrastructure and 4 services, and governments at all levels, especially in rhe poorest countries 2 where growth is most rapid. 0 Global population will continue to grow for many decades to come, re- 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 flecting the demographic inertia of countries in which a large fraction of the population has not yet reached child-bearing age. In the U.N. medium popu- World Resources 1996-97 xi lation projectioni, world population reaclhes about 10 billion by the middle of the next centul-y c fore gradUally leveling off. IMUch of that growth oc- Rapi/ / /)t/)iI/tio// cuirs in the next few decades iand is concentrated in a few regions, such as Af- *i4 a n /b /t/c-c'S rica and Asia. In these projections, fertility is assumiled to declinie from 'uIc ol Illol/S /)YCS sIt/c ( current levels in devcloping regions of the world. Pro jected fertility rates can- M II /1/aII -III t I)C 1/c 'S . i nor be rtakeni for granted, however; policies that inifluenice fertility rates-pro- vision of family planinilig services, alleviation of poverty, and improvements in educatioll, health cire, and cconioicic opportunities, cspeclally for .ll)(l 5(1 I 'ices, Lc .lI(t v,women-can have a marked effect on future population levels. (Chapter 8.) ,,U'(/l' 'I'/?II?c'///S . Iallt tic ls. Freshwater Supplies Oine environimiental conisequenice of growing populatiOlns is increasing pres- sure on natural resouirces. Demand for w ater is growing rapidly as popula- tions and industrial activity expanid and irrigated agriCulture (the largest use) continuies to increase. From 1940 to 19990, for exainple, withdrawals of freshwater from rivers, lakes, and underground aqJuifers inicreased by a fac- tor of four. Manyv currenit patterns of water withdravwals are clearly unsUs- tainable, such as pul11mp1ing from1 subsoil aquifers at rates far greater than (population in millions) they are recharged. Viater shortages are already critical n solie regions pos- 2,800 ing obstacles to conrinutied developnment and threats to freshwvater habitats. 2,000 g Lowestimate [ The future availability of Water for huIman use depends on how water re- 1 600 sources are managed; water can, in principlc, bc reused many tinies. Future 1,200 preSSUres ol water resotirces can thus be seCIe as a measure of the malnage- 800 _ ment challenge that water-short regions will face. According to one esti- 0 as _ _ mate, between 1 billion and 2.4 billion people ( I U3 to 20 p ercent of the 1990 2025 2050 projected world poplullatiull) Will live in wvarc- scarce countries by 2050. Af- rica anid parts of westerin Asia appear particularly vUilnerable. Policies that improve the efficiencv of wvater use, avoid waste, and preserve suipplies (by coiItrolli wg water pollution and mainitainiing watersheds) can markedlv ex- I 01?Pg il)~ 1(sl/c /t - ftend the avallahilitv of scarce supplies. Particularly important are more effi- cient irrigation1 sysrtlms, appropriate water- pricing and reimioval of harmful subsidies, upgrading anitd improved mailnteln ance of urban water distribution svstemis, control or treaitmenit of industrlal wastewater and urban sewage cf- i/i1 1i/l/i/V 4 s /)( 0 fluenlts, anid cooperative management of shared watersheds and river basins. !/iiX islit /) lP\' /c (ChapterI 13.) /()1101 inzpc.r'/s a ()/ Ia rn- /;uuilh ic< 1 )1/ Food Security /()o/ 11/CANIIS /'ll Water scarcity has a direct impact on food sectirit. Inldeed, manv countries fl/JIV pa'i c/tic' 11// facing water scarcity may not be able to support irrigated agriculture at lev- c( mc'c';zuct /cc En) els necessary to feed future populations from domestic agricultural activi- f//}/ } A ties. Soil erosion and degradation, especially in fragile tropical and subtropical environmeniitrs, also threaiten the conitiniued productivity of agri- cultural linds. Overfishling threatens to damnage fisheries alnd lower future harvests, denying many developling regiouns an important source of protein. Xii World Resormoes 1996-97 These trends may put severe straiis on the world's ablility to increase global food productioni in parallel with population growth. Nonetheless, most re- cent assessments suggest that global food production-the supply end of the Estimated Chronic Undernutrition equation-has the capability to keep pace withi rising global demaid. (population In millions) 800 El All Other Regions There is less optimism ablout the prospects for reducinig unldernutritionl 700 U Sub-Saharan Africa 600 and improving food secuirity. Even if global food supplies are adeqquite, the 500 inabilitv of poor nationis to pay for food imports, along withi anl inadequate 400 distribution infrastructure and the inability of poor families to buy food, 200 means that maniv people will continue to go hungry. For 1990 to 1992, the 100 0 U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) identified 27 coiiltries as 1990 2010 having low or critical fooCd security indexes. In sub-Saharan Africa, for ex- ample, FAO projects that the numbli er of underinourishied people could rise from 175 million to some 300 million lK 2010. Food trade is projected to nearly double between 1990 and 2010, but trade and food aid may nor fill the food security gap. Policies that strengthen agricultural research and extension systems, promote sustainable intensification and more sophisticated manageminent of agricultural re- I '/,c dl/;//et'n/1 sources, and develop more effective agricultural markets in developing coun1- stIn's (- )lti A' //,j tries could play a major role in helping these countries to meet their owni food needs. Policies that increase rural employimient and access to land and credit and that strengthieni the capacity' of developilng couLtrry governimienits l st-1iit/ 'iil/Ž.sit/ canl also have an importanlt indirect impact On food security. (Chapter 10. )11/ §rfliibt ti/SC >.tsc's 5ii 'i-/"il/V! Energy and Climate t c r i.iif) liSC Energy use is already high in the developed countries and is increasinig rap- C tiS/i lilclr V I1I idly in many developing couLntries as they industrialize. Three differenr srud- ( ; th'tuitlt's ies of future energy demanid conclude that glohal energy use is virtually certain to rise considerablv in cominig decades. These studies find plausible increases in the range of 34 to 44 percent by 2010 and 54 to 98 percent by 2020. The projected growtih is concenitrated in Asia (a i 00 percent increase from 1990 to 2010) and Latin America (a 50 to 77 percent increase over the same period). Moreover, most of the expanded production will come froml Projected Increases in CO, fossil energy sources-coal, oil, and naLtural gas-in the absence of specific Emissions and Energy Demand policies to alter miarket incentives. The so-called "inew renewables" such as (percent increase from 1990) solar, wind, and farm-grown energy crops are expected to provide otnly 2 to 80 4 percent of global energy supplies from 1990 to 2020 if current practices and strategies continIue. 60 These projectionls imply that local and regional air pollutioll is likely to 40 increase significantly in rapidly developling regions and that global emissions of greenhouse gases will increase as well, greatlv increasinig the risk anid po- 2010 2020 2010 2020 tential impact of global cllimate change. Emissions of carbon dioxide from Co Emissions Energy Demand industrial activitv climbed 38 percent durin- the 2)) years prior to 1990 and U Low [ High Estimates are expected to rise another 30 to 40 percenit by 2010. These projected trends make cleair that significanit changes will be re- quired in energy strategies and practices in all major regionis of the world to W`orld Rt'sorrces 1J) 9 97 Xiii stabilize global emissions of greenhouse gases. Even greater efforts and, al- most certainly, a transition to nonfossil energy sources will be required to .\/ui/t (10) /prct71 1 ('0/ eventually reduce emissions and hence stabilize atmospheric concentrations, t/.'( !.llUI.lI /))I)lIl1I( 1 the ultimate goal of the Global Climate Convention. Policies that encourage liv ( s u iil.i;: I () ) more efficient use of energy, that tax energy-based pollution or provide mar- /(JOIL 1' IS / /ic1' ket incentives for the introduction of renewable energy sources, and that fa- -Wa.ls/li/h'. \IU jl)Z(t .1/ cilitate use of the best available technologies for energy consumption and I11/ (I.c 1u1'ulIs production are well known, if not always easy to implement. Given the growing scientific consensus on global climate change-reflected in the find- H hl s>/,/l (H i( Y JSIt Ilks ing by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change that there is "a dis- II/P/)(".Ir I C( ) U cernible human influence on global climate"-these policies deserve far sl>l/!.!II// l/I s/s1; /w(1// greater attention. (Chapters 12 and 14.) Critical Ecosystems at Risk Coastal habitats, some of the richest storehouses of marine hiodiversity, pro- vide one example of how critical ecosystems are increasingly threatened. About 60 percent of the global population lives within 100 kilometers of Percent of Coastlines at Risk the coastline, drawing heavily on coastal and marine habitats for food, (percenl) building sites, transportation, recreational areas, and waste disposal. Ac- 100 __ cording to a new study by the World Resources Institute, 5 1 percent of the 80 world's coastal ecosystems appear to be at significant risk of degradation 60 r from development-related activity. Europe, with 86 percent of its coastline l l l r -- ; at high or medium risk, and Asia, with 69 percent in these categories, are 40 the regions most threatened by degradation. Worldwide, nearly three 20 fourths of marine protected areas within 100 kilometers of continents or ma- jor islands appear to be at risk. (Chapter 11.) 0 f Europe South Asia Africa Forest losses are continuing at a rapid rate. A new FAO study shows that America fully 20 percent of all tropical natLiral forest cover was lost from 1960 to 1990. Temperate forest cover, too, has declined, primarily in developing countries. Natural forest cover declined 8 percent in developing countries during the 1 980s, although this loss was partially offset by new forest plan- tations and growth in wooded areas outside forests. Forest losses in developing countries echo earlier deforestation in devel- oped countries. North America has lost an estimated 20 percent of its origi- nal forest cover; the countries of the former Soviet Union, 35 percenit; and V1(isl lu)sses ,11( Europe, 60 percent. Many remaining undisturbed forests are at risk from m )/I/llIli/i I1/ I r alpi t logging, and fragmentation of forest cover is widespread. Air pollution and i /~.1 .111(t 11R("LU is still fire suppression practices have also contributed to declining forest health. rlB (l 1 l hI/i Jll/ zThere is still no international consensus on how to protect forests, nor is it clear that the world community is ready to move forcefully toward managing (-iIIM'/15/L' /I qc cleat tmto forests on a sustainable basis. Manv efforts are tinder wav to explore policy /1 f )1( *-1 i /i j I '( sl instruments in areas such as forest maniagemenit and trade in forest products; others are focusing on improving information about forests and developing greater consensus about appropriate practices. (Chapter 9.) xiv World Resources 1996-97 Part I The Urban Environment -_s: -A I _ K --- .,i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ L i, - ' , t o' , --- '- , t 's,;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N 1. Cities and the Environment lie world is in the midst of a miassive urban environmenltal problems defy easy categorization, they transition1 unllike that of any othcer tinie in cani be grouped into two broad classes: those associated historv. Withiln the next decade, mio-e than with poverty and those associated with ecoiomliic half of rhe world's population, an estimated growth or afflueice. The two often coexist withini the 3_ 3illiol, will be living in urban areas-a sane cityo change withi vasr implications lboth for hiuir[ in well- Some of the worst problems, in terims of human being and for thc environiiienit ii. As recently as I 975, Sfferiig ocuur in the poorest cities of the developiiig just over one third of the world's people lived iI Urban world. Especially where Population growth is rapid, areas B% 2) 025, the proportion will have risenl to alillost local governilments are unable to provide for even the twvo thirds most basic iieeds of their citizens. Throughout the de- Tlhe most rapid chalinge is occurrinig in the developing veloping world, the urban poor live in life-threatening world, where urbail populations are growing at 3.5 conlditions. At least 220) miillion urban dwellers lack percent per Year, as opposed to less thani I pericent in the access to clean drink ing water; more than 420 million miore developed regions i ;. (ities are also reaching do not have access to the simplest latrines c(i. Between unlprecedilitccl sizes-Tokvo, 27 mlilllion Sao Pat.110 unprecedetedsize -Tokyo,27million;ao a one and two thirds of the solid waste generated Is not BArazil, 16.4 mlilhlon, Bornal1iv 11d(a,3 15 n flisoll-p 1R- collected (-. It piles up on str-eets and In driiais, contrib- iig eiiorillOLISs tl zlills oil te IliistitLitioIlal aiid flatLiral rgenormuces strainSuppon thie ii sti4ut ma ad natur l utillg to flooding and the spread of disease. The prob- lems of ur1ban povertv exa1ct an enormnious toll in la rgelv Historically, cities have been drivinig forces in eco- O r~~~~reventablle deatils and d'se3ses. on(nic and sociall developilment. As ceiiters of Industry Eniviroliiileiital probilems aire also sevcer In tl ose anid coiimmerce, cities have long been centers of wealth and] political Ipver. They' also accitint for a dlispr-opor- ldeveloping world cities exlperieiciilg rapidl economliic tionlte share of national ilcoelic. The World Blilk growth. Economic growth brings needed revenues to estimaltes that in the dleveloping wvorld, as nuich as 80 Cities, hIt, if proper safeguards are not in place, it all percent of future economic growtvh will ocCLien rIwI S too often occur-s ar the expenise of environmental qua l- and cities iV. Nor are the lbeefits of urbanization solelv itv. More than 1 .1 billion people live in uirbani areas economilc. Urbanization is associated withi higher in- where ai- pollution levels exceed healthful levels x) In conies, imlipr-oved lhealtli, higlier literacy, anid imiiproved cities across the world, domestic anid industrial efflueiits qlualitv of life. Other benefits of urban life aire less are released to waterwavs with minimiial or nio treat- tangible but iio less real: access to information, diversity' meiiet threatening both human lihe,lth and aquatic life. creativity, and iiiilovition. Thesc cities still harbor huge populations of the urban Yet alonig withi the benefits of urbanization comile poor who are shut off fromil the benefits of econlolilic enviroinienital anid social ills, some of staggering pro- growth. Marny live in vast squatter settlemeilts, whiere portioiis. Thcse iiiclude a diversitv of problems, from they are exposed both to the hazards resLIltiiig fromil lack of access to clean drinikinig water, to urban air economlilc growth, such as industrial emissions, and to pollution, to greenillouse gas enissioiis. Although i rban the hazards that accompany poverty. W,o'th Resourcecs 1996-97 1 Cities and the Environment I ^~~~~~~~~~~~" Worlds apart Cities are diverse, as are tl7eir environmr7erntal problerm . In poor commiinities and cities. stuch as this newly colonized region of La Paz,. Bolivia (left). the worst probilems tend to be associated with lack of ade qtuate water, sanitation. and garbage services. By coniast. wealthier cities. such as New Yorik City (right). con- tribute a disproportionate share of greenhouse gas etmiissions. In the wealthiest cities of the developed world, cnvi- used in cities in developed regionis; thcse approaches will ronmental problems are related not so miuicl to rapid involve not only technological advanices biut also efforts growth as to profligate resource consumption. An urban to address urban poverty. dweller in New York ConIsLimes approximately three A second, aid reliated, challenge is for cities to reconcile times more water and genierates eight times more gar- the often-conipetinig demands of econotmnic growth and bage than does a residenit of Bombay (91 (io). The massive enlviroiinmental protection. For cities in developed CouL- energy demand of wealthy cities contributes a maijor tries, that means reducinig their excessive conistunption of share of greenhliouse gas emissiols. nattiral resources and its toll on the global commons. Such This special sectioni of World Resources 1996-97 straregiesarc equally importanitforcitiesintheLdevelopiiig examines the range of environmental problems alid the couLitries, if thev are to avoid the pro)bleins of affluence so forces contributing to thenm in cities of bioth the devel- pronlinent in the developed world. oped and the developing world. It then explores the ThougIl sobering, these challeiiges arc not insur- nature of the eivironniental challenge faciig rhe world's mountable. Because of their conicenitriated form and cities. The most immiiediate and pressing challenge is to efficienicies of scale, cities offer maijor opportunities to improve enviromilenital coiiditions for the urban poor reduce energy deimanid aiid minii ilize pressures on str- in the developing world. Given the constraints of rapid rounding lands aiid natural resources. If cities can har- population growth and limited financial resources, dif- ness the energy and c-eativity of thcir citizens and build ferent strategies will be needed from those previously on the inhereint advantages that urbanization provides, 2 Wor-,ld Rcsources 1 990-97 Cities and the Environment thev can, in fact, be part of the solution to the global ' . , . ~~~~~~Figure 1.1 Urban Population Growth, problems of poverty and environmental degradation. F r . b P l n o 1950-2025 URBAN GROWTH PATTERNS (population in billions) URBAN GROWTH PATTERNS ~~~~~~~~10 9 Between 1990 and 2025, the number of people who live 8 in urban areas is expected to double to more thani 5 7 billion people il). Almiost all of this growth-a stagger- 6 ing 90 percent-will occur in the countries of the devel- 5 opinig world (12,. (See Figure 1.1.) 3 In the developed world, the most rapid urban growth 2. took place over a century ago. By 1995, niore than 70 1 percent of the population in both Europe and North °1950 1975 2000 2025 America was living in urban areas o. Urban growth Rural * Urban Developed * Urban Developing continues, although at a much slower rate on average than in previous decades. MMuch of the population shilft Source: United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Urbanization now tinder wvay involves movemenit away fromii conicen- Prospects: The 1994 Revision (U.N., New York, 1995), pp. 86-101. trates urban centers to vast, sprawling, metropolitan aNote: Urban developed regions include North America, Japan, Europe, trated ubncltrtovs,srwigiitooianand Austmalia and New Zealand: urban developing regions include regions or to small- and intermediate-size cities. Sonie Africa, Asia (excluding Japan), Latin America and the Caribbean, and of the most rapidlyrowingctiesareinthesutOceania (excluding Australia and New Zealand). The European of the most rapidly growing cities are In the souithwest- successor states of the former Soviet Union are classified as devel- erm LJited States-but because this growtlh is fueled oped regions, while the Asian successor states are classified as largely by urban-to-urban migration, it does not affect developing regions. the overall level of urbanization. In the developing world, Latin Amiierica and the decades. Both Asia and Africa are expected to he about Caribbean constitute the most urbanized region-with 54 percent urban by 2025 c17t. (See Figure 1.2.) more than 70 percent of its population living in urban In some respects, the patterns of urban growth in areas in 1995 (14). Rapid urban growth is continuinig developing countries today a re not much different from especially in small- and intermediate-size cities (is5. By what occurred a centuiry ago in Europe and North contrast, Africa and Asia are now only about 30 to 35 Anmerica. Many of the forces driving urbanization today percent urban (16). It is in these regions that the inost are the saine-chief among them the shift of jobs from explosive growth is under wav, at roughlv 4 percent per agriculture to industry and services and the concentra- year. This trend is projected to continue for several tion of economic opportunities in urban areas. And Figure 1.2 Regional Trends in Urbanization, 1970-2025 A. Percent of Population Residing in Urban Areas B. Average Annual Urban Growth Rates (percent) (percent) 100 6 90- 80 70E 4 - 60 fU U 50 U..EU 40 -UE2- 320 II IIa .10EU Afrca Asia Europe Latin North Africa Asia Europe Latin North America America America America U 1970 La 1995 U 2025 U 1970-1975 I 1995-2000 U 2020-2025 Source: United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Urbanization Prospects: The 1994 Revision (U.N., New York, 1995), Table A.2, pp. 78-85, and Table A.6, pp. 110-113. \\'urid0 Resour(es 1')9(,-97 3 Cities and the Environment Box 1.1 Abidjan: A Portrait of the African Urban Experience quality, the AIDS epidemic, and grow- ing social tensions-problems renidered ing thmiore intractaible by the extensive 4 .' ' . .It j poverth of the regioni. In part, the uirban crisis in Africa can t l - I ; 7X _ be attributed to the regioni's poor macroeconomic performiance. Cote d'Ivoire's gross domiestic product, whiich grew ait an average rate of 9.2 percent between 1975 and 1979, pluniged to niegaitive levels in 1980 anid continnued to decline by an averIge of I percent between 1986 andi 1993 u(.. Within Abidjan itself, aiveriage h1ouise- hold income declined nearly 2.5 percent betweeen 1985 and 1988 in. In receint years, this trenil secims to havc been ac- centuated bv the effccts of structural ad- __ justinent, which has had a greatcr _ - _ | t -, _| U negative impact onl urban dwellers than on ruiral residents (s sgi. Yet, doespite its cconiomiic woes. Abid- Shantytown. As in many African cites, unplanned settlements on the outskirts of Ab&d- jan-like manv other African cities- ian are mushrooning. and increasing numbers of the urban poor are crowding into continiues to grow at pheinolioenial r ares. makeshift housing. The rapid urbanization sweeping the continent secims unlikyikl to slow soon; AlthoLIgIl initially a small lagoon vil- tively large industrial base. In addition, fertility ratcs remaini high in both rural lage, Abidjan, Cote d'lvoire, emerged as Cote d'lvoire has beiiefited from a sta- and urban areas. Migration has also a prominent urban center in 1891 when ble political history: Felix Houphouet played a dominant role in Abidjan's the French chose it as the hub of rail- Boigney ruled the Countrv for the first growth. According to 1988 census data. way liies linking the Atlantic Coast 33 years after independence, stepping 37 percent of the population of Abidjan with Niger (ii. For much of the 20th down onlv in Deceinber 1993 ro Konani is foreign born c(i) Recenit growth rates Century, the city flourished as a main Bedie B.) His regime stands in marked have dropped to about 5 percent, com- harbor and seat of trade. Since the re- contrast to those in countries such as pared with 12 percent in previous dec- gion's economic downturn, however, Angola, now entering its third decade aldes; still, an additional 400 urban Abidjan's prosperity has faded, and the of civil war, anid Rwanda, torn apart by dvwcllers are added each day n i) city is now faced with growing urban ethnic strife i4). Growth has been fastest on the urban povertv and deterioraring environ- In other ways, however, Abidjan is fringe, while the Plateau (the colonial mental conditions, grimly represenitative of the urban crisis center and busiiiess district) has lost In sonie wavs, Abidjaii is not repre- emerging across the African conitinent residents u l.) sentative of urban centers in Africa. On i). Abidjan's problems niirror those of This rapid growth has far outpaced a continent svhere niost urban areas are cities as disparate as Nairobi, Kenya; the governmient's ability to provide or- nio more thaii large villages, Abidjan Lusaka, Zambia; Kinshasa, Zaire; and baii services. The number of people had an estimated population of 2.8 mil- Dakar, Senegal. These and other cities without access to piped water grew lion mm 1995, making it the third largest are confronting rampant urban popula- from 80(),00() in 1988 to almost I nil- citv in sub-Saharan Africa (2. Unlike tion growth, a breakdown in urban lion in I 993-roughly 38 percent of the many cities in Africa, wlhich are priinar- services such as water and sanitation, a population (i n3. Around 3(1 percent of ily market centers, Abidjan has a rela- deterioration in urban environmental the population is serviced bv sewers, 55 although cities of the developing world are growing at uLindergoing rapid urhanizatiomi. the numbLer of cities least twice as fast today as those of the developed world, worldwide that are growing rapidly, ald the sheer these rates are not unlprecedenited. A number iof EuLo- numbLIerof people involved i)i. RoughlIy 150,000 People peaii and U.S. cities sustained very rapid growth in the are added to the urhan population of developing COeul- early 20th Century, as fast as that now uinder wavy in the tries cvery day' 2m. BeCauISC of thle huge population b-asC developinig eouLitties iX. in developing COlintries, eveni a relativelv slow rate of What is unprecedented now, however, is the absolunrte Urban growth can mniiL an enioriiious increase in abso- scale of the change, in termis of thc number of coulitries lute numbers. Giveni the huge size of the world's pmpu- 4 World RcsouMr.(s j 996-97 Cities and the Environment percent is served by septic tanks and la- community-led projects designed to in- 8. Lioniel De:icrrs, Core d'lvoire: Fentred trines, and 15 percenr must resort to prove hoLIsin1g conditions and provide Adijistienr. iii Adjoutemet ii A/lma: Les- open defecation. Most wastewater finds dwellers with commonal toilets and s51s troi i. n C:intrv Case Studle,s Ishr.it its way to the city's lagoons, which are piped water , s. In Accra, Ghana, the Huis:iin and Rashid Faruqee. eds. IThe highlv p0o1ted. Mulnicipal, industrial, development of urban market gardens World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), highly polluted. Municipal, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~p.II . 122. and hazardous wastes are combinied be- has improved nutrition and created em- 9. :aroilne ON. Moiser, Aliciai J. Herbrt, fore disposal, increasing the dangers for plovment and supplementary inconmc for an Roza E. Monerlai P. in . . *. ~~~~~~~and Roz.a E. M:likonneti, UrbanS Poeriv itz scavengers working at the site l 14 X the poor, in addition to providing 94) per- the Context of Struc tural Adjiustmien:t: Re- Deteriorating quality of life has had cent of the city's fresh vegetables (I. In ce:it Evi'dcce ald Poricy Responses (The adverse impacts on health, such as a Ndola, Zambia, Habitat's training pro- World Bank, Washiingtil:, D.C., 1993), marked increase since 1978 in citywide gram has helped residents start microenl- p. 123. mortality rates for infants. Conditionis terprises such as brick-making, not onlv 1i. Philippe Anrioiie and Aka KoLidile. "Core are the worst for the very poor in Abid- providing income but also producing d'lvoire," in Urbaniziation ii A/rica: A jan. In the shantytowns, mortality r ates high-quality building niaterials at lower Handbook, Jarnes D. T;irver, ed. (Green- for children are almost five times as prices than normally available 2(2). wood Press, Westport. ( on:iecicti:t, higlh as in the richer districts (Is). 1994, p, 147. Health infrastruCture has also suffered References and Notes 11. Op. ct. 2. pp. 1 33, 145. from neglect. While Abidjani has the 1. Koffi Atiil, l'Pla::niiig aiid Manageniieiii 12. Op. cit. -, p. Io. higlhest concentration of traiiied health iii Large Cities: A Case Studv if Ahidlan. 13. Josef Leitin.inii lUrbaniz.iioii and Emii- personniel in the country, there are still CoIte d'lvoire.' in Metropolitan Pl.ionfng ronmelit iii Sub-Sahar.nii Atrica: Aui lipi:i only 2 doctors and ¶ paramiiedics per anil Managemeniit iii the Developing to the Post-LINCED Urban Axis," drrft p.:- 10,0(10 inhabitants. Costs of medicine W,orld: A.-bideia ,i:id Quito (Lliiited Ni- per (The World Bank, Washiigtoi, D.C., anti health care are prohibirive for the tions Cenitre for HUimiall Sertleniienis, Na:- 199SI, P. 18. majority of the population. The need rois. Keny., 1992t, pp. 35- 36. 14. Ibid,. pp. 19-20. for health care is beconming more urgent 2. Ljiitred N.iious iLU.N.) Pipulation Div- 15. Op. cit. I0, p. I i4. in the face of the AIDS epidemic. In sioii. Worl/ Urban:z.aolwt. Prospec ts: The I 6. Erik Eckholiii and Juhi Tieriic., " A I)S i n Abidjian, an estimated 10 percent of 1994 Rev'isioni (lI.N., New Yiork, I995), Afric.i: A Killer Riges Oil, N iti York adLilts carry the virus. One study of rec- pp. 1.32-13). Times (September 16, 1990i1, p. A 14. ords at city morgues showed that AIDS- 3. Hoivard W. French, 'Alidl,JO loirral: NO 17. Cooperative Hoiisiig Foiiid.iiion C(HI. related illness is already the leading .lo re Paierna,:l siit Pubuic ExecLl- partnership oat i Lii'able Fnvironm:'nit cause of adult deaths in Abidjan 16). lioiin'' Neii York' Tones ( klay 15, 1995)1 ((HF, sh:ngtiii 1.C., 1992) p. 26. As bleak as the picture seems, how- p. A4. IS. Wachir.i Kiggoiho, 'N.:irib': SIiiin Upgradl- ever, several pr-ojects involving commu- 4. lohii Dariioii, "Alrica Tries Deiiiocracv, Nog Mahire, The trbrld AgB, Vnl. 3, nities and nongovernmental Fiiiding Hope ind Peril,' Nei: Y,.rk D.C., luiie I 995il, pp. 13-14. organizations are demonstrating that Ti:iies (J:ine 21. 1994). p. A9. 19. A.J. Annorbah-Sarpe; Urban Market improvements in living conditioFis are i Richard E. Stren .iiid Rodine% R. White, Gardeis: Accra," Urban Eiisiron- possible without great financial outlays. eds., Afr:c.ii: Cities ini Crisis: Mananeng meiir-Poveriv Case Stiudy Series (Thc Sonie of the most promiiising strategies Rap.l trba,in Crth (\Wesrviesw Press. IMUg.1 Cities Projeci, New. Yiirk, nd the in Abidjan and elsewlhere are those that Boulder. Colorado, anid Londin. 1989), Cenier for C.oi:niunirt Studies, Action & link economic opportunity with envi- pp 1-3 12 Deselorpmienit Accra, 19941, p. 20. ronm1enital improvemeints. In Abidjan, 6. The Wo'rld Ban:k, A/ri, an Dev':e.lopment jIn 2(0. Unired Naiions Ceiirre for Hurn,ii Settile- an innovative trash collectioin scheniie in fiicatorS 1994-95 (Tlhe World Bank, Wash- inenti (Habit.ii) C:intuniuty Participation the conmmuniitv of Alladjan not only uigtoll) D.C., 199i5, p. 33. in Zamibia: The Danl,i/dL`'N'CHS Training helped remove garbage along the coast- 7. Arelher d'ArchiectLire dUranisieetde P(Habit Nairbi. Keiv heipe but 9.3so provided ste9.dv eniplov- Topographic. Pro/il E:iiironnienital ment for commnunity meinbers ( 1c. 'A4bidj.:ii, Voliniic I, dratr piper iThe Other programs, such as the Mathare World BLink, Washiigtoi, D.C., ALugUlt Sluni Upgrading Scheme in Nairobi, are 1993, p. 22. lation, even at these somlewvhat reducedl rates of growthl growth. Each has vastly different iniplications for the the LIrbanii population w ill coiititle to increase dranliiati- Irbhan Ciivlirolnilielit anid (qL il tY of life. In the le.ist call', slowing dovwn significalitly onl' we!ll iito the 2 [st developed coutnries-, Urtan growth rates are amnong the CentLiry l. highiest in the world, at nearly 5 percenit per Year (22. Althlough rates of growthi varv draniatically frotni Betweei 1 990 anld 1 99.5, some i of these coonll- region to 1-egioli and city to city growth is generally tries-Btirkiiina Faso, Mozambique, Nepal, alid .Af- Imlost rr otiiiriced in twot contexts: iii the l)rLst regions ghan istain, to c ite a few- rt I e s owere experiencing eVe higher a nd in those regions that are undergoing rapid eeontiouic urban growtlh rates-niore thaln 7 perCent per Vear 23: WoirIti RFs'osiurces 1996-97 5 Cities and the Environment Box 1.2 The Challenge of Environmental Deterioration in Jakarta cent of particulates, 89 percent of hy- -. ti I drocarbons, 73 percent of nitrogen ox- , 1~~~~~~- . . - _| ~~~~~~~~~~ides, and 100 percent of lead). As the I _______ : ] -- : _ demand for motor vehicles rises with economic growth, attendant pollution is likelv to worsen (6). The residential - -_u1 E t ^ 9 : . . sector also contributes about 41 percent i ! xs_ of particulate matter, largely from the burning of solid waste bv households and by refuse recyclers; industry con- tributes the greatest share of sulfur ox- -_ ides (63 percent) (7I. Jakarta's air pollution is associated with high levels of respiratory disease. Respiratory tract infections, for exam- ple, account for 12.6 percent of mortal- °itv in Jakarta-more than twice the 9a national average (C). Ambient lead lev- *i __,_ els, which regularly exceed health stand- ards by a factor of 3 or 4 (9), are ' associated with increased incidence of c hypertension, coronary heart disease, Worst of both worlds. In Jakarta. glass and chrome skyscrapers have sprouted up and IQ losses in children (ioL. among traditional kampung villages. While the city must increasingly grapple with prob- Jakarta's water quality is sufferinig un- lems of air pollution and industrial wastes, residents in these settlements still face der the combined stra in of domestic threats from polluted water and inadequate housing. and industrial pollution. The backbone of the sanitation system is still an open Jakarta. Indonesia, embodies manv of concentrated in the metropolis :2). Per ditch system that serves as a conduit for the contradictorv forces at play in rap- capita income in Jakarta is 70 percent all wastewater. While this system may idly industrializing megacities of the higher than the national average 3). have been adequate for a city of less world. These "engines of growth," as With economic growth, Jakarta has than half a million-rhe size of the city they are so commonlv called, play a vi- made major strides in improving overall wheni the system was plannedt-it can- tal role in national econtomic develop- health and quality of life in the city. In not cope with the wastes of the current ment. Yet at the same time, worsening 1989, mortalitv rates for infants were 11.5 million residents In In 1989, an environmental problems threaten eco- lower for the city than for the country estimated 200,000 cubic meters of nomic prosperity and human health. In as a whole, 31.7 per 1,000 live births wastewater per day, largely untreated, Takarta, city officials have begun to compared with 58 nationaliv (4). Coin- was disposed of ito he city's water- 9 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ways ( 121 (13L Domesti'c wastewater is es- grapple with these problems in earnest. bined male and female life expectancy timated to conitribute 80 percent of Like many megacities, Jakarta is the was 66.5 vears compared with 62 vears surface water to aough indus- countrv's center of government, finance, nationally 5). trial catrg ire algroigh cncern * n w - .................... ~~~~~~trial discharges are a growing concern. commerce, and education. The city is Yet economic growth has had its In some areas, groundwater is polluted leading the country's incredible eco- costs, most notablv in the form of in- with nitrates and microorganisms from nomic growth-Indonesia's gross do- creased pollution. As with many other domestic waste and toxics leached from mestic product (GDP) increased 5.7 megacities, Jakarta faces a serious prob- industrial landfills. percent per year berween 1980 and lem of air pollution. Ambient levels of Water pollution has impacts on both 1992 ni). As much as 7 percent of Indo- particulate matter exceed health stand- human health and aquatic life. Diarrhea nesia's GDP, 17 percent of domestic in- ards at least 173 days per year. Vehicle is responsible for 20 percent of deaths dustrial production, and 61 percent of emissions constitute the most important for children under age 5 in Jakarta (14L its banking and financial activities are source of harmful pollutants (44 per- Organic pollution has also contributed Local governments are often strapped for cash and do Growth rates are also extremely high in the rapidly not have the resourtc-es to provide even the most basic industrializing cities, located mostly in Southeast Asia environmenital services for their residents. In 1994, and Latin America. Cities in these regions offer several some 30 percenit of African urban residents were not advanltages over rural villages, havinig both more nu- served by municipal water services in any forml 24j. (See merous job opportunities and superior infrastructure Box 1.1.) and living conditionis. Even so, infrastruscture facilities, 6 WVIor/ld Resources 1996-97 Cities and the Environment to the declinie of coral reefs within comes primarily from the goveririneiit lure The W/orld Bank, Washington, D.C.. Jakarta Bay (5 i) [l6). In the Angke estu- and donor agencies, although in some 1994, P. 73 ary in Jakarta Bav, the mercurv content cases coinmunitv members match these 7. Ibid. in commercial fish species far exceeds investments. The communities them- x. op. cit. 6, p. g l. World Health Organization guidelines selves are responsible for operation and 9 .r Ostr, "Estimating the Health Effects for human consumprion o-i. mainteniance of the facilities 2, of Air Pollutants: A Method with an Appli- Jakarta's aquifer is also suffering from To protect natural resources, the gov- cation to jakarra," Policy Research Work- overextraction and salinization. At least einrient passed a 1992 'spatial plan- rug Paper No. 1301 (The World Bank. 30 percent of Jakarta's population relies ning" law designed to restrict Washington, D.C., 19941, p.44. on the aquifer for water. Because the development in environmentally sensi- 10. Ibid. p. 47. city lacks a system for registering and tive areas. The government has also controlling water extraction, more been actively trving to set emission 11. United Nlromsp (t I.N.), W1 orld UrsnL.z- water is withdrawn than is naturallv re- standards for cars and to introduce un- Neio YPropc 1995: Tr 1354 charged. Parts of the city have sunk 30 leaded gasoline. Already 2,1)00 taxis es or, 9, p to 70 centimeters in the past 15 years and buses in Jakarta run on com1pressed 12. K.C. Svaradimakrishrnan, Metropolitan due to Jand subsidence (1JS Urban ex- natural gas, and planners hope to ex- Management (The World Bank, Washing- pansion into the water catchment areas pand the program to 5.),000 vehicles na- ton, D.C., 1986), p. 197. southwest and southeast of Jakarta is tionally 21). The Prokasib (Clean River 13. Op. cit. 6, p. 7(). further threatening the aquifer. Program), a cooperative agreement be- 14. Op. cit. 2, p. 35. For Jakarta's 1.4 million poor, how- tweeen local communities and the gov- Ii. Tonimv Firm ever, the greatest environmental threats erniasent of Jakarta, has managed to iian andId gys ra Dhar- nitipatni. "The Challenges to Sustainihle still occur at the household and neigh- reduce the pollution of the Ciliwung Developmenit ini Jakarta Metropolitan Re- borhood level. One recent survey found River within just 3 years, from 1989 to gioii," Habitat Inter'national, Vol. 18, No. that in the poorest wealth quintile, 3 1 1992, although much renainis to be 3 11 994), p. 88. percent of households have neither a done (24). For Jakarta, continued invest- 16. Op. cit. 6, p. 91. piped water connection nor access to a ment in e nvironmenital managenment is private well, compared with 12 percent crucial if it hopes to contain and even . op. cit. 6 p. 91. for the city as a whole (19L In addition, reverse envirolinmental deterioration. 18. olin NMcBeth, "W.ter Peril: Indonesia's the poorest households were less likely Urba,nizarion Nlay Precipirirea Warer Cri- to have neighborhood waste collection References and Notes sv," Far Eastern Econormic Rev'iew (June and more likelv to share toilers and 1. The World Baink, World Dems'elopnment Re- 1. 1995), p. 62. have problenms with flies both near the port 199'4 (Oxford University Piess, Ness 19. Charles Smirladi et al., Housebold Ent'iroin- toilet and in food-liandling areas (2),. York, 1994), p. 164. meniital Problems in]Jakartai (Stockholm Jakarta officials have taken a number 2. Giles CIlrke, Siihaid Hadiwinomo, and Josel dEn. ronme,it Institute, Sto26kho. Swe- of steps to reverse environmental degra- Leitniairn, "Eiivironmenral Profile of dation. One of the most successful pro- Ilkarti," draft paper (The World Bank, 20. Ibid. p. 9. grams has been the Kampung Improve- Washiiigton. D.C., 1991), pp. I, 7. 21. The Jkirrta Regional Development Plan- ment Project, which has improved liv- 3 .Ibid., p. 7. iting Board, l.akamrta Our Ctoy: Imiprove- ing condirioris for mnore than 3.5 mil- 4 Other ata sources sh very difereni tim ment in ihr St.zdd trsl o Living (The lion people. The program has been hers tor itfint mortality rites. The Deitii- Jakarta Regiolial Developnient Pluaning duplicated in 2(00 cities throughout In- graphic Health Survev places the national Board. Jakarta, Iiidonesia, 1985), p. 1. donesia (2( i. In partnership with local Indonesia infailt niortality rate it 74.2 per 22. lohn Silas, "Governmnent-Community Parr- cominunities, the government identifies 1,001), vith 44.9 per 1,000 for akartr. The iterships in Katirpung Iniprosenment Pro- prioritv actionis such as water suppiv WX'orld Batik reports a n.irisiil iiif,iiit mor- grammnes in Surahaya," Enin tonment and networks, which include a standpipe Tairy rare at 64 per 1,000. Houwever, in ill Urbaniamiii Vol. 4, No. 2 (Ocrober for each 25 to 35 families. Other in- cases, data suggest that infaliti mortality in 1992), pp. 3i-36. proveinents include paved footpaths Jakarta is lower than iri ruril Itidonesia. 23. Sheila Tefft, "It Searclt ol Solutions for a with side drains, sanitarv facilities, gar- 5. Op. cit. 2, p. 35. Polluted Jakarta," Cbristian Science Momt- bage carts and waste collection stations, 6. The World Bink, IiioniesiaLi-ionoie,ii tir (Septetiher 19 1994) p. 10. and public health centers. Funding and Deielopmnenet: Cl'lenl'ges ,r thIe Fu- 24. Op. cit. IS, p. L)I. such as road ietworks aid wastewater treatment plants, tips, vast numbers of poor people still live in illegal lag far behind what is needed. The result is congested settlemenits with conditions nearly as dismal as those in city streets, mouiting air and water pollution, and other the poorest cities. Thus, residents of these cities face the citywide problems. In addition, although many urban "worst of hoth worlds": the enviroiinmenital problems dwellers in these wealtlier cities live in comfortable associated with econonic growth aid the Vet unsolved dwellings with piped water and( weekly garbage pick- problems of salnitation 1s5. (See Box 1.2.) Wrtm'ltl/ Re'osuorecs 1996-97 7 Cities and the Environment Box 1.3 What Is an Urban Area? By the year 2010. well over 3.7 billion nation of criteria, such as population For all these reasons, comilparisons of people will be classified as urban dwell- density, political function, or predomi- urbanization levels, urban growrh rates, ers-more people than inhabited the nant activity of the region. or city size may be highly misleading world just four decades earlier I). These definitional differences can lo0u In addition, while rhe United Na- While some of these urban dwellers will sklew inrernational comparisons. If the tions' urban popiulation figures used in be living in such megacities as Sao Indian government adopted Peru's defi- this report are the most e xtensive inter- Paulo, Brazil, and Shanghai, Chinia, the nition of urb an, India would suddenly narional data set available, theey shouil(d majority will live in a kaleidoscope of become one of Asia's more urbanized neverthieless be viewed only as best esti- settlements: from large industrial cities nationis (5). This, in turn, would change mates. to small mercantile towns and villages, the regional urbanization levels for While the term "urbata area" is tvpi- South Asia (6). References and Notes cally used as a synonyin for "city," the Even within countries, the definition I. Unijed N.oioiis (U.N.) PopLul.tioii Div- two are not the same. All cities are or- of urban may vary. In 1990, the World sion, Woril Urbanizatiohn Prospe its: The ban areas, but not all urban areas are Bank reported that China's urbaniza- 1994 Re/is/in (U.N., New York, 199i5, cities. "Urbani" is a statistical concept tion level julimped from 18 to 50 percent p 8,. defined by a countrv's government. A between 1 965 and 1 988 c). While some 2. Jorge E. H.irdoy and D)asid Satrertihwaiie. city, on the other hand, is more than of this urban growth could be attrib- tLIrhan Change in rhe T hird World: Are just large numbers of people living in oted to economic growth and migra- Recent Trends l iseful PoLinrer to rhe Ur- close proximity to one another; it is a non, it is largely explained by the bai[lre"' H,ibitat linterna,tioiial, Vil. complex political, economic, and social 10, No. (1986), p. 34. eitity. Cities around the world symbol- government adopting a new definition 3. 11 id. enty. of urbani in 1986, which included manv ize their nation's identity and political agrarian commullitiCS Since 1986 4. °r cil. ,. pp. 40, 4i-4,, 48-49. strength. Cities are also centers of eco- agr c nities Sne 1 ,O t.p4io8 nomic production, religion, learning, China has agami changed the definiton s. op. it. 2. and culture ~~~~to be more accurate-in 1990, C hina's h O i dcatuse. each country sets its owndefi- population was considered 26.21 per- ' O Becausc each country sets ItS owni defi- cen Ura 8.7 The WYorld Baik. WKor/ad Dere1loplmicult Rc- nition of "urban," there is a bewilder- cent utrbat Is. p:. rt i99i aoxford llnivtrsirv ireis, Newi itg array of definitions around the Defining urban is further complicated pork 1990)ord. i P8 world. Governments of small or rela- by the dynamic nature of cittes. In both tively rural counitries may sinaply de- developed and developing couintries, ur- 8. U itited Nititions UI.N.) Fconoin ic t ad SiiS ciiil Cotniitissioin fuir Asi. and rhe P:tcilic, clare one or more settlements urbata. ban activity tends to move beyond es- State of rbiztatimi ini Asia arnd tlsi Pa- regardless of size or function (2. In tablished urban boundaries. Depending ci/bc 1993 (LIN., New Yiork, 199.3). manay countries, the definition is based on the bountdary used, Tokyo's 1990 p 2-2. ota a threshiold number of inhabitants; population could range frona 8 2 mil- 9. Roinaij CvIriwsky, 'Toky0," (it/.c. Vol. when the population of a region ex- liot people (in the 23 wards of the cen- 10, No. I (Fehrui;ry 1993). p. 3. ceeds a certain threshold, that regiota is tral city) to 39.2 million people (in the considered urban (i0. This threshold National Capital Region) (9i. At night, n0 Uitied Namirns Centre Uor HuWiiirh Sette- ratages from a few hundred, as in Peru Tokyo's central city population may ac- Ghl Rpirepor on Human S.ittlle'enis and Uganda. to more than 10,000, as in tmally be nauch lowver, as conamuters 1996 (Oxfird liiiversiiv Pres', Oxiiord, Italy and Senegal (4i. Other goverta- leave the downtown area for their sutb- Uliiiied Kingdiimt. aiid New York, (996), ments base their definitiota on a combi- utrbati homes. p. 1-IS. The raipid growth rates of matla cities in developing Any such rankings andd conmparisons, however, Iust coulitries, coilibined with their hug1 e Population bases, be approached with caLItionl, because the POPLI latiena of are pushing Cities to unliprecedentedi sizes. In contrast to a given city depenids Otn how its bounlaries are cho- earlier in the century, most of the world's giant urban sen-for instaice, whiethier the historic citv hoLIndarv or glonleraltialls arc now and Will contilLue to be in the the bouLndlaries of the exteinded metropolitan region are developling world, used (2C). (See Box I .3.) O(ne coM1monly used naetric for measuring urban Table I. I shows the world's 25 largest cities and tleir growth is the "megacity, defined as a city with a recent gro\wtrh rares. \Vith a few notable exceptions, populatioai exceeding 8 imillion. In 1 950, jusr two siChl suchi as Dhaka, Banigladesi, anad l iagos, Nigeria, the nIlegacities existed: New York, with a populatiota of 1 2.3 aninual growthi rates of manly of these were relatively millio, and I Ondon, witl 8.7 million (2(6). Bv I990, modest during the early 1 99()s although it is unclear ther-e were 21 riegacities, 16 of thenm in the developing how niucli of this apparent slowdowin is dule to tile world 2-). In 201.5, there will be .33 megacities 27 in dispersioni of the population to areazs right outside offi- the developing world Ž. ciall IouLIdclries 8 Wonl/d Resources 1 9) 6- 97 Cities and the Environment Table 1.1 The World's Twenty-Five Table 1.2 Population in Cities with Largest Cities, 1995 More Than 1 Million Residents, by Average Region, 1950-2015 Annual Total Population in All Cities with Growth Rate More Than 1 Million Residents Population 1990-95 (population in millions) (millions) (percent) Region in millions) Tokyo, Japan 26.8 1.41 1950 1970 1990 2015 Sao Paulo Brazil 16.4 2.01 Africa 3 16 59 225 New York, United States Latin America 17 57 118 225 of America 16.3 0.34 Asia 58 168 359 903 Mexico City, Mexico 15.6 0.73 Europe 73 116 141 156 Bombay, India 15.1 4.22 North America 40 78 105 148 Shanghai, China 15.1 2.29 Source: United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Population Los Angeles, Prospects: 1994 Revision (U.N., New York, 1995), pp. 12,14-17. United States of America 12.4 1.60 Beijing, China 12.4 2.57 settlellmenlts cai swell to huge proportions-beconiing Calcutta, India 11.7 1.67 Seoul, Republic of Korea 11.6 1.95 Cities UlltO theinscives. These ulllnntentled" cities, as Jakarta, Indonesia 11.5 4.35 they have been called, niay be rechnicallvy ith il the Buenos Aires, Argentina 11.0 0.68 boundaries of a metropolitan area but are bevond rthe Tianjin, China 10.7 2.88 Osaka, Japan 10.6 0.23 service doiiini or taxatioil reaclh of the local govern- Lagos, Nigeria 10.3 5.68 Tnent [;4). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 9.9 0.77 Alonig with populationi growth have collie cha nges in Delhi, India 9.9 3.80 Delar;hi, Idistan 9.9 30 the physical dimensions of cities as tiey sprawl ilito Karachi. Pakistan 9.9 4.27 Cairo, Egypt 9.7 2.24 wider regions. Somzetiniies called "exteiided imetropoli- Paris, France 9.5 0.29 tan regions" or 'functional urbani regiois," these in- Metro Manila. Philippines 9.3 3.05 eIU(de smnallel- uLrban centers and eveni rural areas outside Moscow, Russian Federation 9.2 0.40 of the urban core whose populations aid activities MT Dhaka, Bangladesh 7.8 5.74 Istanbul, Turkey 7.8 3.67 clearly part of the functioning of the city Lima, Peru 7.5 2.81 Th is phrenomenon of urban sprawl h,is been espe- Source: United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Urbaniza- ciallv nianifest in the lInited States. The traditional tion Prospects, 1994 Revision (U.N., New York, 1995), Table A.1 2, pp. 132-139, and Table A.14, pp. 143-150. dointoxvli has beeii replaced by urlban regions such as Silicon Valley in Califoriiia. wlhere enterprises are coii- ceiitrited alolng m1a or roads a1iid higlwayvs, tra nsforiii- Ntlalv Ililtei-iiieLilate-size cities niav ac 1ttall% he rrowv-l -any iitrndaesz iismy ta b rw ing the urbaiii hrandscape iiito a stril1g of 100-in ile nig faster oii average than the largest cities, at rates well " t, ci~~~~~tite. In1 tlzc developin1g wvorld, iii;iily cities renia;li over .5 pereniit per year. As a result, there Is a prolifera- compact because inf-rstruCture aid labor are still con- tion of what have b een called "miilloni cities" (with centrated in city centers and transportation a11 COIn- poPLilatiolns of between I milioil andl 10 nulliion) ii, munications systemis ar less developed w. Yet cities (See Table 1.2.) B 2015, there will be 516ofthesecities, sch as San Paulo Mexico City, Jakarta, and BombaX conipa-Lred wvith only 270 in 1 990. Snia ll cities, home to Lire all eqy erlen1ting Increalsing dlecntra;lliation. Wlile more thani half of the world's urban dwellers in 1 990, some expal1sio1 results frong tle slburbanizatio n are also experiencing exre-niely rapid POPU la tioii high-inconle groups, a large share can be attributed to growth ;2. These cities are often especially affected by atteimipts by low-inicomiie groups to escalpe the highi land inadequate investmlenlt in envirolnienital infrastructure pr-ices in the citv's core. The speed of this decciitralital- or services, because many cotiuitries di-rect their re- tnoln .1ad its spatial coifiguration vary greatly from city sources to the larger urban centers. to citvy Sonie of the liost rapid Lirbil growth is occ-urriig ill Sprawvl is not ioncomliitant with rapid Oplolationl distincr parts of cities-either within the officiall urban growth, howeve; altrhough it ml ay seemil rhar way ill a tea or on the periphery. The Urbaln friiige of lakarta, North America. Whereas Bangkok, Thailand, Manila, I]idonesia. for inst;ance, is growinig iiuchi faster than the Plhil ipplies, and Ja arta have spreadl like citics in N orrh city itself-in some areas at niearly I 8 per-cenit per year America, Shanghai, Clima, aiiid Scoul, RCpubliC of Ko- ( ;; Spontaneous, or squatter, sertleiileiits in particular rea, remain iii iclc more comipact. The densities in parts tend to grow nmuch faster thlan the rest of the city. These of Shanghai and C alcuItta, India, rminge between 80)) and Wuorll Resources 19')96-97 9 Cities and the Environment urbanization brings health and social benefits thatcould Table 1.3 Urban Versus Rural be achieved in rural areas onlv at far greater costs. The Demographics and Health in Kenya, data are sparse and not always reliable, but access to 1993 drinking water, sanitation, healtlh services, and educa- Urban Rural tional opportunities is often dranmatically higher in ur- Residents Residents ban areas overall than in rural areas. As a result, life (percent) (percent) expectancy is usually significantly higher and infant Household population with mortality significanitly lower in urban areas overall than no education in rural areas (39Y t40). These benefits, however, often do Female (6 years and above) 13.5 29.1 not extend to the poorest grouLps within a citv, as is Male (6 years and above) 7.0 18.2 described below. Household possessions and amenities Radio 67.7 48.1 Urbanization and Economic Growth Television 22.0 2.4 Electricity 42.5 3.4 The steadv increase in the level of urbanization worldwide Drinking water piped to residence 55.8 10.7 since the 1 90Ss also reflects, to a large degree, the enor- Flush toilet 44.9 1.6 imous chaniges in the nature and scale of ecotionolc activity Health of children worldwide. Urban growth is inextricablv liniked with eco- Mortality rate of children under nonlic growth, although it is not enitirely clear which fuels Infant mortality ratea 4545 956 which. Aggregate and per capita incomiies tend to be higher Percent of children between 12 in more urbanized regions of the world (41). and 23 months with all Cities provide a natural locus for economic growti. vaccinations 80.9 78.3 Commerce and induistry concenitrate in cities because of Underweightb 12.8 23.5 the economies of scale they offer. "Cities are extraordi- Maternal health narilv efficient," notes one commiientator. Thev "opti- Women receiving tetanus toxoid during pregnancy 92.9 88.8 xmize the use of human and mechanical energy, they dumenreceiving pregnancy 92.8 allow for fast, cheap transportation, they provide flex- Women receiving prenatal care e rv from a health providerc 97.6 94.5 ible, highly productive labor markets. They facilitate a Women receiving delivery care diffusion of products, ideas, and human resources be- from a health providerc 77.6 39.2 Total fertility rate 3.4 5.8 tween urban, suburban, exurban, and rural spaces" 421. Source: Institute for Resource Development. Demographic and Health In a self-perpetuating cycle, coinmmerce anid industry in Survey Data Archive. Columbia. Maryland. turn attract the ancillarv services needed to support Notes: a. Deaths per 1000 live births. Mortality rates by characteristics themn. Such interdependenicies give iurban areas a clear such as place of residence are based on the last 10 years prior to competitive advadntage for industry anid comnmerce; few the survey in order to ensure sufficient sample size. Mortality rates are based on a minimum of 500 live births. Industries can survive elsewhere (4;1. b. Underweight is defined as the percentage of children whose The efficiency inherent in Urban areas translates into height-for-age, weight-for-age, weight-for-height z-score is below -2 standard deviations from the median of the International Refer- ma or gains i prodtivity. In developing countries, ence Population (WHO/CDC/NCHS). urban areas produce as much as 60 percenit of total gross c. Doctor, nurse, or trained midwife. national product withI Lust one third of the population 144,. These economies of agglonieration, as they are often called, are especially importanit when a city's economic 1,000 people per hectare, and in Bangkok and Seoul base rests on manufacturing. Yet cities have held their between 300 and 400, as compared with 70 or even allure, even flourished, when the economic base shifts fewer in most North American cities s As is discussed from manufacturing to services such as finance and in Chapter 3, "UrbaLn Impacts on Natural Resources," banking, as it has in much of the developed world. urban form has important environmental implications. Despite predictionis that cities would he rendered obso- lete by advances in global telecommunications, for in- stance, the opposite has happened. WHAT FUELS URBAN GROWTH? Indeed, many scholars argue that such econiomic changes are giving rise to a new class of "world cities" Cities are growing because they provide, on average, that are the nerve centers of an increaslingly global greater social and economic benefits than do rural areas. economv (45). And it is not just New York, Paris, Tokyo, (See Table 1.3.) The higher capital investment caused by Los Angeles, or other powerhouses of the developed 10 World Resourccs 1996-97 Cities and the Environment world that dominate this global scene. Cities as diverse between 40 arid 60 percent of annual urban populiition as Berlin, Sao Paulo, Beijing, Bangkok, Mexico City, growth in the developing world {il. Migration is ex- and BLudapest, Huungary, are emerging as world powers pected to be a major factor in the coming years in in their own right. Transformed into "traisinational regions with large rural populations, especially those spaces for econonic activity" i46), these world cities have where ruiral poverty is rampaut, as in Africa and parts more in comnion with each other than with cities within of Asia. their regions or natiolis. Despite the dual role of natuiral increase and migra- While these trends can bring enormous prosperity to tion, manv countries still tend to view urban growth as certain locales, thev also increase social and economic a "problem" of niigration alone. Concerned about bur- inequities. Globalism's sweep is far from uniform. As geoning populations, a number of governments in both Barcelona, Spain, and Singapore flourish, other cities, tie developed and the developing world have adopted especially old industrial or port cities such as Detroit policies to restrict the flow of migrants to cities. Few anid Liverpool, United Kingdom, are left further and Policies, however, have met with success. further behind. Disparities also increase among cities in the same countrv. Sao Paulo, for instance, has emerged Ing rural-to-urban migration are coniplex. Migranits are as a major bLSiliess and financial center at the expense not onlv pulled toward cities by the prospect of jobs and of Rio de janeiro, once the most important city in Brazil h A4-. Within cities as well, globalism exacerbates in higCher icomes, they are also pushed out of rurlll areas equalities, astedispariteswdeamong the icomes sch factors as poverty, lack of lnd, declining agr of hligh- and thwdsare wider cultural work, war, and faniine. The favelas (squatter ofhi andilow-wntag workeratoils. of these ecotiotiiic settlements) of Rio cannot le understood Withlout ref- The environmental1 implications of these econloniric errctoheLfudaaisyemnrrl ri , , .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~renice to the latifttEZtdia Iland svstenm in rLiriil hra7il, changes are significant. As cities compete with one landholdings concen- anothier to attract manufacttiring and other services, the wrich is har d by a rge bargaining chips are soinetlimes cheap labor and lax deIn to e to a n uani parta cor phe enviroiinenital conceris. Thus, globalization mav well household survival strategy, in wic faniilies mioiniamilze lead to greater environmental deteriorationi and aggra- v'ate existing ineqtuities of income and access to basic risk by placinig menibers in differenit labor markets (i4,. services (4X). Nor is migration alwavs permanent; many migrants circulate between Lirban areas and their rural home (is,. Considerable diversity also exists amolig migrants Migration and Natural Population Increase themselves, for instance, in their age arnd educ.ationl (is, In addition to economic activity, major demographic Various studies suggest that the vast majority of forces underlie Lirban growth. In the earlier waves of migrants feel that relocationi to the city' has improved industrialization, rapid urban growth was largely fueled their situation, even if not as milich as they might have by rural-to-urban migration. In the developing world hoped (-). In New Delhi, India, a survey of poor mi- today, however, the natural increase of the urbani popu- grants froiii rural areas found that their incomes were lation is at least as iniportant as migration (49). The high 2.5 times greater than they had been in the village, rate of natural increase in these cities, however, does primarilv because thev could find ahout twice as man' tend to follow niigration, because most migrants are of days of work in the citv (is). reproductive age. Another contributor to urban growth Other migrants, however, are unable to find work or is the reclassification of citv boundaries, which can are forced to take ill-paying or hazardourS jobs. Unable result in dramatic changes in urban size (io). to generate enough inconie to meet their basic nceds for The iniportance of migration varies considerably by food and shelter, thev join the ranks of the urbani poor. region, and migration flows in all directions, not just rural to urbal. In sonie countries, rural-to-rural flows may be of a larger scale than rural to urban Si). What Employment Opportunities is often overlooked is the role of migration in the growth Unemployment is a significant problem in most cities in of cities in the developed world, where fertility rates are developling countries, because the formal economies of relatively low. In the United States, muchi of urban Africa, Asia, and Latin America are unable to absorb change now under way sterns from the movement of the enormous influx of workers. Given the urbanizationI people from one city to another s2. rates these cities are now experiencilig, the demand for Figures on rural-to-Lirban migration are notoriously new jobs will be intense: Starting in 1 990, it is estimiated difficult to pin down, but it is believed to accounit for that an additional 35 million jobs per year will be WoJ7Idl Rcsources 1999-97 11 Cities and the Environment required to provide employlment to all new labor force million 71). In Asia, large decreases in the proportioni of participalits (59) the population living in poverty were reported for the As a result, a substantiall nuLimber of the developing rapidly growling economies, such as Malaysia, the Re- world's Lirbail poor make their living throLugh subsis- public of Korea, and Indoniesia 72). However, South tence activities or inforimial jobs-namely productionl Asia is expected to conltilnuc to hoLisc a large share of and exchang- outside of the formal market. These jobs the world's urban poor rLll the galmlut from01 providinig services such as garbatge Reliable data are lacking on the scale and intensity of collection anid domilestic help, to providing goods such urban povertv in Africil, although the proportion of the as food and building materials in small stores, to sniall- popLIlationI living below the poverty line is likely to have scale clothinig manufacturing. Inforimial jobs iiake tip a growni because of the region's poor macro-economiic estimated 75 perceilt of urban employniciit in many perfornce (7) The incidence of ruL-al povertv is still coulitries in sub-Saharan Africa and between 30 and 50 significantly highier- than that of urban poverty, i ut that percenit In Latin America emii iet. difference appeiars to be narrowing (-i). Debate oni the role of the so-called informal sector in Povertv has also risci steeply in the coulitries of natiolial econiomiiies is ramipanit (2' (). Until recently, Central and Eastern Europe as thev struggle with the inforimnal jobs have been viewed as Llisconnected fromi the transition toward a market economny ei. Cities that real" econiomiyv of a city, yet evidence suggests that relied heavly on industrial production are experiencig infor-limal jobs are well integrated and contribLite directly record numbers of unemployed as factories shut down to the urban economv as a whole e64l. In addition, a p led aiicl pr odLICttlOI IS CUrtallced seenilylgiv iiforimial jobs often have direct ties to a city's I ~~~~~~~~~~In Nortlh Americal ad( niiduistrl.al ELirope, most of thce formal enterprises. For instLnce, scavengers In Hanoi, population, and thLs imost of the povertv, has been Viet Nam, obtainL and clean chicken bones that end up c in parmciesIn tal as ilgi-picedCZICILIII tiple- conicentrated III urbaln areais sliice the beginninig of the n parmiiaces in Italy as high-priced calcium supple- Ientury Is . The chiaracteristics of urban poverty, how- ments e6S). ever, ire changing. As the mianufacturilng base of many Witho some exepth ions howev inhriitle jobsrte cities has decilined and the middle class has flecd to the t(o pay less well than formal ones and offer little security or benefits. In Latil Amilerica, iicomlies fr-omii informal suburbs urban poverty has becomeconcentratedin the jobs wvere on average at least 40 percent brelow those ninner cities and among ethnic miniorities, especially in earned In formailLl emiployienit; in the 13 countries stud- North America. (See BOx 1.4.) ied, the average incoile received by those emnloved Il In developed regios as well, uneployment is a in forma.l jobs w as \vel Ibelow (official poverty' lines c. ^ primary factor contributing to urban poverty. However, in contrast with cities in the developing world, the gro0wth in Lirban nilemiploymilent in cities in developed regEions is the result of a combilinatioln of slow macro- URBAN POVERTY ecOlOInoic growth, techinological change, export of Historically', poverty has been conventrated in rulrail manufacturing johs, and increases in the female labor areas. Yet as the bulk of the world's populatioii shifts forc r'ons me oppanufacturinig os are transported to from rural to urban areas, poverty is becominig an other regions, few opportunities are left for inner-city increasingly urban phenioniienon. The \Vorld Banlk esti- pior who tenid to be geographically isolated in the mates that in 1988 approximatelv onie quLarter of the urban core and are often uLinable to reach jobs in the developing world's absolute poor were living in uirbanl suburbs. Especially in iiner cities, the mismatch he- areas ef.) By the year 2000, ihalf of the developinig twveen the education levels of the residenlts and the levels world's absolute poor will be in urban areas i. Several needed for the locally available jobs greatly contributes factors, including structurLal adjustment programis, eco- to poverty. (See Box 1.5.) In New York City, 33,209 new noiic crises, aild mIassive rural-to-urban migration, jobs were created between 1980 and I 990(-nearly a 10 have conitr-ibuted to an increasing numibiier of urban poor percenit increase-but 162,7319 nianufacturing jobs since the I 980s ew were lost durinig that same period (5(6. Urban poverty is especially pronouniced in Latin Available poverty figures are likely to underestiniate Amierica. In this region, the absolute nuiber of urban the extent of urban poverty, because global data are poor already surpasses the numblher of rural poor -in). scirce. The issue is compliCrted by the fact that defini- Between 1970 and 1990, the numeliir of urban poor tions of poverty differ from countr-y to CoLuntry. In increased from 44 million to I1 15 nillion, while the addition, absolute poverty figures describe households numiber of rurail poor increased fronm 75 million to 80 whose incomiies fall below a set level, LIsually deteriined 12 W%`orld Resources 1996-97 Cities and the Environment URBAN VIEWPOINT Box 1.4 Sharing Responsibility for Inner-City Problems Protecting the environment has usually dency, rising crime, and public health in terms of broader regional or metro- meant halting the encroachment of de- problems too numerous to mention. politan-wide units. Here in the United velopment in pristine areas. And envi- There has been an unfortunate ten- States, that requires greater acceptance ronmental protection has most often dency in this country to blame these of mutual responsibility by local govern- been defined as something outside of, problems on the urban poor. But it is ments and increased cooperation across and mostly unrelated to, the concerns the sheer number of poor people and traditional jurisdictional lines. For ex- and interests of our cities ij. the density of poverty that have eviscer- ample, in the seven-county Minneapo- Those of us who have been grappling ated these communities and turned lis-St. Paul region in Minnesota, 188 with the problems of U.S. cities have thenm into places where there are few vi- municipalities have been pooling prop- been concerned with jobs, housing, and able businesses and no job base-where erty tax revenues since 1971. They have transportation. We have been con- there is virtually no chance to lift your- been redistributinig those revenues to cerned with public services-schools, self and your children to a better life. achieve greater parity in resources fire protection, law enforcement. With Spatial separation by income and eth- among jurisdictions. The city of Min- the exception perhaps of air pollution, nic group can spur environmental degra- neapolis, which was once a net revenue environmental concerns have been too dation. When better-off people abandon recipient, is now the region's largest net often perceived as a luxurv reserved for communities, thev also abandon their revenue generator. the suburbs. stake in the physical well-being of those No amount of enlightened regional At the same time, the poor, especially places. Thus, places where the poor and governance, however, can succeed oln- poor minority U.S. residents, have be- politically dispossessed live inevitably less we reduce concentrations of pov- come increasingly concentrated in inner become places where environmental ertv. We must dismantle the barriers cities. Once the anchors of the United problems are too easily ignored-where that separate poor minority people States' industrial manufacturing base, sewage systems break down, where from the rest of society. Those people inner cities are now paying the price of water purification is inadequate, where who live in these isolated urban pockets years of environmental abuse. Busi- vermin infest garbage-filled lots and in- must be enabled to move into the wider nesses have moved to the suburbs or vade dwellings, where children eat lead community where they can find jobs overseas and plants have been shut paint from walls in deteriorating apart- and gain access to better services. At down, leaving behind "brown- ment buildings. the same time, these distressed commu- fields"-empty buildings on containi- We are beginning to understand in the nities must be restored as places where nated lots that no one wants to United States that withdrawal from the people of all ethnic groups and income develop. This legacy of industrial pollu- cities is no answer. Middle- and upper- levels can choose to live-because there tion contributes to the poverty in these income families may flee to the sub- is decent housing, because the streets communities by imipeding revitaliza- urbs, but the problems of the inner city are safe, because the schools are good, tion; it leads to communities that liter- are sure to follow them. because there are jobs, parks, libraries, ally cannot sustain themselves. The problems of the inner city may and other amenities that make urban Clearly, environmental concerns are follow in the form of increased public living attractive. In a diverse commu- critical to the future of our urban com- outlays for welfare assistance, indigent nity where everyone has a stake, envi- munities. Today in the United States, as health care, and public safety, draining ronmental concerns are addressed and in other countries, many of us are wres- scarce resources from other needs- the quality of life improves. tling with the concept of "sustainable schools, parks, libraries. And they may -Henry Cisneros communities," trying to develop new follow in the form of expanding concen- ways to integrate environmental con- tric waves of crime, drugs, and violence cerns with issues of economic and so- that spill over into neighboring areas, Henry Cisneros is Secretary of the U.S. cial equity. eroding their stability and threatening Departnment of Housing and Urban The U.S. experience has shown all too other, more removed areas in turn. Development. Washington, D.C. clearly that while social and economic Evidence has showvn that there is a di- divisions are inevitable, they are poten- rect correlation between the economic References and Notes tially devastating when they become health of greater metropolitan areas 1. Box is excerpted froni a speech presented spatially fixed in urban settings. When and the economic health of central cit- ar the Second Annual World Bank Colnfer- poor people become concentrated in ies. When central cities flourish, sur- ence on Environmentallv Sustailable De- precisely defined geographic areas, their rounding communities flourish as well. velopment, Septeinber 19, 1994, problems are sure to grow almost expo- Where central city economies stagnate Washingion, D.C. nentiallv. We have experienced this first- and decline, the economies of surround- hand in our most populous cities, ing greater metropolitan areas stiffer. Yet where the concentration of mostly mi- most cities remain politically divided nority poor in inner cities has been ac- from their surroundinig communities. companied by soaring unemployment, Part of the solution to the problems increased and prolonged welfare depen- our cities face is to think of governance \\W or1t Rcsourcses 1 991_ 97 13 Cities and the Environment by how muchn money would hypothetically be required more likely to face pressures that either contribute to or to buy a basket of basic goods and services. Poverty exacerbate conditions of poverty (X21 iS ). Women face a lilies, however, are ofteni set unlrealistically low. In some number of social barriers that limit their access to couLitries, the poverty line is set at the same level for incomiie-earning opportunities. In many countries in the both urban and rural areas, not taking into accounit the developing world, for instance, girls and women still do higher costs of living in cities. not receive the same amount of schooling as do men (841. Nor can poverty be adequately described as just a Within poor households, girls and women often receive lack of econonmic resources or access to basic needs. less food than males and inconme-earning adults (xsi. In Poverty also involves relative deprivation or inequality coLlintries where womeln do not have the right to owni in access to income and miaterial goods anid serv- property or gain access to credit, sudden loss of a ices-anid in1 most coulntries, icoine inequialities are partner or job cani leave the houIsehold without anv wider in the city hanl in the countryside. Another miieans to stay afloat. shortcomi-niig of inicomie-based mieasures ot .poverty is Children are also especially vulnerable to poverty. that they do not describe the nunibers of people who According to World Bank estimates i the year 2000 hover juSt above the poverty line anld who cai easily be hAlf of th hildret bornl in ulrban areas in developin g throwin into poverty hv any number of setbacks, such I wIl be in poor families %6. Child poverty i as tne loss of a lob or s'uddeni llless (s8i~.cuirc i IIi stronglv self-perpetuating. Poor children are more likely Certain g-roups within cities-iii particular, women, to be underweight and malnourished and to suffer ill childi-eii the elderv, nmigrants, aind minorities-are tob newgltadmliushdrdroufril children, theelerly, igrant,and inoriteshealth and earlier death than their wealthier counter- parts (87). Many poor houseliolds rely on child labor for survival, yet this work is often at the expense of school- ing and the health of the clild, makinig it difficult for the next generation to escape from poverty. An increas- ing number of clildreli are also facing new danigers iassociated with homelessiness and street life-an esti- :,~! m iiiated 100 million cllildren struggle for survival daily on citv streets S!) iX91. - . I ~~~~~~~Ho'useholds bieaded by womieni teild to be dispropor- ,,:. ',, , :l:!l' :::!t1s 6 7 - 3 tionately poor, and their proportion appears to be gr-ow- ingo especially in large urban areas 1 ()) (')i. In poor households in the developing world, women often take oil the triple role of incoine eariling, clild rearing, and houselhold Imianagemi-nent (92T. When wvom1eln 111USt spelid - ~~~~ a signiificant proportion of thieir timne collecting water or fuel, they have less time vaillable for income-earning rativities. However, the iincrease in feniale-headed households has positive aspects as well. loor hotise- 1 ; _1holds may be better off when headed by women thani i;men , 31. Numerous studies have shown that womeni and 3| ^ i childreni in female-headed households tend to have bet- ter diets than those in male-headed houscholds of simi- lar incomes, and children are less likely to be withdrawn from school at an early age 94). Environmental Implications of Urban Poverty The urbanization of poverty has implicationis for the urban environmenit and quality of life. For one, the Relative deprivation. hI hItost coiinit,itS incme, ineietialities afe urbani poor bear the greatest burden of urban cnviron- mnute app7oiei?t in the city tthal ti ti 0Ll1tlVM. Iit Naiuhi mental risks because of the situations in which they are (cbo vc) inuO ut/W CtleS, the ;)ou l IvtO11 lve lQ017/IS/lCtO tc IVod/t1y. forced to live-whether in the sprawling squatrer settle- 14 World7 Resources 1990-97 Cities and the Environment ments of developing world cities or in the blighted urban given housing security, these same individuals often centers of Europe and North America. beconie substantial agents for environmental improve- Throughout the cities of the developing world, any- menit. where from 30 to 60 percent of a city's population lives Similar trends are evident for the poor who reside in in substandard housing (9s). Unable to afford even the many of the thriving cities of developed regions. Al- lowest-cost housing, many of the poor build their own though the environmental health threats they face pale makeshift shelters oLt of cardboard, plywood, or scraps in comparison with those experienced by their counter- of metal. Overcrowding increases the risks of airborne parts in developing regionis, their burden is excessive infectionis and accidents. Many poor neighborhioods are nonetheless when compared with circumstances of the often unserved by water and sanitation facilities and wealthier residents of the same city. garbage collection. In sonie cases, local governmenits are Manv of the urban poor lack access to safe and unable to pay for extending services to these regions; in affordable housing. Extended families crowd into one- others, they are reluctant to do so because such action bedroom apartments, often with rodent infestations, might be seen as conlferrinig legal statuIs on what thev gas leaks, and broken heaters. In the United States, consider illegal settlements (9). Whatever the reason, the elevated blood lead levels, often from dilapidated apart- lack of services increases the risk of initestinal infections imient buildings with peeling lead-based paint and poor and other communicable diseases (97. In Manila, nior- venition, threaten the well-being of more than 1.7 tality rates for infants are three times higher in the slums million children. The most vulnerable are low-income than in the rest of the city, rates of tubercIlosis are nine imiinority children in central cities 1lO71. Cold, damp times higher, and three tinies as maniv childreni stiffer honmes impair the health of poor Lirban dwellers. In from malnutritionl 19X). Britain, hypothermia results in approximately 30,000 the urbanl poot are also forced to make trade-offs to 60,000 excess winter deaths eacih year, especially between affordable housing anrd environmental safety among the poor aild elderly who live in poor-quality bewe afodal h.Ili a,devriietlsft housing 1(io8s. As is discuss'ed in(.hapter 2, "Urban and protection i(99. SqLuatter settlements are often lo- h cated on land nlo one wants-whether on flood plains Environment and Human Health, some of the major or on steep hillsides, where they are vulnerable to threats to the health aiid well-being of tie Lirban poor flooding and mudslides. are emerging from the social environment of cities. , ; . . . .................. In the United .States, studies emerginig from the new Proximity to induistrial facilities, often the result of the fIeld , "nvir talesustuice sugiges thahardu desire of the poor to live near places of employment, poses seld of ien c vroitimeintal 'tusticei suggest that haardeLIS another set of risks. The 1984 accident at the Union waste sites, inciierators, and p01l.tng ldustries are ,. , ., . . , ,. ~~~~~~~disproportionately located near poor aild miniiority coni- Carbide factory In Bhopal, India, caused 2,988 deaths and at least 100,000 inijuries, affectling mostlv residents of the munities, whether urbani or rural, althOigh these studies shant\.towns iieiir the chenilcal factory (i .oo). are controversial mom Methodological differences aside, The townsonear theo chemicalbtfatory local enviro nmthere is little doubt that poor people and mi-norities are The poor also conitribute to local environmental far more likelv thani their wealthier counterparts to live degradation, mainly becaulse the city fails to provide L, e ,~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~i b liEghgted ileighborhoods niear iuldustria I sites, exposed them with the necessary services. If solid waste is iOt to a variety of pollutants. collected, for instance, people must dispose of their own garbage and often do so in inappropriate dumping areas (]o(). Denied access to suitable land for housing, families may settle in protected areas of the city, on fragile ecosystems such as wetlands i02). Disposal of human As centers of population and human activities, cities wastes from the over-water settlements in cities such as consume natural resources from both near and distant Salvador, Brazil, and Manila can be a major source of sources. They also generate waste that is disposed of water contamination mooi. When low-income groups both inside and outside the city. In the process, urban engage in environmienitally degrading activities, however, areas generate environmental problemiis over a rainge of it is usually b ecause they' have no alternative m0)o (m0i). spatial scales: the household and workplace, the neigh- The poor are understandably reluctanit to invest borhood, the city, the wider region, and the globe i io). heavily in improving the household or neighborhood Urban environmental problems also create a range of enviroinienit siiice they could be evicted at any given social impacts. Thev may impair humani health, cause timie (I1)6). As is described in Chapter 5, "JUrbani Priorities economic and other welfare losses, or damage the eco- for Action," and Chapter 6, "City and Coinmunity: systems on which both Lirban and rural areas depend. Toward Environimiienital Sustainability," however, once Most urban environmiental problems entail all three of Worldt Resousrc-es 1996-97 15 Cities and the Environment Box 1.5 Detroit Battles Long-Term Effects of Suburban Flight In 1915, Hcnirv Ford's Model T auto- Current statistics are a stark contrast. struction allowed plants to be located mobile rolled off the firsr moving assem- In rhe past two decades, Detroit has at grcater distances froin materials i n). blv line and catapulted Detroit, lost 32 percent of its population. The Today, the lack of public transportation NMichigan, into international renown as suiburban exodus of jobs and workers facilities limits job opportunities for in- the birthplace of modern industrial pro- has trapped Detroit in a downward eco- ner city residents. Four in ten Detroit duction. The assemblv line revolution- nomic spiral, leaving the local govern- residents between the ages of 18 and( 65 ized manufacturing. When Ford melit witlhout sufficient funds to do not have a car anid are unable to announced that workers woul(d make manage the city. In addition, the per- reach the jobs located primarily in the $5.00 for an S-hour shift-in contrast centage of poor has more than doubled, suburbs (ItL to the standard wage of $2.75 for a I 0- from 14.9 percenit in 1970 to 32.4 per- Many other cities in both the LUnited hour shift in the countrvside-crowds cent in 1990 (6). Infant mortality rates, States and the United Kingdom face of eager workers lined up outside fac- though far below their 1920 level, are similar problems of suburban flight and torv doors i). Detroit's population three times higher in Detroit (21 per industrial downsizing. While in 195(0, quadrupled in onlv 20 years, from 1,000 live births) than in the neighbor- 60 percenit of the U.S. urall population 285,704 in 190(0 to well over 1 million ing suburb of Warren (7 per 1,000) (-a lived in central cities and 41) percent in hv 192 1 ln (3. Bv 19.50, Detroit's popu- The murder rare has risen steadily, from the suburbs, by 1 99), the proportions labtion WilS a st 1 Detritn popu- 32.7 per 100.00 population in 1970, to were reversed-60 percent lived in the anosnwas Walmot 2 million. tinspied by 45.7 in 1980, to 59.3 in 1991 s) (9! (ltuL suburbs and 40 percent in central cities planners were buiibding roads and Detroit also faces its share of orban I ii. Yet many of these cities havc manl- houses for a eity of 8 million a41 environmental problems. Neighbor- aged to temper the negative impacts of Forty-five years later, hiowever;, De- hoods are lined bv abandoned buildings these trends through new' partnerships troit' population is again hovering and garbage. One of the most pressing with the private sector, with neighbor- problems is the emergence of "brown- ing suburbs, or through commnunity around the I miliso mark. Ironically, field" sites-land and buildings con- leadership. Newark, New Jerseyv for cx- taminated bv previous industrial ample. has activelv recruited recvcling new urban transition: one of suburban activitv that now stand emptv. While industries to the ciry, promoting eco- flight. In 1911, one writer aptly oh- the presence of brownfields does nor nomic developnment and jobs at avail- served that the city had "the possibility translate into huriian exposure to toxics alble sires zoned only for industrial use of almost unlimited expansion, with or land contamination per se, it does de- (14. The city of Leicestcr, Enigland. is us- ealsy access to places of labor. It is sig- tract from the economic value of the ing a grant from the national govern- nificant that practically all the automo- land. Companies are hesitant to invest ment to clean up vacant land in the citv bile factories, which have been built in the land because of expensive center anid is broadening the city's econi- within the last five years, are located on cleanup regulations. omy witlh the addition of a new re- the outskirts, where before there were Further exacerbating the chasm be- searclh science park iisi Jacksonville, great tracts of vacant land" (i. tween inner citv and suburb is the lack Florida, has consolidated its citv and This suburban flight has brought of an adequate public transportation county governments enabling the citv to along with it a new set of urban prob- system. Before World War 11, most fac- share resources wvithin the region uJ,, lems. far different fromii those Detroit tories were located along railroad lines, Detroit, however, has failed to attract faced ar the dawn of the Automobile and workers' homes were clustered new businesses, such as bankinig or Age. In 192(0, with waves of migrants near train stations. As motor vehicles other service industries. Attempts at es- seeking jobs in the new automobile in- became less expensive, however, indus- tablishing metropolitani-wide planning dustry, the city lacked adequate shelter tries began to use trucks instead of have failed, and polirical decisionmak- for m(ore rhan 30,000 families, trains to move materials. Freeway con- ing often breakls down inrto debares be- these im1pacts, either directly or indijrectly. For examipie, a citv's size and rate of growth, inicomie, local gtogra- r-1ball air pollrtion hals a Lirect im1pact on h Linlall h', cliniate, anld institui[ional capalhiIities. Especially health, iniceasinig the inicidenice of respiratory disease, where local governimnilts are weak or underfinanced, Its inimpacr on rhe economiiy is mia inly indirect, arising rapid econiomiiic or piptilation growth can exacelrbate largely fromi prodLIcti vity losses dine to ill lealtlh 'ln. these problemns. Environimental managernent tenldis to b)e n)iore diffieult in very large cities. For one, the Determinants of Urban Environmental financial resontces needed to provide services to tells of millions of people alre daunting. Compounding rhe Problems idifficulty is the fact that the largest cities ofteni are mladle Environniental prolblens vary from city to city anid nLpof mllal local rtirisdictionis witlh overla ppinhg respoin- r egion to region and are influenced b)y suclh variables as sili lities i 1t) e It 16 World Resources 1996-97 Cities and the Environment tween the wvhire suburbs and the black 19ia, 38th edition (U.S. Governineiit 12. UIritred States (U.S.) Bureau of rhe Census. inner city. Whereas in 1950. polities Printing Office. Vashiiigton. D.C., 1916), County and Cit's Data Book: 1994 (U.S. were *dominated by a strong Demo- p. 40. Governmelit Printing Office, Washington. wvere donminited bv a strong Demo- cranec party and Active labor unions the 3. Op. -it. 1, p. 106. D.C. 1 994), pp. 75, 764. active engagement of civil societv in 4. Ed Hiisroles, "City Life, Scene,, Feelings," I I. David Ruisk, Thin.kinig Regionially. government is sorelv lacking 1i1) in Detroitt Livies. Robert H. Mast, ed. Stretching Central Cities," in The State of The election of a newx mavor in 1994 (Temple Lniverstir l'res, PIiil.delphia, tbe Americant Communtity: Entpoueernnent has htought sonic hope to the city. 1994). pp. 156- 157 fi,r Local Actionr, Roben H. McNulty, ed. Spurred by the belief thait the citv gov- 5. Myron E. Adams%. "Detroir-A Ciry /P,Wrttiers for Livahle Communittities, Wash- tackle Detroit's ills.on Aswake," Suriev (August 5, 19 11), as re- iitgtonD.( D... 1994), pp. 42-43. ernmient caninot tackle D)erroit's nis on erntseon the cannot 's office is vw orkin priiired in Detroit Perspectlives: Cross- 14. Newark Public Inforitation Office its owen, the miayor's office is working ts. Wilma \VWoid. (NPIOI. "Cirt of Newark to Attract Recy- to facilitate partnerships with commu- ed. (Wayne State University Press, Detroit, cliitg Businesses to 'Planet Newark?'' press nity tmemnbers and private businesses. In Michigaii., 1991), p. 289. release (NPIO, Newirk, New Jersey, Jlne addition, Detroit recently, won a $1(00 6. United States (U.S.) Bureau of the Ceiisii, 13. 1994), pp. 1-3. miillioni urban redeveloptnent grant Piii'ertv in,, U' [(nitd ealies 1992 (U.S. I S. Depirtiineiti of the Fns ironnient, City frotia the national govertnieint to en- Governmncitr Prinirng Office. %X%tshirigroi Challenge: Partnershtps Regenerating Fng- courage tiew busitnesses to move to the D.C_ 1992). p. 46. (mnd's Urbani Areas (United Kitngdoin De- central city Ix1. 7. Office of the State Registrar arid Dtvisiin partment of the Ettvirotittent, London, The zone marked for renewal encom- of Health Staristics, -T,ible 7: lhilitt 1994), p. 12. passes the far east side of Detroit, Deiths. Live Births aitd lnTtailt De.ath through the Woodward corridor and Rates: Selected Michigan (lities, 1992 and 16. Op. cit. 1, Pp. 48-49 into southwest Detroit 19c. Median fam- 1993," unpubisched dita (M,iciigait De- 17. Hatik V. Savitch and Paul Katitite Urban ilv income in the zolce is under $10.300 partittetit ol Pitblic Healih, Grand Rapids, Mobilizatioii of Private Capital: A Cross- a year. and 47 percent ofresidentslivelMichigan. 19931. Natioi,l Cisnipa rison," Occ;tsion.tI Ptper za yeari and 47 percent of r-esideiits live Seie No' WorwWlo nefa below the poverty litie (20(. The redevel- s. United States oU S.) Bureati of the CeTistis,. Series No 3 tWoodtosvWtltn nterns- .Statstcal fitr,it o thet lttedStaes,tiotta Cetiter toir Schoila rs, Wash ingtiii, opmtnt proposal covers a range of ac- 19-2 93rd editoil (U.S (iovernnieiit D.C.,1994), p. 2n. tivities from jol) tsraning to buil(ling Pointing Office, Washinigtoii, D.C.. 1 972), IS8. John 1Lippert atid Roger Cliesley, Juist a renovarion to classes on paretnthood p145. Niiodest $2.2-Billioit Proposal." Detroit [21). Bv the year 200)5. Mayor L)ettiis 9 l. United State, [U.S.) Bureau cit the Census. e Net' and Frce Press (No'etnber 1 3. Archer hopes to create 5,800 new jobs Statistical Abstr.act ,the United St.tes. 19941, p. IF. in the area ,22L Cooperative ventLires be- / 91). 1 02nd editiiini (U.S. (.overtitient 9. 19 foiL tween banks, schools, and aOLto compa- Printing Oftice, Washington. D.C., 1981), tites are expected to puInp an additiotial p. 175s. 20. Op. .-t. 18, p. 4F. $1.9 billion into the cotoimunitv over I 0. Unired Stares i U.S) Bttre.iu of the Cetistis. 2 1. Sain Walker, "Detroit Battles Decay. Job- the next If) vears and generate at le,sst St.tti,ct,l Abstract o/ the Utieild States. le6sness in tUiltim.ire U.S. Tesr uf Re- 3,275 mnore jobs (2 it. 199i. 113th editiot iLI.S. Government nesval," Christian Science Monttor Printing Olfice, Wasqhingron, D.C., 1993), IFebriL.try 9, 1993), p. I8. References and Notes P. I95 2. Op. cit. 18. 1 Airlitir Nl. Woodford, Detroiet: Apn(rwn 11. Episcpal DLiocese otlMichigin. "Ihe 31 Op it 21. I. An i-e R itnaI.Woo(oed, Detroit:nei-al H4ertc.in Emerging Pattern: A Regia.li Perspc- L½ banZ R civitss.wg,i (Ciiiiti neiir.t I Hentel-ge. riye," is repriTIted in Detroit Pi'rspectses;: Inc., Tulsa, OklIa honma. 1 9791, ps. 91 . :Ci,rossro,ids apid Terztig Points. Wi)nma 2. llirte(l States ( U.S.I Bureaiut if rhe Cenviis, Wood, ed. I Wayne State Ui.iiversitv Press, Slt,itstz,al Abhstra.if ./the Umiled Staltes, Detroi NI ichigai, 1 99 1 , pp.544-54s. Iniconme InI poor cities, and partictilarly their poor neighbor- Onle of the ilost inliportant deter-milialits of a c*itvs e:livi- hoods, the imost tlireateniig enevtroninieiital problems ronlelta l pr-oblemiis is its incomlie level. As the wealth of z3 arc LISLIal ly those close to iolnie I 14I. The dangers of eitv grows, iluan types of eivit-oniietital degradation first expostire to elivirotinlelltal risks are high, especiailly for iiicreaise and then eventually diminish. Other environi- woinieli atd childrrcH, Ina .dequate hoLsehold water S11p- mlental problems increase withi wealth. (See Figure 1.3.) plies alre typically iiiorc crucial to people's well-being The inicomie level at which a City undeL-goes these than pollLuted waterways. There is often imore cXposurc claiaiges differs videly. \'astlv different envirtonlIlaeIital to air pollution in siniokv kitclienis thain outdoors. Ctonditionis Can lie foutnd in cities of compara ble wealth. \X/lste aCcuniulating, ulnCollected, In the neighiorhood Policies, as well as demiography iand geogr.aphiy, caii poses illore seriotIs problemns than the waste at the city mnake ain enorilloiis differeiice, dumps. I-I uman excreta is fre(luelitly the mlost Critical World R( sotrtccs 19996(-)7 17 Cities and the Environment pollutant, and unsanitary conditions in the hoine aiid Consumed aid greenihouse gases emittedto support even neighborhood are generallv more of a thl-eat to health the cleanlest cities in developed counltries are, on a per than industrial pollution, cipita basis, far greater than those associated with the These problems, so prevalent in cities in the develop- poorer cities of developing regiois. Indeed, the largest ing world, stem frommvriadcaLises, including the inabil- per capita urban con1tributors to global environmental ity or unwillingness of local goverinients to provide for problenis are the wealthy, living preponderantly in the basic needs of citizens-whiclh in turin stems froml a lack urbani areas of the developed world. of revenue-generating capacity. Another key factor is the Not confronlted with the direct impacts of their ac- poor's lack of access to suitable land for housing. tivities on the global environment, wealthy cities and As income increases, urban households and cities as countries renid to have fewer incentives to addrcss them. a whole consuine far more resources, suclh as energv In mauilifacturiig, for example, relatively little progress water, and building materials-and generate far more has been iiade in introducing "clean" productioll in the of certain types of wastes. Yet the rich devote part of broadest sense of the termi or in shiftliig from the linear their wealth to measures that protect thiemi fromil enlvi- ima Iterial flows that chiaracterize most modern technolo- roiniental hazards. The problems close to hlomiie are the gies to rhe closed cycles that mrnanys advocate (l I i). As first to improve as wealth inicreases, genierally because with global wzariimig, the costs are often seen as too they are the most threateninig ant] requlire cooperationl uincertain or too distanit to compel action nlow. oni onlv a relatively small scale. However, while these In its broad outlines, the transitioni sumllinarized improvements redduce personial exposure, thiev ofteni above suggests an association amiionig a city's wealth, its simply shift the problem elsewhere. Waterborne sewage environmenilt, anid the health of its citizenis. Generally, sysrells, for example, reduce personal exposuire to fecal the poor create enviromilenital problems for themseives material. However, if sewage is discharged withouit aind thieir neighibors, while the wealthy create problems treatment, it can lower the quality of a city's waterways for a wider public. and strain water supplies. Electr-icity is a cleani fuel where it is used, but electric power plants cani be an Natural Features important source of amblient air pollutioni The niatural featurcs of a citv anad its surroundinigs-its ThLis, even as household and neighborhood environ- mental problems recede from prominence for a growing deranso t he atu re al prob- number of a CitV's population, citvwide anid regional lems. Clate or tance, dtermin ic dIsa lenis. Chinate, for Inistance, dererm'iles wvh'ch cl'as problems, such as ambient air pollution, water pollu- s ^ ^ ~~~~~~~~~~~vecto's canl tlhrive. london has lieeil spar-ed froni nia- tion, and hazardous waste generation, miLv increase. LI laria niot because of ItS weailth bhut because It is too cold These problems tend to be severe In rapidly induLstrial- fOr the mosquito veor to survive Mexico City and Los izing cities of the developing world and in the transition I AngXeles are especialli pla1gued bN air p ollutionl not only, economies of Central and Eastern Europe. wlhe-e indtis- from the number (f cars per capita-associated with trial activity often occurs withlout adequate concerni for income-buit also because thev are bounded b y moun- its environmental implications. (See Box 1.6.) Lack of tains that prevent dispersal of air pollutants Cities in investment in urbai Infrastructure, suclh as Increased cold regiois oftei conlfroit air pollution pro(blems stenii- road networks and sewage treatmenit plants, and weak ming from eniergv use for domestic hcinlig, especiallv environmental protection laws witlh lax enforceilient, wlhere low-Luality coal is used, as in northerni ( China and exacerbate these probleiiis. E asterni Europe ( 1i(I. In high-income cities, such as those in Europe and When natural featur-es are combined witlh the level North America, manv of the worst city-level probleins andl type of econiomic activity they can be used to have been addressed. For instance, malv cities in the predict wlhichi types of problems are likelv to be severe developed world have imiproved the qtiality of their in differelt tvpes of Cities (I ). For exaiiple, air pollu- ambienit air and water over the past decades. A weealthy tion problemns trend to rise with temper-ature extremes. city can more easily afford the public finanice anti ad- In cold areas, iore fuel is used for heating; in warm, ministration needed to regulate the more perceptible sunny areas, contributions to ozoine formation iiicrease forms of pollution. ovving to the release of hydrocarbons and nitrogeni But while the ambienit enviroinmenit of high-inconme oxides, particulalyv fromll motor vehicle fuel. Air pollu- cities may actually be more benign in term1s of the health tioin also rises with inconme level IcCause, ilS is described impacts of pollution, these cities exert a far greater toll above, levels of car use, industrial production, and fuel on the regional and global enviroiinment. The resources consumption are higher in wealthier cities. 18 World Resotirces 1 99'(_97 Cities and the Environment Figure 1.3 Environmental Indicators at Different Country Income Levels, 1980s A. Population without B. Urban Population without C. Urban Concentrations of Safe Water Adequate Sanitation Particulate Matter (percent) (percent) (micrograms per cubic meter of air) 100 100 1\8001 90 90 1,600 80 80 1,400 70 70 1,200 60 60 50 50 1,000 40 40 800 30 30 600 20 20 400 10 10 200 0 0 0 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 per capita income (U.S. dollars, log scale) per capita income (U.S. dollars, log scale) per capita income (U.S. dollars, log scale) D. Urban Concentrations of E. Municipal Wastes F. Carbon Dioxide Emissions Sulfur Dioxide per Capita per Capitaa (micrograms per cubic meter of sir) (kilograms) (metric tons) 60- 800- 18- 50- 700- 1 6 40 ~~~~~~~~500- 12- 30 400 1 8 20- 3006 200 4 1.00 1,00 0,00 10) 2 100 1.000 10000 100,000 100 1,000 10,000 100.000 100 1.000 10,000 100,000 per capita income (U.S. dollars, log scale) per capita income (U.S. dollars, log scale) per capita income (U.S. dollars, log scale) Source: The World Bank, Wormd Development Report 992(The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1992), Figure 4, p.1 1. Notes: Estimates are based on cross-country regression analysis o data from the 1980s. a. Emissions are from fossil fuels. The Brown Agenda rthan, say, the destruLCtion of tropical forests, and in Althugh ost f th word'spopuatio wil soo be immiiediate human termis, they m-ay be the MOSt uirgent Alhvinghi deeopin ofteworld'ctis, p ulthei enirlsonm ena of all wvorldwide environmental problemis d1221. This Is problemsn meeostproinen inothes cities, thae ofternnbeena not to arguie for less attenitio)n to global concerns, but croblnispic ously rnleti hscte aeotnbe for the recognitioni that urban and global concerns are coniSPICUOLsly absent from the global environmental ageida. Inideed, over the past two decades the global ilitertwined and must loth Ie addressed This section agenda has shifted away from local anid regional prob- focLses on the "brown" problemsso proinent in many lems such as air pollution and inadequate water supplies of the world's cities. toward vast global concerns such as ozone depletion, climate change, and the loss of biological diversity (I W8 an Aware of this disconnect between the "green" agenlda One of the greatest threats to human health in the and the problems confronting cities, a number of re- developing world is the lack of adequate water and searchers, international donor agencies, and nongov- sanitation services. The International Drinking Water ernmental organizations over the past few years have Supply and Sanitation Decade brought significant pro- advocated a renewed focus on the "brown" gress-the number of urban residents with access to an agenda-that is, the problems of pollution, poverty, and adequate water supply increased bv approximately 80 environmiental hazards in cities (ii') (120) (1). As one percent-but those gains were overshadowed bv rapid scholar noted, "The adverse effects of household air- population growth. In 1994, at least 220 million people borne and water-carried wastes on child mortality and still lacked a source of potable water near their homes female life expectancv are of no less global proportion (i2i). (See Table 1.4.) World Resouirces 1996-97 19 Cities and the Environment Box 1.6 Pollution and Health in the Transition Economies One of the primary challenges for ur- lead and nitrogen oxides as more peo- sometimes exceed 40 micrograms per ban areas in transition economies is to ple gain access to cars. Between 1986 deciliter, especially in city centers with clean up the pollution resulting from and 1993, per capita car ownership in- heavy car traffic (ii). Bv comparison, in decades of uncontrolled industrial pro- creased bv 34 percent in Hungary and Vancouver, Canada, where unleaded duction n u. Since World War 11, these 64 percent in Poland (s (6). Many cars gasoline is mandared, average blood lev- countries have promoted heavy indus- are old and inefficient. In Katowice. for els among 2- to 3-year-olds is roughly try, a resource-intensive and highly pol- instance, 75 percent of lead emissions 5.3 micrograms per deciliter. luting economic sector. The lack of come from cars that are 10 to 30 years High levels of air pollution have also sufficient environmental regulations old and still burn leaded fuel 7). been linked with acute and chronic ill- and incentives to conserve resources, in- Recenr evidence suggests that the re- nesses such as asthma and bronchitis, crease production efficiency, or reduce gion's pollution is one of several factors as well as increased mortality. In waste and pollution has greatly exacer- adversely affecting human health, al- Krakow, Poland, an epidemiological bated environmental degradation, though exact cause-and-effect relation- study showed an increase in lung cancer Since 1989, the region's economic ships remain unclear. In contrast to risk- among residents of rhe city center; downturn has led to reductions in both usual demographic trends, life expectan- in the past, especially, the central area industrial production and pollution. In- cies in Poland's urban areas are lower was heavily polluted bv the extensive dustrial production in Bulgaria, for ex- than in rural areas; pollution is also con- burning of coal to heat buildings and ample, fell by more than 50 percent centrated in urban areas s8x. In the homes (i2L between 1989 and 1992 (2). Annual Czech Republic, life expectancies in ur- At the same time, urban residents in mean sulfur dioxide concentrations in ban regions affected by heavy air pollu- the region are facing increasing risks Prague, Czech Republic; Bratislava, tion are significantly lower than for the from crumbling infrastructure and dete- Slovakia; and Warsaw, Poland, declined country as a whole (9). riorating health services. Throughout by 50 percent between 1985 and 1990 (3. In several cities, especially mining the region, there has been a resurgence Despite such declines in industrial towns, ambient lead levels are high no). of "poverty diseases" such as diphthe- emissions, however, both short-term Exposure to even low doses of lead can ria, tuberculosis, and hepatitis, provid- and long-term sulfur dioxide exposure cause subtle brain damage and learning ing graphic evidence of the decline in in the region still regularly exceeds problems in children. Average blood lev- sanitary conditions, hygiene, and nurri- World Health Organization guidelines els among exposed children in Central tion il). Housing stock in particular (4). New threats ro air quality are emerg- and Eastern Europe are often greater has suffered from neglect. In Russian ing as well, such as rising emissions of than 15 micrograms per deciliter and cities, 20 percent of the housing stock These statistics probablyl uliderestimate the actual urban residenits in the developling world have ai hoUse- numliiber of people inadequately served. Definitions of coniniected water supply, oiily IX percenit of low-inconie what constituites an adequate amoulnt of safe drinlking residents do, I 1'. In niany cities in developing Countries, water and sanitation vary fronm country to couLntry. per capita water availalbility in marginal scttlenments can Although maniy goverinimlenits classifv the existence of a be anywhere fron 3) to 1(0 times less than in better-off water tap within 100 mieters of a house as "adequate," neighborhoods (12h' 112911 (I . Those withotut access to a sucl a tap does not guaranitee that the individuIal house- safe water supply m ust buy water from vendors at costs hold will be able to SecurIc enough water for good health. of anvwhere from 4 to 100 times higher than the cost CommunLInities of 500 inhabitants or more are often of water froin a piped city supplv (Iii). In Lima, Peru, a served by onIIe tap d 24i. Communal taps ofteii tlilCtiOil poor family pays morc than 2() times what a milddle- onlv a few hours each day, so residents muist wait in long class famLily pays for water I lin lines to fill eveii one bucket. For example, in Lucknow, The proportion of the urban population covered by India, a city with alniost 2 miillion people, water is sanitation services is even smaller. Morc than 420 rnil- availale only 10 hours each day 125). In snialler cities, lio1n urban residenits do not have access to eveni the the situationi can be muchi worse. In Ra jkot, India, for simplest latrine X i. Many resort instead to open defe- example, a city witil a population of 60(0,000, the piped cation on land or in waterwa vs. As with the statistics water ruiis for o(ilv 20 min1Utes each dav i 26r. House- on adeqjuate water, estimlates of the number unserved holds cann(nt obtain sufficietir water for washing, laun- are probably lowv because they do not reflect the actual dry, and perso(ial hygiene if it takes too long to fetch functioning or use of the facilities. and if the water has to be carried long distances. These figures also hi'de considerable ineqUalities Statistics on national coverage also hidle inequLalities amionig the rich and poor. In developiing couintries, 8 witlhin a city. Altlhough 80 percent of high-incomIe percenit of urhan low-inicomlie dwellers have a house 20 W'rld Resources / 990-97 Cities and the Environment lacks running water, sewerage, and cen- sian Federation, the Republic of TaIiki- World Bank, Washingtoli, D.C., 1995), rral heating 1J4). stan, the Republic of Turknienistan, p. I In response, many municipalities are Ukraine, and the Repuhlic of Uzhekistan) 9 Ibid. implemienting broad-based strategies to aid the couintries of Central Europe (Alba- 1 Op. ct.3 p. 269. curb i ndustri al pro llution. In Kat o wice tonia, B uilgaria, the Czech Rep uiblic, H u ni- curb industrial pollution. In Katowice, gary, Poland, Romaniii, and the Slosak 11. Op. cit. 8, pp. 20)-2.5. for example, the Minister of Environ- Republic). 12. Op. cit. 3, p. 302. mental Protection, in cooperation with 2. Janiisz Cifalil, "Energy Reform in Cenrral 13. United Nations Children's Fuind local officials, prepared a list of the and Eastern Europe," Enzergy Polico Vil. (UNICEF) International Child Develop- most polluting industries and ordered 22, No. 6 (June 1994), p.490. inient Centre. Crisis in Mortal it'e. Health, them to reduce emissions. Katowice has .3. European Ensironmenit Agenlcy, Europe's anid Nuitritiont. Economies in Transition also expanded its air quality monitoring Eio'-ironz,netnt: The Dobris Assessment. Studies Regional Moniitoring Report No. system, which is now the most exten- David Stanners and Philippe Bourdeau, 2 (UNICEF. Floreoce, Italy, 1 994), p.54. sive in Poland I i). eds. (European Environmenit Agency, Co- 14. Op. cit. 3, p. 274. Novokuznetsk, Russia, has forged a penihageli, Denmark, 1995), p. 268. 15. Wo1ciech Behlo, "Katowice, Poland: Indits- partnership with the LU.S. citv of Pitts- 4. IbOd. trial Air Pollution iand the Air Proteci oni burgh to exchange information about Prograim," in The Huimani Face of the Ur- the linksbetween pllution ad health S. Motor Vehicle Manuifacrturers' Associa it bani Eni.'ionment, Proceedings oftbn' Sec' he links bet een pol luion and heaelth (MVNMA) of the United States, MVM -Af4 ooid Annual World Bank ConlferenLce on and to learn from Its experiences In .4otor lVehicle Facts &I Figures '86 Enviironimentally Sustainable Detl sop- tackling industrial pollution (16L (MVMA, Detroit, Michigan, 1986), p. 37. mepit Isma7il Serageldin, Michael Cohen, h, American Automobile Maniufactiirers' As- and K.C. Sivaraimakrishrnan, eds. (The References and Notes s>ciatiLMn (AANIA), Motor Vehicle Facts World Bank, Washington, D.C., Seprein- I. The term 'transition econiomies" lacks a C? Figures '95 (AANIA, Wa'ashington, D.C., her 19-21, 1 994), pp. 66-69. fornial definitioin, btut is used here to in- 19951. p. 47. 16. Viktor Zimovievicli Koltin, InstirtLre for clude the successor states of the former So- , Bok I E Advanced Training of Doctors, No- vier Union (Armeiia, Azerbailaii, the Jle BorKiewice, etaht " ireiraT vokuznetsk, Russia. 1 994 (personal coin- Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Estoi- Profile of K,towice,' draft paper (The municatioti). nia, the Republic of Georgia, the Republic p. 9. of Kazakhstan, the Kvrgyz Republic, the P Republic of Larvia, the Republic of Lirhii- 8. Clyde Hertnzman, Eniironment and Health ania, ihe Republic of Moldova, the Riis- ini Central ,nd Eastern Europe (The sewer coliliectio(n, compared with 62 percent of urban Wasteu'ater Disposal high-inconme dwellers ( 1 ;4,. Low-ilicomiie fanillies often share liatrines witlh 1 00 or mor-e other conlIlinitv Illelil- lIn the developing world, it is estimated that nmore thain hers, and lonig linies or overflowing tanks dleter residenits 90) percenlt of sewage is dlischiargedi directly illto rivers, from usilig them at all. Likes, andl coastal Watels without treatmiliiir of a nv kind Poor sanitatioin poses health hazards throLigh several I ;x). Of India's 3,1 19 townis and Cities, oInlv 8 hlVe full rolites- ilcldinig direct expostire to feces nieilr hollies, wastewater ctollectioii and t-eatetlint facilities; 209 have contaminated drinking water, ingestioin of fish from partial treatimienlt facilities i1 ,-). Even in higher-income polluted waters, and ingestion of produce that has beell Countries such as Chile, where sanitation services are fertilized bv wastewater. Inadequate access to watel and relatively well developed, domnestic wastewater is still sanitation facilities is the maini cause for rhe initestinal the maill threat to water- quality. Santiago hals only one diseases, traismilitted by feces, that are so prevalent in small pilot wastewater treatmelit lplait, wlhichi processes developing coulitries. Two of these diseases, diarlhea a mere 4 percent of the city's wastewater; the rest is and intestinal wormTn infections, acouLInt for an estimated dumliped iiito the rivers that run through the city i 140). 1)0 percenr of the rotal burden of disease in developing Disposal of donlestic wastewvater renmalins a problemln coulntries I I5) although by no means as severe, in wealthier regions as An estimated 2 million fewerchildieni would die fromn well. In memiber countries of the Organisation for Fco- diarrheal diseases each year- if all people had access to nonic Cto-Operation anid Developmeniit (OECD), ap- adequate water and sanitation facilities, according to proximately one thir-d of the population is still not the World Bank j is. Diarrheal diseases alone killed served by wastewater treltilicilt plilalts 4,. Many older more than .3 million childreni in 1993) and cause some U.S. cities have outmoded sewer systemns that collect 1 .8 billion episodes of illiess annilallV (I -. wastewater and storm water togethier, so thait when Wor- ld Rcsouracs 1996-97 21 Cities and the Environment rainfall is heavy, untreated wastewater is released through overflow drains 1421. Table 1.4 Urban Water and Sanitation Coverage, 1994 Asia and Middle Latin Indoor Air Pollution Service Africa Pacific East America Water Indoor air pollution from burning of Percent of population covered 68.9 80.9 71.8 91.4 low-quality fuels, such as charcoal or Percent served by House connection 65 48.4 89.7 92 animal dung, has been largely conisid- Public standpost 26 24 9.3 33 ered a rural problem. Yer many urban Other 9 27.6 0 4.7 residents of the developing world rely Sanitation on biomass fuels for cooking and heat- Percent of population covered 53.2 69.8 60.5 79.8 Percent served by ing. In many smaller urban centers in House connection to Asia and Africa, between 50 and 90 sewer/septic system 53.0 42.7 100.0 91.2 percent of domestic energy supplies Pour-flush latrine 3.0 43.1 0 2.1 come from these materials 143i. Expo- Ventilated improved pit latrine 13.6 2.7 0 0.9 tends to be highest for women Simple pit latrine 22.4 8.5 0 5.4 sure tends to be mghest for women and Other 2.6 3.0 0 0.4 young children, who often spend many Source: G. Watters, Health and Environment, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1995 houirs indoors and cooking over open (personal communication). fires; indeed, they face greater exposure to pollutants from ilndoor than Outdoor air (144). aninualiv, reducinig the chance that these children will Data are scarce on the number of people affected by face permanient respiratory damage (i5i;. Improving indoor air pollution, especialiv urban residents, buLt iI uran air quality shld a r t i 1992 the World Bank identified indoor air pollutioni as hronic and infect respiator dieases. one of the four most critical global environmental prob- Urband airfutyin tesmore dieveln Urban air quailltv In the miore develop)ed coLunrries Ihas lems (145). Indoor air pollution contrihUtes to acuite ems ,,, Indoor air pollution conrhtestoacute generally improved over the past two decades, largely respiratorv mnfectiotis II yoling children andl chroiii'c - I from advances in controlllig emissions from stationarv lung diseases and canicer in adults 1461. Acute respiratory i soLurces such as power plants. Rising motor vehicle use, infections, principally pIeLlmonia, are the chief killers in part reflecting the increasinglv sprawling form of of young children in developing countries, accounlting for an estimated 10 percent of the total burde, of many cities, now poses the greatest threat to air quality infec- . .4) H i 5 (I 6). By contrast, Lirban air quality has gener- dilsease. Smoke contributes to acute respiratorv m fec- dionsethas Smokse conetributes to acuteon respator y a ally deteriorated throughout the developing world and tions that cause an estimated4milliondeathsannally the formerly socialist econonmles. The reasons are in- among infants an(d children 1147l i 148)... ..... . . icreasing power generation, rising industrial activity, and rising motor vehicle use-especially of poorlv main- Urban Air Pollution tained vehicles that use leaded fuel XI si7. Worldwide, more than 1.1 billion people live in urban Air quality seems likely to worsen with rapid urban areas with unhealthful air (149), exposed to a cocktail of growth unless rigorous pollution control measures are pollutants released from industrial, energy, and vehicuL- puIt into effect. In many cities in developing countries, lar sources. Air pollution is particularly severe in motor vehicle use per capita is relatively low, so cars are megacities such as Beijing, Seouil, Mexico City, and still a minor contributor to air pollution Car owner- Cairo, Egypt, each of which exceeds WHO guidelines ship, however, is sparked by both increasing incomes for at least two of the pollutants that WHO monitors and urbanization and is expected to skyrocket. In 1990, (Iso). In Mexico City, suspended particulate matter from the global vehicle fleet (excluding two- and three-wheel vehicles and others sources contributes to 6,400 deaths vehicles) totaled some 580 million, but this will grow to each vear, and 29 percent of all children have Linhealthv an estimated 816 million vehicles by 20 1 0 (1 5). Most of blood lead levels X Eii . The World Bank estimates that if this growth Will occuir in the developing coLintries and particulate levels alone were redLIced to WHO guide- in C entral and Eastern Europe. lines, between 300,000 and 700,000 premature deaths Lead is particularly hazardoLIs to human health, and per year could be avoided globally i.52). That is the cars that still rely on leiaded gasoline account for tip to equivalent of roughlly 2 to 5 percent of all deaths in 95 percent of airborne lead pollution in cities in devel- uirban areas that have excessive levels of particulates. In oping couintries i i91. The World Bank projects that addition, chronic couighinig in urban children under age Linder an "Lunchanged practices" scenario, lead emis- 14 could he reduced hy half, or about 50 millioni cases sions could increase fivefold froni 1990 to 2030 (16,). 22 Worldl Resources 1996-97 Cities and the Environment Even witli efficienicy reforms andL polluriotia baeet -batem mealsuires, lead emIlissioIns WoLIl I not Llisaippear uIIitil a fter 2010) 1 1 , For nian v cities in developling cotinitrie, stic, as '-_i Cairo and Ba ngkok, ambient lead levels of 1.5 iliero- *4 graims per ctil)Cbicete are coili[oni iiC01) 11)11 1164). In lI contrastr, leadl levels typically ramuge fromi( 0.2 to 0.8 MiC ogranims per CiC mlletel iHI iimost Northi A niericin andE Ftiropeaii cities i Along roads with high rra ffiC | * i ' deiisity, lead levels tend to be especialaly lvigh l1l(. Resi- A - ; denits Of tIle LnuimeroulS informal settilements that are located next to nimlor roadis are rh us Subject to high r A levels of exposure ,r Urban ailr polllution niot only impairs human health bLt also damage,s rrops, vegetation, .l n a iin-made - structures, including historic MoInum isII. These effect- , 't are mIore diffiCLlIt to (lLuanti fyt Howevei acid rimi and . transported air pollkitamuts from automobiles and h-av ' - iiidLtistrv 1hve conitri bited ro thle dec inc of foiest trict's A - j~ J downiwiniid of Lirbail areas ',h-) is5. As iS no0ted above, '. ciries are also among the m jor contributors to regional ' aid g_lobal atlmlospherI-iC Polttiol . (11. (Se( Chapter ' Ut- V' bai Imlipacts oii Natural Resources.' I) Solid anzd lihazairdous Wastes ..- - ( ities genierate tr efllell(ious amIlouLIts of solid waste, and - those a mooints increase witii Incomie. In cities of the - developing world, ani estimiated N) to t 1) per-cenr of the 4 solid waste generated remailns uncollected, eveL though tip to oIIe hlalf Of local operationa1l expelidtltres often Scarce resouirce. 1 1 iO;t .;ti it .1! l '('1kV )cyr;iti goes towxn ard waste collection ii ) I . In) Guatela -/I I ',' ,Th' ; c/filc th, Il l-, lI%li>(' ci) (o0(f Cr ciciiciit i s. . _ . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~tic'> AIl,¼ c' zI 11i 'i1i I' II H Ai U.11 t , Ic /0-.1 l l. 11'UIt.l' 'A1 .111 ('/flAI City, tor Instance, just (65 pierczent of mtinLiCiplal waste is , collected; the rest is disposeJ of in iiiiofficiail locationis in the metropolitan regioii 1i7. In low-income or squat- metric toins of garbage gciierated each day; as a result, ete settlements, garbage col leeth is often1 onex isteiit, 1officia Is a re biildi ing islk ds of wazste in Tokvo Bay, either because these settiilemits fall outside "official whilch threaten both the shipping aiid the fishing indus- service atreas (ir because trucks are ii viable: to inalietiver along narrow, unpaved streerts. liicollected domestic v I veli if collected, nuLIIIIP,1 WaStCS remania a problCll waste Is the i1ost C0111111011 i cluse of blocked urbaJ. ICi ill nllllvi cities in developring coul1itries. MlIil solid draiiage clhaiiiiiels In Aslani cities, mncreasing the risk of flooding aiid vectorborne diseases i-m. In soiiie cities, waste sircs often handle both domestic and Industrial refuse Is ofteii mixed withi uman excremwt, which wastes, including hazazrdLIts wastes. Wirhotit proper facilitaites the spread of disease, especially' aiiiong clil- disposal, toxic chillicals Can leach iiito water Supplies. dren and wastepnick;ers Few data exist on the comimposition of hazardoums waste d Iriimost OFI) comiitries 100 perceiit of whe Lirbanil streaiiis in developing counlriejs. The ()O i) hlas comn- popnulation is serviced by munic]ipalrll walste collectionl Priled- -oughl estiiImates of tile volinies of industrial ailid v11). However, with their 11 ighlr conTiSmL til1n Ievels, hazardolis wastes generated worldwide, vet n0 such they c inifromit ever-incr-easiliig mot11iCis of gagirbalge. Simce data exist oii their disposa l m. Effluteii ts froiii hemical i 980, the geiierationi of i1i1umnici pal waste per ca pita has production, ptilp and paper factories, mining inidustries, increaised in all ()ECI) coniiitries except Germlany (1'4) and Icaltier aid tanining processes are playing an in- (t-i. I)espite massive recyclimig and incineratioii proj- creiasing role in eniVir0inimuelital poIltiLti(i. If cuirrent ects, Tokyo is Uiable tto pe( with tie more than 2 2,000 trends are aiiv i nL.ict0oni, the volime of toxic heavv Wu`orhd Resou rces 1996-97 23 Cities and the Environment metals generated in counitries such as China, India, the sial because it rests on assLiiiiptionIs about the valiue of Republic of Korea, and Turkey cotuld reacih levels coni- a huma ii life. parable to those of France anid the ULlited Kingdomli A handful ofsttIties in receit yearsgive all indication withinI 1.S years (1s7. of the econiomic losses inCLirrcid by urban environimental The lack of emissioiis standards or enfor-cemiient of degradation. In Mexico (Cit, econiomiic danmages due to regulationIs in miany developing naltionls compounds tlhe health i Inpacts of air poollutioni are estiniated at $ 1_5 pollution problemis. Illegal doiniping and iiiipr-opcr dis- hillion per year. Plarticulates are estimateLI to cause posal of toxic and hazardous wastes are coiiniomo. In 1 2S(OD extra deatlsanlJ 1 1.2 million lost-workdays per addition, industrial activity in the developliig world yeair, both lie to respiratory illnesses. hccausc of exces- tends to be concentr-aited in relatively few locations, sive exposuL-e to lead about 140,000 children suffer a often close to city celntelrs 1-t Three qul rters of all Thal i red cLtioii in IQ and a;gilitv-with imiplications for adu lt factories dealinlg with hazardous chiemiicalls are located podLIuctivitV :i S. Probilemiis of iniadequate i1 frastructure witl in Bangkok's mietropolitan area; and the neigh bor- shiow uip in direct ectmlomi ' ccosts as well. in [akarta, ing provinces. This includes five of Tha lland's seveni lead households spend more than $50 million per year to boi smeltinig plants and miore than 90) 6 t of its chlerni- vwater for drinki og-an arniocuit equal to I percent of cal, drv-cell hIatterv, paint, pharmaceutical, and textile t c i n - ' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~the ct IV'S gross doniiestic pl ol u.Ct (1I6se nianuufacturinIg plants six). The concenitration of people -ii ii ore vexing is ga-uging the monetary costs of close to these industries Increases the risks of exposure. theimpactofcitiesonistrotindi ig ccsystems."Yetthey', Exposures can be severe in the cIse otf industrial accIdents or dumnipiig. Even so. thev tened to be localized, Too, appear to be sobstani I. Ozone ciiiage to U.S. to the ''* crops, for exa lple, is estimatc( to cost several billon In conitrast to the citvwide problems of air and water dollrs per Year Often the cciioiiic value of the pollution is ). The health effects of hazardous wa.stes remain controversial, yet are ooeri beliu. ,services ecosvstellls provide are apparent Only after they reima'lll coiitroversl;ll, vet are generally bellevedl to pose a farsmaler treatthan hose- It Pos have b(eei lost. III East Calcutta, for instance, the filling afar sni liler threalt clian thiose associalted witi biol0lgt5C.li I of 4 000 hectares of lagoonIs alld wetlainds not oiilv paitilogeiis n the urban ieivironimiienit cIs2. In the devel- resutedv( iii an1 animaWs if somel % 000)f meltric toins oped wvorld, where the miost egregious exposules to ofsfish bu al caused loca flooding after trinS hazardous wastes have largely been remedied, coceralso aISC local floodig aftr th railis I) isn'nin bu xpsrstoee mut eesof ' ,st)). More difficult still to calnture in moileta rv teriiis Is moutiniilg abrout eXpOSulrcs to evell nlil Lte levels aotui mnt OSSaSCMCIwtiLriiielvl(1 tioxic wastes (Is .1 alrt the anieenity losses associated xv it urbanl envi run- uzelitalI degradatioii-for instaice, the pleasure that is lost wlheni a view is degraded or a pristinc beach is ECONOMIC COSTS OF URBAN spoiled Impacts on h tin-a i1 health and degradation of the ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION natural resourCe base combine to undermine a city's In addition to their toll onl humlanl 1lieaIth and: natual reconomic prodLCtiVitY. In addition to the Increased cost reSotirces, urban environmental problems exact ecu- of treating iJliless, health problems re(ucet- produictivit no1imic costs as well, some direct som1e indirect. Al1 told thirough lost workday's, lost edLiCatioIa I opportUllitius. these problems cai significantly' uniiderminie the produtc- and shiorter workinlg lives (i '8. Whlein tile natiral re- tivitv that urbanizationi fosters. Somiie of these costs are sou srces inl the surroulnding area are ehaltstcl or de- relatively sim pIe to calculate, slch as thec niedlical costs gradledl, cities must draw' on them froiir furthier- away, at of treating pollu.tion-related ililnesses. BuIt the majority iincreasing cost. prove far miore problemiatic. The prOdLctixVit' Of ciries also depeln)ds on a reliable Environmental problemils thait affect 11uLIman health, aind well-rinain ta in ed Urhabii infrastructure. Wl'cii for instance, are often measured in termnis of lost' worker womienl have to devote ConsiderLablCe amouniitS of their proLuctivitt. But econiomilic losses enicomipass more than timie to fetchioig water froiini distaiit sricadpipcs or dis- losses in produLtivity' or-output as coliventlioalAv Incas- posing of housChlold W*astes, thse have less Tinie for tired. A loss of a woirk iig day dtiLe to pollotiomi-Cilused iincomive-eairuilnig act-1 ities. For business as WelI, depenld- hiealth problemls is an econ1omic Cost, but so is ill health able stipplies of powel- alnlI witer, Col nilUiiCaLtiOnlS, an1d unrelated to work loss, as well as the loss of an amenitv traiisportaitioil inetworks caii raise output atLI lower such as the pleasure of a natural area, or lost lcisure tiiiie produCtionI Costs. Infrastructure shortages, or intermit- spenit in traffic Jans. ValLIing lealth svmptonis ald risks reint failur-es ill tieliverv, bv coiltrast, cail exact severee of niortality in econiomilic terills is especially controver- ecolloinic losses i I1 24 Would Resources I 99h-9- Cities and the Environment One norable examiple of infrasrrUcrture flailtire is con- gestiori. Congested city streets slow the riiovelier of Table 1.5 Estimated Losses Dueto goodis and services arid generallv increa se the price of Traffic Jams, Selected Cities doing buisiless in cities. Not oilv does traffic congestion Annual Cost Percent of allocate tiiiie to tinlproductive Waiting, but it also resUIlts of Time Delay Regional Gross in inefficeiet fiel uSe arid worseriirig air pol.l' . . ri City (million US$) National Product .et o eto lordcspoL t. dBangkok 272 2.1 recil, cong estionl also redirces prodctivity by aldding Hong Kong 293 0.6 to worketrs stress arid aggravation. Jakarta 68 0.9 The cosrs of conigestioni are significant,; however, as Kuala Lumpur 68 1.8 Manila 51 0.7 with all cost estimates, they vary widely accordlinig to Seoul 154 0.4 the asstrLIlrtinirs LISed to CalCLlate therii. The cost of Singapore 305 1.6 traffic congestion in Bangkok, for instance, varies froiir Source: Euisoon Shin et al., "Valuing the Economic Impacts of Envi- $2 7- nil I I loii to iiiore tlia n $ 1 NI I loii pci- ve r, depeiidi Ill, ronmental Problems: Asian Cities," Urban Management Programme $2 /2 nirllrori toriiore thlan $ Iblrlilronrn e Yea r, dependlinig Discussion Paper(draft)(TheWorld Bank,Washington, D.C., 1992), on the valure iriptirted to timie sttrck in traffic 1 212. p 139, as cited in J. David Foster, The Role of the City in Environ- mental Management: 1994 Edition (U.S. Agency for International (oriservatrve estrrvrates for losses due to corigestitiri in a Development, Washington, D.C.. 1994), p. 20. ntmrber of Asian cities a re showvn in Table 1 .5 l 5 In the Lliited States, estimiates of the cost of congestion Even In the developed world, addressing the linkage (from traffic delavs anid wasted fuLel) in tirbalr areas between pv'erty e arid the erivi r lnert sholird be a iop range lietweeri $35 Hllion ard S48 hillon 194) (419i, I 1*i' t-I Co~~~~~~~~~~~~nircern. A lthourglit~ strChi basic hiealthi threaits as feces- Otlher estilniaircs stiggCSr that the Llniited States loses Othe estmate srrgestthatthe nite Staes Iises containiiriaed water haive long, been addlress;ed, even for- roughly 2 percent of its gross nrationial prodLrct to Con- gestiiiri arid that he .Jriitd Kirigdoiloses abuiurt the poor In high-iicornii Citres, probleris ilr the riralia gestloii iiiid rliat te' Lniiltecl K olilgcioii loses abOLIt 5 social erivrriririieiri arc posing an Increasing threat to percent j li.lihunriariealth arid well-einCgalrld, urlriniatIly, rn social sraliilitv. A secondl and related challenge for cities worldswide CONFRONTING THE URBAN is to develop strategies tO recon.cile economilc growth ENVIRONMENTAL CHALIENGE with envirorriiterital protection. Sonic of the worst ex- ariples of envrorironiietal de,gradationi can riow be fotirni The eOrilorriors toll urrbari erivi rtrirOiiiiCltaI p hi-bleniS t'X- In anrd a rourind rtle ra pidly iridustrializirig citis of rlic act-in terriis of losses to hbuniril healielthid qil ruality of' developirig world, wlhere ecorioiilic growth is proceed- life, rIatriral resotirces, and econiomilc prodtictivity- irg without adequate coricerii fur its ei\ iroriientaI riiakes a conipellilg case for action. iriipact. Thesc cities riced to find LWays to both encourage On a glohal scale, the iiost tr Lrgerit challenge is ro ecorionlric developriierit and provide foi the increasin ri provide for tile basic ieeds of the urban port arid therel)v demtinds of citizetis for ncirgv, water, arid other re- alleviate the toll of Ihumriiari mliser-y associated with de- sources-ii ecologicailly sound waxs. For higher-ilicorine graded urrbari eriviroririieilts. (Sec (Chaliter 2, "Urban cities in Norrh Arierica aind h-uropc, rhc priority is to Erivirorliliicit and H1uiiari1 Healti .") ThrouiglnOut the redLuc their excessive draw on the world's naturraIl re- cities of the developing woorld, riieetiig tl is ch allerige sour-ces. Global probleriis suiciI as greenlllLouse gals Clelrs- will entail activities rangiig from providing fuindarieri- siins will wuorsen if policies are riot enacted ro cturl) the tal ur1-ha ri sCrViceS strci as water and sanritationi arid excessive resource conisoLiiptioll of urbariites I i devel- garbage collecriori to reforriiirig land renitlre policits. oped r'egiOllS. Mucli is to be gained frorii cricoLrragirig iricoriie-gerier- FortUnriarel, tIhc d'inalilisIll and creativirv that cIlIs- ating activities, suicli as wasre recyclirig, thit sinmultaile- tel- in Cities provide al soUrrce for sol rtioris to these oursly iiiiprove livelilioods arid the local environililerit. probleriis. Cities ren id ro devon re a higlier percentage of Bydoingso, cities can capitalizeon whatals been cal led furids tioneivirorirnierital protection than do rural areas the "incidental greening" of cities-the efforts of the r '191 The coircentrationr of p opulatioi anid activities in poor toni,ariagetheirelivilrolilrielits 1s). EqirlIlyVi riipor- cities offers inipotmlanrt econoinlnies of scale that cani tant is the recognitiori anid support of the rights of the redrcc nort onlyV the uriiti cost of providirig services such poor to know the risks to whicli they are exposed, to as edtirationi or healthi care, btIt also the cosr of provici- detcriulilic thicir priorities, and to rnieer their owni needs irig vital infrastructurre. Similirly, en forcinig environI- throUgil common l111litV initiatives. nelirtal regurlatioris arid Collectirig taxes art easier in World Rcsources 1990-97 25 Cities and the Environment Box 1.7 Designing Sustainable Solutions for Cities Hyderabad, India, where I serve as com- lem, allows one to define the necessary ciation matched that amount. This missioner of the Municipal Corpora- infrastructure and services needed to ad- amount is much smaller than what it tion, has had the distinction of being dress the problem. An understandinig of would cost for the Corporation to oper- one of the fastest-growing cities in India scale also helps to clarify which govern- ate its own door-to-door collection serv- during the past decade. The population inent departments should be involved in ice. Since the success of the initial test has increased from 3.2 million in 1985 providing the solution. neighborhood, 170 neighborhoods have to 5.2 million in 1995. It is said that in For example, the impacts of inade- set up residents' associations to manage 1591, Muhammed Quli Qutab Shahi, quate garbage collection are greater and garbage removal. the founder of Hvderabad, prayed that more immediate at the houseliold and On the other hand, problems such as the citv would be filled with a popula- commuinity level. Garbage, then, is one traffic congestion require more coin- tion as numerous as the fish in the riv- area that can be addressed at the local plex, comprehensive actions. The im- ers. His wish seems to have come true. level. In Hvderabad, people place their pacts are many-time delays leading to As managers of rapidly growing ur- garbage in communal bins located losses in productivity wasted fuel pol- ban areas, our primarv challenge, and around the citv; these bins are then emp- l a a t the ultimate challenge, is not to allow tied bv the municipality. However, the luton, and accidents-and transcend events to overtake us but to plan for city began receiving complaiints that gar- the woldave o be uide. ry ac- and manage growth in order to ensure bage was not being removed from the huns ldve to be netake a sustainable citv of tomorrow. When bins regularly. Garbage was overflow- higher level, modifying road networks discussing sanitation, we should be ing or being dumped illegally on the and land use patterns, increasing the di- looking not only at conveyances for re- streets and in drains. The bins were con- versiry of transport options, and in- moving sewage but also at low-cost stantly being moved, further hindering creasing the costs of owning and technologies for latrines. Or, when fo- collection efforts. drivig a motor vehicle. cused on questions related to a city's Hvderabad decided to involve the However we define our urban environ- water supply, we should be linking dis- community in solving the problem. In mental problems, whether they are sim- tribution systems with issues of conser- one pilot neighborhood, the citv helped pie or complex, commoni to the whole vation, recycling, and the protection of residents form an association that region or confined to one neighbor- water sources. would be in charge of the garbage bins. hood, the challenge is primarilv a hu- Designing sustainable solutions also re- In addition to picking a permanent loca- nman one. quires us to look at the spatial scale of tion for the bin, the association ap- -Rachel Chatter/ee each urban environmental problem. De- pointed one person to go from house to ciding whether an environmental prob- house to collect garbage and deposit it lem is limited to specific households or in rhe central bins. The city paid this Rachel Chatterjee is commissioner of affects the entire city, or whether it is a person 5 rupees (lUS$0.13) per house- the Hyderabad Municipal Corporation regional, national, or even global prob- hold per month, and the residents' asso- in Hyderabad, India. urban areas than in dispersed rural areas (200). The job But these benefits of urbanization will not be realized creation potential of cities can be critical in reduciiig without the concerted efforts of the stakeholders in- poverty. volved-national, regional, local governments, the pri- In other wavs as well, cities have the potential to he vate sector, international agencies, communities, and far more environmentally benign than most are now. As citizens. Achieving this will require changes in govern- described in Chapter 3, "Urban Imlpacts on Natural ance, from imiproving the formal regulatorv and fiiianc- Resources," the spatial concentration of humatis and ing bodies of national and local governments to finding their activities can minimize pressLires on surrounding new ways to encourage the full participation of civil lands and natural resources. C:ompact cities such as society. Saarbrucken, Germany, and Copenhagen, Denmiark, Environmental managenieiit is colilplicated bv issues use approximately half as muchi energy on a per capita of jurisdictional comiiplexity. By their very narure, urban basis as sprawling, low-density ciries such as Minnea- enviromnental problems often require strategies that polis, Minnesota, and Denver-, Colorado, in the United span jurisdictions and sectors. This is true whether the States (201). Well-designed cities can channel develop- issue is delivering water and sanitation services to low- ment away from wetlands and other sensitive areas. By income conimunities or protecting coastal ecosystems integrating land use and transportation planninig, cities from environmental degradationi. (See Box 1.7.) With- can reduce both congestion and pollution. (See Chapter out adeqiuate solid waste management, urban drainiage 4, "Urban Transportation.") sysremiis will not work, because garbage is the most 26 WorldI Resouirces 1996-97 Cities and the Environment common cause of blockage 12025. Similarly, strategies to managers. In the name of decentraliiation, local govern- reduce air pollution will not work without addressing ments have been saddled with additional responsibilities both stationary and mobile sources of emissions. Some for environmental management, but these often come of the most promisinig approaches to reducing coastal without the necessary aultonomy. In many cities of the pollution are targeted at the entire watershed that feeds developing world, the local capacity to generate reve- into the basin-often stretching over many thousands rlies, through, for example, property taxes or user of square kilometers. charges, is rudimentary. This inability to raise funds Yet, in both developed and developing couintries, contributes to the failure of local authorities to properly responsibilities for urban environmental management operate and maintain those environmental facilities they tend to be fragmented among different agencies and do have, suich as wastewater treatment plants (20i). juLrisdictions. The problem is especially pronounced in As is described in Chapter 6, "City and Community: huge metropolitan regions, which often spread across Toward Environmental Susrainability," strengthening multiple jurisdictions-in the case of Mexico (ity, 42 in local governments will be critical to improving the all (203). In addition, lines of responsibility and authority urban environment in the developing world. EquallV are sometimes blurred among the manv actors. Munici- important is an informed citizenry that demands envi- pal authorities, for instance, tend to focus on the envi- ronment.al quality and holds governments accountable. ronmental concerns of local communities, suIch as Indeed, some of the most innovative strategies for im- garbage collection, while paving little attention to prob- proving the urban environment are emerging from the lems that affect adjacent mu;nicipalities or cities located hottom utip, from neighborhoods and communities that downwind or downstream (204). have the most at stake, he they in Karachi, Pakistan, or Problems of jurisdictional complexity are coni- the Bronx, New York. This special section of World pounded in cities in dleveloping counitries, where local Resotur-ces 1 996-97 describes some of the ongoing ef- governments may lack both the institutionial and the forts to create more livable, humane, and ecologically financial resources needed to be effective environmental sound cities. References and Notes I .United Nations (UiNi lPotpuilatittt Disi .sio, I13 N. ttional lIIstiriite of ['rbain Aff.iirs (NliIA), 22. Op. c-i. 1, p. 23. it'i rhi I irh,ittic.tsii si Prospects: Tin 1994 1 rhanii Ftiir,onniti/ w lMips: Dc/ln. Roan-m Reiisn iiLtI.N., New York. 1995), p. 87. hi.v. V'ad./iLijr.t, A/.meittb,id (NlUA. New, 2. ()p.--It. I.pp. Il(l-I. 2 (hi.L pp. 96-8 112- 1(3. Delhi, India. 19414. pp. .-I12.2 4. Op. it. 6. 3 ( )p . 1 p. 2. Op. I. . 25. A. Rosi--Fsp.tginet, (G.I. (,ildstein. -id 1. )p. cit. i - ~~~~~~~~~~~1 2. O c.1P.T,ibih,.ideh. "Urbait7,1ttjon .ini) Heti1th ini 4. Op. it. I. pp. I 32. 1 3.5. Op ct 1 Deelorping Countries: A ChalIlenge for II. p. Ur.-t I, pp. Rl,9 85.. He.lIrhIlor Al)." Wolrldl Heal/h Sr.iltis) ic S Carl Ktu-itle et,11.. "Toward Ensironinentd I 3 Str.ategies for (inies: Policy Considerattion 14. Op. ct. 1, pp. 91, It7. Qi,lr/tr/v, V-l. 44, Ni. 4 I1 991) p 2OX. for Urban FEiriironineiral Manageineien in IS. lorge (.avidi.a. "Hoiislng.d I .iid ITI I irge 276. Cp. it. rr pp. 4, 6. I/el)o opinig Cniintries," Urbai Managementi Ciries tl l .I tilt Aienerc.,." in bi ti/dl.tiicin the )7. ( )p. it I . p. 167. i'rogr.aimtte PoIice PRper No. I8 (The World Mapiii,ii'itemiint i/ Metropolitan rito.' Ftii I- B.aiik. \V,tshiigtnnn D.C.., 1994i, pp. 9-1(). rmiiintents it 1 ,ttin 4mtie-a (U 'nired Nourt.to 28. (p. ilt. I. p. 6. h. (C. ':lr ters. Hca )lrh .intl Ens ivnut ntenit Wi irld C entre (or Regemnsr.i) I2evelopol tel itm N.igiiy... 29. ( )p. t. 1 8, pp. I -I 6- I - I -. 6. G. zirtes, Heath an Enviwinien, Word J.ipatn, I 994), p. I,). Health Organ cizatiots, (weeiet, 1995 (per- 7() P p. cit. I,pp. 1 19, 1 21. snon.l corninitnicationI. IF6. t)p. ct/. I, pp. 8R, 89, 13, 0 I 1I )p. 0.. I. p. I-I. - orge E. Hardoy. Di.anai Mitlin, .tind [3asiD 17. p. clt. 1c pp. X 89, 10 . 12. Op. it. .. P. It). artterthwliite, Fnrir ...imeittl/ Prbltemts In I 8. tInited Nations ( 'enire for Hritn.i il Settle-. Thief World Cities (Ftrt hscani, I ondoii. iiients tHalbir.iti, A4i U!r/itptlztt )Xc,rul/: 33 . The World Ki.n k, iiltoll(SJ,7 F.tw'ironimieitt 1992), P. r iqC ,e,e,l R epe ote i Hi .1tt .Sett/enrtnts / I'i)6 ind Devc/teopmueniit: C hai/leinges for the Futufrr R. Dietrich .hswel.a, "Pblhhc Heallth mpl (0 rd I. in sersitr Press. ()xtoird, I 'ii red i The World Kinuk. W.ishhigtion. D.C . 1994). 8. nietrich Schsse)a, Pu ) ic Het It H I m plus tK i ngo) tin ind Ness Yt rk. iii press), p. I 57P. II. tioni of iUrban Air Pit)l)iitin in Devrelopi ing o(tittltries," p)pe. preseitred .it the Tenth 19. (h p. 1-2'- 1-2X 4. K.( . sivaranmnakri,shti .in i ( h.anges iTi the IIr Woirld ( lea ii Atr Congress. I:rioi, Finl)and, 70. )p. ci. I, p. 217. [ I .Ii ndscape: Froim Ha.bitat I to H.bhta M.iy 28-}line 2. 1 99s (Wor)ld Health Orr 11. Issues of (iovernance: I its.cl Reaittes,- g.111173tioii, Gcncs.i. 1995). 22 I. Nick Dev.is .titd ( mirile R ikdit. The I lrh.mii drlrft paper prep:ared for the Woodrow Wil tihalrleenge" in VItniigmitig Fist (;roiln'tuig Ct- siu hltrrtriiatiinml C enter for Sshol.irs. Mliv 9. Wiorls Resotirces Instltilre, 7The 1994 lntfcr- its. Nick Deva s .ind ( .irole R.ik odi, eds. I 6, I)) i, p. 2. matint/lit P/ces( Fitiroine itit tal -A lmatLnac ) I n uiigm.in (rnotip. Fsssx, Itini ed Kingdoni (HoighToll Nii (Mliinpoapan, Bostoni. .ind liohi W¾ lev & Si ItS. I u.., Ness N'iork. . it... I S. P. I - IS. 1 994). pp. 205, 209. 1993), p. 2. *6. Op. cit. Ix, p. 1-22. World Resouirces 1996-97 27 Cities and the Environment iT. AIim I(eri.i,iJ. "lint) Resources: Dilleruig '~~rest1. ('islird, I hliireJ Kiig(hiiiii, I1955, 74. ( )pI. ,II. IS, p. 326. Persp,ectiir oi clie slhape. o Fituire ( - . ; '5. I niiiedl N~irionis rD'vclopiiieiit IProgrMniinct irs-( ) er tie%, " i n Tic Hunt,, F,I`i' oftbc' ss* up . p. S~ 7IINI)PI, (ius Piwi. uiertv: UIrban (fr/i,, F.,, ii) iiiiiiiit, iiii/iii,.i if (i IC 59. G,,i rg~e F. Peicrr-ii. (I. Thoir111 K ii ilev, f/ Xi c,'i meineii/ ... ipiir.tiin fi r tih' I )990t ii k ( -~~~ i/c un, ii Lii- ~.i nd 1 t//r ev P. ieli_.i rsk y, Urban ,, m.iii, ici s iULNI)P, New Yii-rk. 1 99 1), p. 1 9. i'nil sii riii'it iiii nstMidii, l/Ali' I)' i'' vii'iit.1 .ciiii .Ndtiiiii1 i'-iioli 1.S. Agency fu,r 76. Unitetd N:ioini (Childrenu's FliiuiI (((NilI-F KA . Sir,ir.iiii.krislin.iin, cdi>., The Wiorldj iiigrlilt)ilJrl'.ii Prig rniruist \V ftliiifgiiiii, DL:l,"I 1r:sis Ii1 l1irhild Dlevelioi,entl Nentri- I1)94, p. 2 '3S.I99 I1 ), . 7rilb 1.cii niciiit iii Train.sitioin Stuidius Re- nS. ( )p. ii,. .34, p). I . hi). Tile WwIld BaiL. k.-r,i D1'i.'ii/ip i'ii Ri- guioin l Mlinuoirnug Repourt No). 2 JJNICEFF .i9. DR. Phillipsiiiu) V. Vcrli.uteli, edt.. HijithpinrI '199: IU,ir,kieri, ina inicgr,iiing Wi,?r Floreice. lt,ily, I994), p. 3. 3 L).F). . P l i 11 i p -i d V, h,i,e 1 , (I., j ltb \H i iWrILt oink, W.itliiigioii. I I. . l)95.8. 7 Ibidi. 0,we,) J i'co/icn/ ( R,ILlIuitg', New% rk., , Sj 7. ( I/i. ot. 69. pp. I ti2 I. I994). 4)). lisiiiuie Ii,rResiiirce l)rel,ipiieiii [(cii, I- 6. Uiniretd N.:iriiis ciiiii i c oLi nin iisiii tir 79). MIC1hue I lAie,-T, 'The Hylpiirliesi ofi Urban 40. In,timic f(,r Rcsmirce Deiii- La.iiiii Aii,rric.i itd it, ( ;irihhl,iii L( L.A( I, .wiinergi'ice: Art, L:iiicsin tilL Niirth indl graplhic ,ind Hc.fihi Snrvevs~. tl:ii:1 ciliripilt'ul S... 1.P1,1 raiii -iitin .Allm ai,i ( 9)i4 S1iilij llciniiiiig Nitore Alike"' clr;ifr piper. mimi t9el,iiiiri siirrrt cmiutliicitl licieeii ELAL. S.oli:igo.I liSt,1~1)4c r.t2r. 2hrii 1i 9i. W195, \ i,i giiigriii. Cl)... p.22 4 6~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(2. Nick l)t'.it1 "Fiirii Appri.,ich-e," in SO). "iiiI.K srl, Citics is PLies \Vhere I . The \Wiirltd R;ink. (orum P(l'i uiF aml -Mai,;.1, FitJohniii (/'1 ii'-/i lri . Keint.rdl W ik Lriii hn e.i ii)fl5 The WX'm1r1d 3iuik, \V.ithiiigiiin. D( C., ftii. iU-/,iii,iin .ii.AiiwiNeghih,irliiiid I)itrrcs,", iii 1In)eriv,iiiin Hi's- 1 991 8. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~im',i/ in f/I. Dci.iAqminigX,i rmilid. Nitk D I e i tiiiiis H-eiirN Lisiucris, etd. (W55W. Nir,,rii /i 42 H nkV1)1) 111 min H.H ' 11iii .lirilt R.lkod1i, eids. (Li igiui.ii LSiiiip. jI miiip.iiiy, Newe Yi'irk, 1 994). p. 8.3. 42. H,iiuk . Sariutli nS HviiiiuKi Ali,i lite,U I. INi ). pp. -7-X. S.Pii iit.i~ Ii,l iud,"llauP ''I hinge Siiice Hlbl,liiiu I: :\ P.ur,tdigii.iric lIn- I PliiAii md(a eR kch " ran ov iiiiirv,' 3i.pl'r pr ei-mniir it itic \Xii-drimw 63 A.S. 01)lieim, Pi puidatii,m Grnut ii. wpu//i- cr1): lt kii't r Rstirc;lil suit Policy," Iiuir- \Wil-in iir mii.iiiii:l I cuter ii)r Scioil.irs, niii .iiii/ mi im/ in Ji.ic/. Wi),) Mci,. buif cnirii,uliimai1 DmI'Itm pI'/i/ ent: P['u/ny, \W.ithiiiigriii 1D.1 ., I-erLii:.ur 2. 1 )~ 995 p. x. (Ci/ii's: AnSi/n-11 ii ill P,,In, Islus. Is - c(Y imuiiioIsII mi ii In! u'eniu/ioli Rib/nu"ns, Voil. Nl:iutiil's Pret,, Nets )Yumrk. 199 , pp. i,2-6T. 6. Nii. 5 iSe)ptiiriblr-I )ciiilir 1994), p. 63(1. p. (,4~~~~~~~~~h. I,. Yiu.[i,ir 1L I litii.i. 'The-(I I lci.mlig ii) I ½ ' - 5 2. I/iii. 44. Pe Ljitiig .iiid .itlherinuirIi uu. A) iii1 ~ uii sic,'i IrmS;. 19 it. 610,1, P~. 4.3-48. drettiiig hlit' UJrbani L I.uIIcgc,: A5 Ret i, w ii)A,i,s,ii'i:Iiiiw ii ii,iii u)ii5.1Iitt .tiut(.. JsliuitrVi \Vu Ird K3iink FY57 Wirer SLiuppk .iiind rLInIii De'l' iiig uIiiiirics (I. SImbi.i>i I licer.i, 8 .U ie ,in L.. )M plt11 ' D)euelupHiuiciit IVipe tuiumis.'' RepmmrT I NI-1I 'ed. i Pr.t'gt'r, \vesipuirr, IT)iiiiitc titit Andi~ gr:nimi i JIiNDPi, Hiuman Do'ii' pIuinci'i Ri'' (The Wmorltd l:iik, W ihiloi,I u. ., 1955x , L)ii.I9 3 .1 .j r I9) ('') (hif,rt) lIi ice rity Pres, I Ox fiord, us curt) ii I *eiirge 1)9P3 P. 12. Th imsLuiliiiLI Kiiigdiiiiil, lit Nt'w Yiirk, I1998). Kiu:gslc,N ad .iilet'tri I' . Telg;irs ki . I;lfdl 6ii. Nlichu.uil [)iuiul:utt C Imii.n c)p.runciiii p,1. 6i6i- 6mS. F, umouimuuim' an) Nathiiui,i) Di'u'i)Iiii',Iit L .S. mu) Llrl1,,ii sit Rr; muu iii, kL10,1P Iii111g, 1 luli%ersity - .(;mic0 N oc lca..H ret n Agence h)i Iniicriu,tmiuui:ul IXslmiuuiu > ml H-.iw,ii .t NL mi, Honlmuiluli H,iwts', S Rimlli F .NM.ik Ioter, hlUci,; PovIeIert , intl lice oif HImiumtum .iind L[l .iii Prmg:.uui,. W,ish- I191)5 pc'utoiu.ll LiiiiiiiiiiiiiL.UItiii). oniiuu t (Ii Scriucitur:l .Atliusiuui.1it: Reentii iiigriiii, D3. ~., 3t)i1 I* p. I -. hili. 1 )/. it. 6 1. Eivuileuuc ,iid Plilics Rcspiinse,'' Trinspiorr.- 4.8. S.utki.i itil i/ucs inl .i WmI'm Fimiuiomn h7. I e %\/irltl uItml, 'i/on, /nn.il .Aujnsmeiul u ? Eil, W,iiei .ini1 I Irbu:ui Dev'eloupmtent De- WPine I-urge Prrtt. Tlum-I5.uui 1/its, I ;lituir- S.5t.01~111. Gih u t/i : Tb:e I ciri uui Wm'iu /1,ufr p.iruiueiuu )iscuussion P~iper Nii. 4 (TIht i,,1 9941, P. xi,i. 1/si' I u/us i Flic \Vuourdll (itk, \Vi,luiigiigion Wuirl,S Kunk, Waushiiigtiin, I).C., 1 993) 4An. bi/,t D).L... 1 9901, P. 3, us c itet) iii CUnteS Naitionus p. 22. A'_. ///i). ii). 48 i P. S. (Dti lu10)1Uiiei Piugr.iiiuiil' NIP)P, Tihi I 'r- 56. 1Iii,iietl Nirwiiiiu I)tvi'lopmente Priigr:miniue 49 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IUlNDP1, Newr 'Lurk, I 1)92: jiP. I I. ,ii/ig (.,i,inrii' ( INI/)P, New' Yourk, 1 992), / I/i. uP IS, r. 1-24. 65~~~~~~~~~~(,. TIe World Ban, i ?it, \/ iuiiu. .Aui;us/uinci'i jiii, p. I6(. >1). Te'renice I MJcIie :iiid ( J..) Iruri t itb, .ss.u,ii Grwit/i: Dvm, U!rimal y'iii ir 57. liii)., p. IX8. ''I 11mm Llrh.uii,.uuiuuu: Fiu.urils iie TieeiD.- 51 iim/fl.I Dlie 5orldI I.uink, \W;:sluinigtmn, xs. / 9I. , . 28, p'. 2085. First I :iiiirr." iTi Pii/nhu/ui /,1 /oin/iun /1.., l1j,779ul i) , p. .8 j ,u icurt) ii I nii-Irl N.iiiiiii on/ Miu,r.utimii. di,if pruceediligs ml ilie DrelmI0p1uue:iT Priigr;ininie ilFINIVH, Tb.ii Ur- 59. I UT'piitiiigL I'll the Cieli' liii liu Litt'd, esinnu t,ie Untc N,tiiii Ft xpert MIeetuuig i01i Puipljji- /u.ai Li, miriuini'ui w 1 cu i/mill (inirics ii ihue iiuiiuiher m-l sireet children ringe froiiii Cluz Bolvl:l I.1lk1.r% I8-2 1)9Y;Wiic cct'pt'd II) iiiillioiii it .i re;utouu;bhe esliniii.ic Natim~im, New 'I rk. .Aulugir 19944, in.'Ln'rini)ii)I'/.iciiui .is'i,ii ;ir seuut uirin tlie noresbyip itir philrein pp. 61,63. 7. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Nom. I (April li/i9sI. p. I I. ti ut)ic iumoliutu-rniruiug oppourrinitries, chil- 5 1. op it. IS., p. 1-24. -0 /i). cit. 6 1. p1. 1 5. drr h oU'.iybei te il hi I X, pp. 1-2A- I --' / /i..11.6).p. ur iuuls or see' ilCieIoi v iin l f trcqiienily. :iid o,r- 83 )IP. Ill. 8)), P. 601), . p1cmI It. 54. Ip it. 2 I. p. 24. '/O. 1 ,inri Ii l o M er, (G;ntler PI' niniiuin5 d u ie/1)' 5.5. Nifike li,irniwe)), P, i/iii,iii iii ci i nun/s ,u T (m -I. i (idig ss A ppri iiches. itd il'/ "/ilii'i/: I/.co'l3, Praitiiianod Tr.umnin III1' Ti.'irl X8 ic/if IRiuut' Iiiiliiii'rig I0lslruge,"ii TII/r/uu P eRiiHiuletgt, Nt'w Yourk, 1993), p.17 1 99 ;), pp. 1 8 i24. and 101. s1Iiris ii/in Sunrvi,s Ill .4si.i znd? tb,- Pa, V(I. 1. Pr . . ..... lin9). lliiiedl N,iriiiii ILJN.). Tin' Wiiirld/s Wtine'it 3.I~ rio 1. I C Picfc,('s).I./ I, Rcu' .- O-1)70.1)1)/: I r.'-it,Is indSt 8i/istics( 11 tN., 56 7 )i .I5.p -4 ~,ufvmli .S ni'u,ii,. Manila.. P1hi/ippincii iiiiian, New '(, irk, I 1/9 I) p. 17. >~ lioscf Ugder. -/0 erturbuuint:u,riiun RIle1euidu - 2UU2K (9i/1 )Asmi:u IDeveloupmuenti Biluk iiid ered" 'I Il Ur/idnaiiij nII if &,, Tui)Ij, FL01lu miuuc Develum1ptmrutiiishiiiiire, N.iiiil.i, 102 11i it. 58S, p. 4. 3,5 irhl, joset Id; igler- ,ic). (O/t1rdiLrt l liuurcrsitiv1111 Iiuumi Ic I I)1, p. 38. 93 I/ I. . I8 s,P. 1-1. 28 Wort,! Retsiurc'cs 1996-97 Cities and the Environment 94. (lIP. iii. 18, p. 1- 13. the' (Unt'!l tatic: A .Natiwin.i Ri'piiit Oni I/Is' I 2is. Ariiiikiriii.ir Bhliri, "Riilksi: (. hroTIii Stiar- 95. l)aeid Sarrerrhswate. 'lHe.ilth isvd Levisioil Rad' d an,! .% ,r- F i-l ii i,mzri,' C har,i tc,st'istii cir .' TI,, I/taus `,t Si,c'iv'/ I/Is' I ri'i-r, sunii'rt iinita,l Problems in tire (lities oii D)t`e/opsilg sf I "'wsrini/iiirtri' it/III i1dzir,!.i vs icti' Siic/'t94 ) NIis 3 1. 199-4Is, pp. I I ( I 17 Couintries," in Populst,ion Distr/ibutiorn an (lnited f,hurth ol ( hirsim New 'i irk, I 4978 21 2 V rldl Heslil I fg.isit.ii/ iiii W H )i inid AMigratiorn, Pre, ssedlngs if tb' Usittd!Ns- a,Iiid RueIs ir1 Bry m a ri ud PausIr N Ir ILIr. eds.. Uijiied N.ris I iis ( IlisIIsLIrCT I FtIrIid FLINI I(-F) ttions (LI. N.) Expert Mcutsing Oin P s/in!dit in l<,sI' ansi the lr, iiiiii'ici'r/ Liiiiesiiicii'tita rnt Wi.ii, Su`,pply urul `,.itr.irrion Mnlitioir- Dietrei/butirr; atii, .'el ats,i ,ieii .5m ( TriiQ, 8o- Phi curlj`: .A Tins'ic /ii Iit,', Ou,, e I' WL-,r% sc%i i ig PlIi .5 iiitilev, (S' ite' Sn/pi/iv , iind ,i lit-id. 18-22 Ianuan 199 ?i L/.N., Ness Press, Biiiildlei , iilor,td, I. 199.>. t/It .5'i,1 Ii .Xli.nr, Ineir~ 1< i,>sI t 9'// (NV W (I York. Auigust lY9f4f, p. 18.3. 1 I/i. (_irlo, N. l.nrsr.re. D),imil A. jtIiii iit .id sirs I Nli, Lb Iiiiii Mnlsiiror ing Prigrirsimire, 96. Michael Douglaissv'The P'olirt.il Ftssuisrsrv Dxiritl B. THiiisi,rl, ''Deseliipiiit (tho Errs' Ness )rii Ind (eI'a 199;, hearst' I, ofi U/rin Povert> and Ens ronirrrurerr l Mnl. roinuieslsirl id),iro.tii sIni Thin) WVtrld ( it- p r . 10 . .geinentr: Access~, Ernposeei'isert and (lrii es,'' drAt hi ml rLporit /5essidtrL S .. sti .irsr I csriri n iii usu.11riys Bived Altere,irrset," Eivrrssrimn'rt Agents~ (or lrrciieritiroril I teselopinreri 1 ini-O for A.4.. oil the Plicihilt %si' arns U/rili,iiz,iirirrt Vol. 4. No. 2 rOtriiber W orrld Resrirm cys Iisirtirie. \W.si,hirgrsir,if/'/.itttii itAta/!i'l rri I)i 1 992). pp. Ili- I 6. D).(.. April 26(. I 993,), n. i tN. ,/U 1Ncss ir- In A,ia an. 2-45.1Pd )' 97. The Worlsd Baink', loe!h! Dci're/pinrrt Re- II I. I/ii ., Pp - 1 29. 1 ,irokIs is psellieils ,I .z.. I'm ri'i,imrnti/t .ini! puni 199/3: Iittenltrn in Hcs/th (TIle World 112 ,CI/. IIt. 'i. 1. 22. Hc'dt/' sIn Vir i-/isire C ,iron c': (it Air/lv Bank, Washingioin. lD.., I1993). p. 90. I13 le rnm ," ea(I%\.nICr-l ,O n" ra if l,1,1 1w X' 98. LUimred Natiioins [)ve'tloipmentt Pirogimrirrie, sirds 11 OViris.1tisii Sir.iregies: Regioisi.l Viewse,' tie,' !),itr (I Oiiildssni SLleeso i I-I H ii'ii' &s Humnrt, Di't't',sr/on irt Re/tint I i)i5 )('i\tird xin . Afc -Cuv Gtiiu-i/' run thw Prune', Rit- Tiopi5.rl \/, il'e nir tsll.rlsir,iti niii ss ir IIs rr- Lniiversity Press, Ness 'Yurk, I 990r, P. 86. irid J. Fmiths it it.. Ads. UnitCLI N.oJIM11 F/sri- tl.ls.iis SkAhI 4. sir (,li,is, \/iiiismrN isl Iri%is- 949. Tins Camipbsell. ''Erisionmitent,il Drlerismsm eerirts 'revs. Ncss i rk, I 9if45, p.2 I rr.l(ilsnt'sil. I orslidisr. I 49f4), pp. 2'I, 9"'. iris tilie Urban Poor." iii -'itrteirt...rini' n/ .54/rdi!GA11111 Mio - I'1.NainIK"'ITl ucl A ,d.u el 1/re Potor: fevl'pu' es/ titn Str.tte5'e fir i C-iir riresisil P'roblemrs iii I iiw-lntoiimi ILIs': Ass Is c,is et i'4i nii ( seirsns .r. A.(_ ..,iid A,.]e- /urn .Ai'inida,i H. Jeffrey Lei ,irirs, ud. tIter- OsireinseL ut I'r'oblemsu indl Pfuoees sr Ins- iniiii N,mit isr de Isigemisi rn. A\.(_. Aer- seais D4eeelopnriimii Coiun ii. \5,'ishs ingrn pr'nilr"la a lbic ai m,V I 7 t) i,,IIu px I p" n'-M 1 DIc.. I 9891, P. ' 77 Ni. 2 199/), P. IO ff5 / /.'. kfir \is.rrr/iis N.iiinri.il A,.itl,iim 100. tlmimmed Narinuirs. Eiis'ri snmmnrerim Pruigi'.ieriiie. ('risc, \'t'.rsliiiigiiPsii,W Itt .. (9O4> I ),9 p. 'r. s. 100. liiitd Natons E viionicnt roprainie. I I 5. )(P. 'it. I ((8, pp. I-IA4. Ern'trr uiemrsnit,l BDtta ReP/riit ) Ii,ilv I'Bil-i k- I 31. Irs:1 F l/iti'"AFlrr1 Cilr( rip) Is H.rltI ('ill: seell, 0lisord, U/nimtes IKrrgdOriii / 99 1)(6. I ft/i. iti S Is.I Isipuiss% tIg I \',sti eir ids S.rmimIt . inim s',rs ItsI's Irs1 P. 8. I I" Cl. itt. li,P. I16. Wlo ivsilu/sim 'r Idl.' I nIn'-roirns/n'rrt Vol. 1ill. PareitrI ScIsCarimey. ''Urbirm ReseariCh Ills i I I X_ )/P. Itt @1. P.9I. i~ Ni. 4 r I/993 ',.p IrI. Dlevelopinrg WocrIld: Fiirr A4pproaches iii the I(. Ii, Enrvieronmiieimt of Cirties," is Lrbanti Rea I19. -\isiusi TIhe miiTermr.Trres.l surg.siimz.smssis N%ok- III the De'e/su/sntg Worlds: T7wsrrie! .tn rig iri tlie br//sn .gngiid.i ire Tlie Wi rld I 'I3. ( I~ I it. h. A. ei.sutda fur f/re j1990/c Rihrd/.ns Siren, ed. Brisk, rIse Unitedl N. otsiis (.etrii' Iot HLrlIr:as I 4 i/i it 2. Fi't-rir 2, (/.I' I. I 9,1. ik/misiersiry sif Tor-oimss 'Etroistti, IL)iy4). S'[esilerisirs I H.rlrt.r) the Lniried] Nit/tin' I S )/.i 9". p. 4I. Dl)e'sliiprrrni P'rigrmirmnin,is' nrt rIseU.s 1 02. Janiiis DI. Berisrtei n, "Lanrd Use (.o sidviu-ra - Agen' is i er-risi/ is lsii'ii s Thy' 2: l )chmi' 1 (',sci/ /m th'r'r/ ms/ rf/' it 5- trions ini Urban LmrvrrtunminTetrrl \I.isl.ge- ( 20. TIrt riisiflst:r Of reseirsh HIs 1 sis tiss isriss nieisli3 rsr /5The W Irld li/ilktr Wts, i/nilgbttn 'Deuit iiferi Lrbiit," NUr .iniMan gemienti liriigi..iris isn ihe' bsiiowns igt'ild.r ire toor rr11in 'ricr:' is 'I92)1 P. 40. D/stsnssisii P.rpee No. 12 lThse Wosrldl Brisk ent1er Isere. Isii it lttlei ssAsrrisIr 1iirr Jt si.ls i Washinsgtonmi Dt.., I1994p, p. 17' trei Uniiversiry iot Tisrisrii, C,eirrr lie 1 Irlmn 1i 37. WVirlid HeLdth tlrI_.lriIJi,.iis (WHO)l, T/he 103. El/s. itt. 99. rutd ( osrlintimriii StisldIeS: rIs D)ep.irrrreis usf ('s.rhI! Hr'.ri/' Ri/s..ri / u9i: Birrukri,t, tbe' Cirs indl RcIgionrrl PI'L.inissri, FI:vesrsits isi Gai/i 5\ Ho . WIIJu'mer 1')9S), p. I1ff. 104. Op. cit. 101. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Wiles. C.rrdnit: the- N.itiisirml 11rsrtri'Le if 15Ir- 135. 1 /.it.I , P5. I S. 105. Porus Olpadwal.i .tid Willim.ri Ws(. (.orld- sinr .AIt.rir. News Deli,lli. m: J Ist' line r 1tlii smith, ''The Sumst-ainai,blirs' of P'ris'ilege': Re- iisil Instr/sile sir F.it%rs'iu/isiri sisl ' 39. ( ..rtrtr Br rlssdon sits Risies-h R{.iin.iikstt). flecriscis osmrihe ETivsiroirnieiit, ilt' Tlssrd Develoipmienti, Biteimu, .Aires', .Arge,sriinr: .it 'Iss .1snrd s'siiri'r.l .i'sIi 'World Cuts, .iid Psiverms,'' Wt'sr/i! I)(s'ss'/s/- ilie NI.zrisgsr. hrisirimic, NL.irobli. Nests,i Asli," Woulld Pink DI Iistrsioil P.ipser Nis. nricrit, Vol.' 20, Nit. -111 992 1, p. 6 Wi. 2124 I lIre WinYk Brisk, \Watshingiton, D.C. 12 1. Fist .5 p.itillsrri ing sit morssi rnite imrsimil H iLsIr- I/i I) 1); s . 49L. 106. OAp. (it. 96. ga z,ii ioLiissi strkir npri isi slt' lrriws'r .sgtsd , lAO TIme 'sNirll Brisk. (.ilcnt. rI/iMan,'ms'bsn'e/ 17 er.i . Prodv et al.. "B/sood Lead Levels in see LliiltLed Naioiins ('ctirtre (sir Hrri:.sii Settle- i/irta /',/!'sc hI "nIir ,rr .Arnr.is'I.5 sf `,t- tIre U.S. Popiilamioin: Ph.,le I of the Third Ni- siserlis Hairi,Iir'sr fOi' s/ Nsin C Li'srn- s'r'I citic (tVse Wosrud Bansl. W.rsliiigiuiii, rsosial Health anid Nurtrir itn Lx,msrsssissirio lr/i'/ltl I )r'y.5tiicaitrsus III i/i' bi I/ 'I 11tsirr,s/ D I .. I h ,i'5 eilir I 99),f P. 9. SLrmvsey / NH.ANES Ill, I 988 ni 199/r ,"- Iiirm- `.Sl'tt!i's n/ts ;Hibitit, Nit-irli,Net.r inalolsthe / is' nctrt,arr M'ls'drr11 .'ssie,tsit99(1). I he JOsArieil 1- ris'i sirsms'rtt ,stni Ui- 1 l. 1 )in.iiis1.11is0i1 fir1 F.OT/ riOIs11t ( p im \Vol. 2 72, Nit. '4 (jirly 271, I 994i1, P. 277. ni,iri.tnim arlsis regis/irIs' pumlslisie pi'otiles .1id1 DI t''IsisieitpIIIII IO ' D)I. bi'riisits 1 08. Rordimer R. Whirte, LU /,rba Ert'risiitrimsstill sif tIcIigOss'srsrrIlt'iIs.sl srILg.srsis'.sirsrrs ss'rki'Lig Inj.si- rs if )b'( (). l'.rris, I0941. p. 4if Managemetl'net: b/ri trsi/t/li'i/il/ '/h,ntie' ,rIn Olhist lriss.iin t,'iR'iCICtei . / 42. Njsisis.l Rs'si'.lrLt Ir (t /iTiLil, ( sIi/iiiiitceL On U'r/bant Design (John WilIcy & Son se v. , hrihes' I 221. tIP. itt. 99), P. I - i,(P. witseirrt N Irsirgrsciiin ti,r . o .i,rit U Irlsint tee, Uniied Kinmgdomi, I1s941, pp. 7 , 7.A rct'. , A5 l,rrnts,iing-( W ,,sci 's/si sir C.ai,srt. LUe- 109. bir te iirrhs.r readimng sir ens irosiirrlir.r!lali' j .( is.it.6 /tr '(rsca I N.rmiim.i) At.idisemt Press, \\V.slh- tice. see Rioibert D. BillrdIlin. I )/fslpsts/ sIt 124. / p ar. ", spp 43;-4 i. irigisros. D.( .. ( 993/. PP. (2. ts 9.62. Bixri': Ra,e'e C/ass, art! FIi'iesiitsti'ti.i Quii/- (25. P. K. Rue', "-Luitkisisss: SlIss% D,eih Oi si .i /4/ D)igL.is F. K(sris's s/ .t/.. '' rlsirl Fise-gs its, (Westvewn Press, Botilic]r, t olorir.sr, 'Wirer Sistr-rte. T/,, Hindui/ Swirs in i/ tL'be sIz- I r.sifs:ii sir. P'seenns, irs1i/s Fe viirrsu11iie1r: (994/, Uliitred Chusrchi iOf theit ( oniiiiri-issrin tr'iri/sn s'iu I 5 4 (Ma 'sr ' 13 I. I 4) irs/I/si'rscrt.siisndw sirs' (Rile is'Ise 1 I rl.ii Hoiist'- fori R.itial Jutiscje, 'Tsxis' W wIts' ,i/i 1/is's c,In pp. I I9- 1 22. ru/s(lI I iit sII D)s'silipsisg ( siirrricn-si'.'' tlsl \W"orltd Rc'soiurces 1996-97 29 Cities and the Environment paper (The World Banik, Washington, D.(.., 166. tiP. tit. 16 2. (Tlie World Bairk. Wdshinigton, [).( ., 1994), Sepreniher 1994), P* I'i. I 6~~~~~~~~1. hun L. luies, P,,ri'st Health: It, Aseis.n,'nt pp. 25-26. 144. tip. cit. 97. p. 9 I . anid .Stati (CA B littemr it . i titi: I. xon. 192. J . [Divid Foster, Tbe Ru/i'-i the i't:tv in Eini- 145. tip. L1i. 97. p. 9)1. Uniited Kittgdotti. 1993). p. 42. rwimiin'tai Manargement: 19r94 kLr/ttii c... ILJS. 146. Kirk R. Smiith aiid 'toucheiig Liu, "Inidoor 168. WVilliamn I. (.iesl.i .ird Edwin .ii r. D .rb1 iiierC. Agenicy for Ititerirnatiiiial [)eceliptreiit. Air PollutiuioInit Developilig Cotirirtrics." iiDe iute ad It) Libac k i/ Tier .ini I-,erls: A \Csttgii,D(. 94.P 9 Fpidciniolog-c of Lunig Caiti ir. joirt.tth.r ii X. Glribal tO)'irv'ii'wi Foi estrY Paper Ni. 120 I 93. FriISiiirr Sllill Ct a?.. "V.iuiiig the Fcoiioiiri c Sairtiet ed. (Marcel Dekker, tInc., New 'turTk, luiF,d itiid Agriculture Oi.tg.rrti.rtiior it tIre Impicts iof Etiivirmiitetril Proiblemts: Asiaii l 994). pp. 154-163. iurned Nriroirrr, R,inrir, I)994r, p. 6,1. Cities," Urbatni M.iiagetirerICr Pruugranniite Dis- 147. t p. Lit. I3 36. p. .52. I 69. t ip. it. 95i, p. I 84. curssimin P.per, workirig draift (The Wi Id 148. tip. cit. 137. Table 5. pp. 18- 19. I Ti. tp ~ itt. 5. 1). 26. Batiik, Wishitigriti. ID.( ., 1994), p. I 19. 149. Li/. c it. 8. I 7 I . (,ai) Riirhe aiid Eduairdii Pr tez. "Iliaiit triig I 94. Apogee Research. Inic., "lire Corist if Trtails liii. 'WorlId Health titganztt.iioni iid Lrriied N54 tcir Grhuii Ftisiroiiiictiettal Heailtlh Ilrograiirs port.itiont: Final Rcpoirt," prepared fur 'rire Mills FlVI-TIcretu trtei Progranirrec, Urban Air iii (eutral Arnire i,.- WASH Field Recpiirt COnisercatrirt Law Fouiindation (Mircih l'lNihirir ini Meigaactties if/ the lim rId (Black - Nit 42cc t.Lit ired Si ates Agetic y loii I ire ini.- I 9 94), P. I 2. well Referetice, Oxfiird, Unitied Kuirigdoinri tiruttl D)rveluoptenir, W:tshuitotni D.( li.. (c- 9.DaiShrik,hwnT rie rdTni m I992), p. 19. ioc 933,p (.Luunax, "Trenids ii LUrhiti Rruadw.tv 1:ig, 1.5I. tiup. cit. 5, P. I I. 172. `[ irk-sltiLt I. [ -L,[rbTh i Piliiriring indl Vec- r1o11-1982 tii 1991, VOilMirtr I: Auitiil(i R, I 52. t )p. cit. I .16, p. 52. tie (.i~~~~~~~~~rii C nTil in souintheast Asian ( itic's. potir," Research Repiirr I I131I-6. Vii) I 152. Op. cil. 13(,, p. 52. K~~~~~at,,hsinug /tIiinial if Mcd/i a) .5. rr'ni. VOL. (Texais Trantspourtattion liistitrire, (:ileg a- 153. tip. Lii. 13 6, p.S52. 1 0 c 1 994), p. S-44. triii, Texts. 1 994). p. 32. 1.54. tip. cit. 14 1, p. 75. 1 73. LJiritei Nitiruit Fttrvimint:tet Ptrogrammitte, 1.55. J a:qcqelirec Aloisi de Li rdrel, "The Risks i f bittmiii u niiutal IData Repii rt 1 99 3-94 c BI.ck- I 96. R icbard A triiorr aiid Ken riet h SimallI. "The Expuistrie: The (hallerige Oit [Irbaiti Air PoIlti- %vrll Pirbltsices, tistoid. LUnitted Ktingdiii. Econoiiiiics iit Traffic Ciingesriiii," Amirri- rIoiI- VC I-eer eW,- iii The Hl-ltoaan Face if t/nt' I 99) l). P. ; I . cap Scientist, Vt)I. 82. Nii.. c Sepreniblie / Urban Fin'iroutuneirt. Proceedings of the.Sir'- I 74. Thei sni .ilII dec lire ini .irs is i errit Lri October 1 994). p. 446. und A4 nuua/ Wtr/i/ Batik Cwiitferen e iii In- lie exp(latinetd by iv thr iTIrcu's in the sep.irite I 971. jrines J . .81 icKeiare, Ru ger I.. Di uw. er, .idt~ i'ir uittetta// .Sntatnhh'Dceine/on/iuiin Cele,[] c II Ii oi Ii ecCC bIble III. re Ii [Is I Litch as DoinaId [IT. hen, The' Gmnbg Rate: W'/htt Isiiia il Sciageldiii, NA iclbael A. Ciihetr. atiid gliss .i id p.tper. It Re.tllx' Costs ti, r ive e c(Wiorld Resoi iirccs K. C. Sivair r.m kkris htsitn eds. (The 'Aoii d I 75. tiP. ' it. 14 I. P . Iiistriture, Wish r rgtoi Di . I... I 992), Bati1k, Washtintgont D.C.., Sepretilieri I 9-2 I , I6.L grLndn "N gcits'Tiu'Vi)pp. I 8- 19. 1994c, p.60. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~14 1, Nri. 2 Ijirrirry II1. 1991c, p. 16. 1 98. Christmine [tuedy. "Int dcudeutl ieell- 1 56. tirganitisatini i for Ecouituin ic Cu-Opera ti Ii7)i.it-3 p irig-Saving Resiirtrcs iii Asrit Cities,- III alid Dcveloptinerit c LCI)) anrd Furioipean it I7.ri ct 7.P (2 Ciis E.Igi I S,,iun Ap-' tortfeirince iof NAiii itiers oufTr. irsport I 7S. 1OP. it. I. .6. (n. i . pJimarbe's iti iUrbiin.S/pace'. [tavid (iordoiir. Ft.CM I ), Ur/rain Trari'?arid Sutaisttnabi'lieDe I 79. OP/. it Tplp. 6 (-64. c-d. Blaick Ruse Bi iiks, Mont retal, 1 990, 'e/itpmrent c EIM1T arid 0)FCD, litris. I 995). I Xci. ti)/i. it. -,p. 64. pp. 43-54, as cited in Patrriciar McI artier, pp. 33-63. I 8 I. t p. itt. I116. P. ii. .'Urbi.ir Research iii the Dere),iinrg W'Y rld: 157. tip. Litt. 97. p. 96. FuuLAr AXppriiaches toi trei I'nriirorinic'ir i) I it 158. Asif Fart arid Surhid Caurani, "Moiroi izia' 2 ia,i. P 2 ics"i, iG/atR'er' ntn ii5t/ri tioti, U rb.rniastIi)fl. aiid Air Pollutitt," d is' I 8 1. C hei vl Sirmonii Sil(te at( DaleU I S. Riothintani, Woirld: 'Tmvurc'tis ,tn Agenda for the 1i)i9ts cussioni pa per (The Wiorld Baink, 'I cix ics .rid Heal rI: The Prteniaelrr. Long- Rirchatrd Srreni, ed. (GnirtersitY cil Tirinito Washi iigitoit. D.C.. I 994). p. 8. Terrir Et Iccis ot Itndustrirl Acticity." .t report 1 'rontoi i, I1994), p. 22. LS9. 01). at. 136, p. 124. on~~~ii ''' W,rrksh,,p wit the Effects f Irrdursni.lc) 9 I 59. (i/i. cit. 1.16, p. 124. ~~~~~~~~~Acitrivt ott Hkitiaiti aird I'coi su.s nsiert eltlh," 19. p. , it. 1 92, ). l. 160. tip. it. I136. p. IS8. The Itt 0 Pci cci'', ` rIlce, Flu irid,r, May (10). Diivrid Sr tierithrwmtie,."1he Ptrex err bis D~e is- 16 I . tip. cit. I 36. p. 18. 1 9-Itc. I 994, p. 4 I . ease BLirdrii ~i :i ties," rivrirwi iiertt alit tUr- 162. Alliance to Enid Childhiiid Lead ,iNoirsirrg 1 84. LJ.S. Envinirr cirr trrril Prtutcctiot Agenicy bi,rrizttrini,t Viil. 5, Nii. 2 ltOcrouler 199.1), arid FitsirolinrelitalI Detenise I-itrid. The'~ EPA) ItOffice o f A ii Q ualt Iry '' FA Air Qua) 1-P. 5. C/ut/al Dinrr'nsions of Le'ad Pioifntitii,: Air itt Trends." F11.A-4S,4/F-95 001 )IPA. ,\Vaish- 201 Rap Iori,Fidig ndPlc m ia Inittta/ A4nalysis cAllianice to F'rid 1. lrldIlrcI0d itigiont D.C~.. Sc'ptc'rrblsr 1 99.5, pi. 1 2. 2 tI ilpt 1I f irric' "l'tUrdanCi. tRiduPolic Prirpic Lead Poisoning, WiishitIgtuuTi, D1.1., 1994), 1 85. tJ)). ,it. 5. P. Ini ect,'' hirerntartuit.l tiiortcil fur Loucil P. 26. 1 86. iJp. ' it. i, p. 42. Envtriitron etial Irnritiatie's dICLEII Papcr I63. Unitied Stares Agenrcy for Intrerrrarioniit l Devcl' 1 87. tip. itt. 184, p. 8. (IL:LFEI, Tiiriirrtii. J anIIrat I 1 I)991), P. 7 opirrerit (U.S. AID), Ci ititpartng Lotirnun Inrtital He,tith Risks ini Cairn. Lgycpt. Vi/. 1 88. ti/i. itt. 128, P. 5-28. 202. tip. cit. 1 72. II: Tec/unic'al Anini'x'es. drzift p.tpc'r ([(S.AID, I 8. Gritted Nauiriii F5uniniiit rird Stic rl Cumtt- 20.1. Execpiie FcI E tIerrs rrd Marist Miczrn- Washirigioti, DiC., 1994), p. A-;. rrisiii- rrti' .iAsia.i .rd Ireli.c Paihc IESt APc, Hiriantr, "Are M'egat-t iries Vitlnl? A CALI- 164. Ui rrc'd St.r cs Agenicy foir hit erntr.ririrrl De tel' .Stati i h, bt 'in itririni i ,Aslrltdii the Pia- oayFl ri c1oCt, topirrri I.[S.AID), Ratnkinrg L,trritir'i/i'fir'. I 990ts rEstAlP. btrgo.' hrti.tiiir ie rir Acr u, 99 p. 7 1 gkok, I hadxid~ ~ ~ ~ ~I-:sr 'Etntiroi'mnt, VolI. 38, Nir. I dhrnru.rrsffcbrti' Hea/th Risks III Bantgkruk, Thazi d,ir/ 'it Il: I 9 2.p.v .st 99', P. I I. Te'hnti',tl App'nd/iie c UL. S. Al). W.tsh inrg- I 9t1. t5/u. iit. .5. p. 2. 24 p t tori, D.C., Decenriber I1990)c, (. A 8. I I . The Word1] ii B k W,l! I)e, l inn Ri' 24eii i.II5 I 65 tiP. itt 162. port I 994: Iirft'.isIti' tit,'tii ft Oie erb'/nPnti'it 20t5. O p. 'it..S, p. 14. 30 World Resouirces 1996-9 7 2. Urban Environment and Human Health rhanization is one of the major social ousimpactsointhe healthiofurbandwellersevervwhere, U T changes sweepiig the globe, especially in but especially in the fast-growing towns an d cities in the developing countries, where urban developing world. growth rates are the most intense. Soon, This chapter examines these negative impacts of a majoritv of the world's people will be urbanization and the urban environinent on human livinig in urban environimients quite unlike the rural health, particularly in the developing world. Indisput- settings that have been home to most of human society able evidence ties ill health to deficiencies in the physical to date. Urbanization brings fundamental changes in the environment, includinig inadequate water and sanita- ways people live-in the number of people they see, in tion, flimsy, overcrowded housing, air pollution, uncol- the places they work, and often in the quality of the lecred garbage, and dangerouIs workplaces. In poor water they drink, the air they breathe, and the housing cities of the developing world, infectious arid parasitic in which they live, diseases related to these deficiencies continue to exact Such changes have profound implications-both an enorinous toll on human health. positive and negative-for the health of city residents. Now there is increasing evidence of the role of social On the one hand, urbanization and economic develop- factors-including alienation, high rates of unemploy- ment have brought dramatic improvements in health, ment, ethnic tensions, and urbani poverty-in influenc- largely because of environimienital improvemients and, in iing health as well. The effects of the urban social part, increased access to health services. Health statistics environnient are by no means independent of physical show that in the more highly urbanized countries, peo- conditions; they are interrelated. The political and eco- ple tend to have the longest life expectancies and chil- nomic structures within a city fundamentally determine dren under age 5 tend to have the lowest rates of the distribution of and access to the physical, biological, mortality i . Even within countries, urban-rural com- and social benefits that cities provide. In other words, parisons of indicators such as infant mortality and the poorest groups within a city face the greatest expo- vaccination coverage show that there are significaiit sure to physical and biological threats and have the least advantages in urban areas. (See Table 2. 1.) acccss to protective services. However, urbanization can also have many negative These social factors affect health indirectly; through influences on human health. For much of the world, changes in behavior. But the urban social environment growth in urban poplatioLns is synlonymous with also contains direct health threats, such as urban vio- growth in urban poverty, both in absolute and in relative lence, drug abuse, and depressioni and other psychoso- terimls /2). Increasingly, cities are becomiing the world's cial illnesses. These problems are of increasing starkest symbol of the maldistribution of resources, importance in cities across the globe, Indeed, through- both physical and societal. These inequalities have seri- out the developed world, physical threats have largely World Resoutrc-es 1996-97 31 Urban Environment and Human Health Table 2.1 Comparison of Urban-Rural Health Statistics, Selected Countries, 1991-94 Kenya Senegal Bolivia Bangladesh Indonesia Indicator Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Mortality rate for children under 5 (deaths per 1,000 live births) 75.4 95.6 101.8 184.2 104.0 162.0 114.3 153.2 83.7 116.4 Percent of children between 12 and 23 months with all vaccinations 80.9 78.3 64.9 40.4 44.4 28.4 70.4 57.5 65.2 40.9 Total fertility rate 3.4 5.8 5.1 6.7 3.8 6.3 2.7 3.5 2.6 3.2 Percent of females over age 6 with no education 13.5 29.1 50.6 88.7 11.1 33.0 34.0 50.0 15.5 28.7 Source: Institute for Resource Development, Demographic and Health Survey Data Archive, Columbia, Maryland. Note: Data are for the following years: Kenya. 1993: Senegal, 1992: Bolivia, 1994; Bangladesh. 1993; and Indonesia, 1991. receded and social factors are cL 1ergiilg as the greatest broad categories of developed a11d de:veloping counlrl-cs, threatS to publiC hIlealtl. citics differ- Widel in their healith profiles. Profiles die- For these reasons, the t-rmii envzironinent is defiled pendl broadly oin several factors: the nix of en viroii- 1here to inClude not ju ist the physical elei1ilrcs associated nentral risks faced (physical, b)iological, aill social), rhe With trle bUilt environlmllenlt but sociai factors as well. p-roportioil of rile po01Ulation facinig differenit risks, the (See hox 2 I ) This chapter examiin1es, iII partiCul1ar, (denlograpilic lrofile of tile city aild of grotLps within it, evidlenice linking sociocconolllic inetIuities in ciries with and access to healtlh services. All of rhese tend to shifr inleqtiiries in healiltl. First, the chlaprer- dcscrilbes liow with developmient aIlld incireasing wea ltl. hea Itil problemS Stemming frlom tile Urban eivi rolleiit Slic e ile ill il- I 9th ( ellturv, vllni ln provelilenlts ill vary dramiatically fromil city to City, dLependling iilrge the hianldling of Urbain water and sewage hegaln to take part on a Lity s developimental status or wealtl. Nexr, it Ioid, the bL rden of comillunilcallec diseases has steazdily exa;1minies the dramiatic differences bletweenl richl and declined througilootr Illaily cities ill tile dLvelopCLe poor wvithin the samze city. The chaprer thieil explorcs in world. The mla jor CALuses o(f deatll aec now cltronlic aild greater detail how elemiienits of both the phlysical cilvi- degenerative diseases-priniarily hleart disease anld Can- ronii1eu1t anid the social eniivironillieilt ilteract to inicrease cer-that ar-e related tro sueII soCial factois as cliet, tihe burden of ill health. stress, anLI lifestle. An,l receitlv, violence aili acci- Attentioni to the social factors that affect the healthl delts hlave become increasinlgly significalnt c aisCs of of Urban dwellers is relativelv nelw. Past ailalvses have death in cities. tended to focus on elemiienlts of the p1hysical eIiviron- Thils shift fronii coiinitilnicilble to nonconln1i1unicaIlble 111eilt, LIsLiallv in isolatioil. If policies to iiilprove healtli diseases las leen described as thl "epidenliological traln- are to succeed, they mioist recognlize the interconniectionis sitioni" or the "healtli transition" ). Tliis trailsition, Iervweell phiysical alld societal factors a1nd1 strive for ani Wvil Cl is nor uliq Lie to u r5bai ar-eas blit wvlich typically integrared approach. In short, siniplv providilig better occurs first anid fastest there, is related to several factors. pIlysical facilities sucilas imiiproved sail itatioil and avater One is expostiel- to tIle risk factors for disease, which supply-although esseiltialI-is not eloUghl to address cliallge as ConIltries urlanizeiic and develol. Access to the serious healtIl prolblenis tliat plague utrban rcsidelits. effective lealtil services is clearIv a seconid major factor I4% Fiiallv, tile aging of the I)opulation, wv i l is iil tinIri related to iliortality and fertility rates, is also a criticali HEALTH IlROFILES OF URBAN DWELLERS deteriiriiallt, since the incidelnce of chronic aild degenl- erative diseases tvpically inicr-eases with age (ii Sigils of this healtil transitioni are 1o1w appareilt Differences Among Cities throughout cities of the cievelopiig world. In somze Urban residents in developing countries hlave a far cities, especially rthe economlically adva need ones, heart greiter- Iburden of preniature dceati and disease thiail do disease and cailcer are enilerging as iiajor cauitses of theil- coulterparts in developed Coulintries,i reflectiig deatil, as they already have in the developed world. broadly thilr relative povert-y and inadequate access to Indeed, inI cities as diverse as Sao Paulo, Bra/zil; Cape blasic serviees aind opportunities. Yet, even wihinil tiose Towin, South Africa anLId Accrai, G(halla, hlcart disease 32 Wlo rld Resmurcr's i 996 9- Urban Environment and Human Health lJRBAN VIEWPOINT Box 2.1 Can We Improve Neighborhood Quality in Neglected U.S. Cities? Webster's NewrZ World Dictionary de- tor that exploded in 1980 still stands va- other areas must contribute hoth indi- fines the word environment as "all the cant, surrounded by a 2.4-meter-high vidually and collectivelv-along with condirions, circumstances, anid influ- chain link fence. The neighhorhood also husinesses and communities-to finding ences surrounding and affecting the contains clusters of abandoned build- ways to improve the environment and development of an organism or grotip ings and numnerous littered lots. Police qualitv of life in multiple-hazard neigh- of organisms' (i. In other words, every- wvarn visitors not to venture into public borhoods. thing we see, smiell, feel, or hear as soon housing projects located in the center of -Micbael Greeniberg as we walk outside our home is our East Elizabeth because the area is said neighborhood environnment. This in- to be the local epicenter of illegal drug cludes not onilv trees and sidewalks activitv. MiAcbael Greenberg is a pro/essor of ur- but noisy neighbors, litter in the street, When surveved, the citizens of East bian stitdies and conmnunity health at abandonled hooses, and polluted air. Elizabeth, as well as local government tie Edward /. Bloustein School of Plan- In policymaking. however, rhe United experts, recognize that there are Multiple sling atnd Puiblic Policy of Rutgers Uni- Stares, like many other nations, has a sources of environmental risk. They also iversity. New Brunswick, Neit' Jersey. much narrower definition of cnviron- sav that solving one or even two of these ment. In local, state. and national gov- risks is insufficient to substantially im- References and Notes ernment. environmental problems are prove neighborhood quality c >)s6. 1. David Giiralinik, ed ., Webster's Nera equated with air, land, and water pollu- At this time, however, the U.S. gov- Worltd Diciohiarn'. second edition (Siimion tion. Crime is left to the criminal justice ernment does not assess the cunmulative and SchUister, Ness York, 1980), p. 468. system; blight is the responsibility of risk of living in neighborhoods with 2. Patul Porriiev, ed., Piblic Policy for Enzi-t- hotisinig. comniiliitv developnment, crimc and other behavioral hazards, se- ronmnental Protection (Resources for rhe police, and firefightinig organizations: vere physical blight, and multiple forms Future Washington, D.C., 1992), pp. traiffic noise, congestioni, and access of pollution. Experts well-versed in air are left to departments of transporta- pollution modeling and epidemiological 3. RichGrd Sinlih, Richard Alexader, aind tion. stdies have neither the manidate nor Trenids in the Nation's Risers," Science, The U.S. Environmental Protection the skills to assess risk from other pollu- Vol. 235 (1987). pp. 1607-1615. Agency's narrowv environmental man- nion problems. 4. J.G. Calvert. it al.. "Achievinig Acceprable date has not prevented the agency and Furtherinore, crime, uncoiitrolled Air Qcialiry: Sonie Rellectioiis on Control- its state progeny froni improving the dogs and rats, abandoned andi unsafe hog Vehicle Emiiissions," Science, Vol. 261, enviromninent. Nationally, despite SUb- buildings, and various forms of antiso- No. 5117 1993), pp. 37-39. stantial increaises in popuilation, produc- cial behavior and phvsical decay are 5. Michael Greenberg acid Dona Schneider, tion, aid consumption. eniissions into not included with pollution in risk as- "Hazardous Waste Sie Reiiiediation, the air, land, and water have decreased sessments. As a result, mitigation ef- Neighborhood Change. and Neighbor- 12)3)(4). But this single-agency mandate forts tend to be piecemeal and hocod Qiialiiy," EIn'rocnmiental Health Per- does not work for inner-city neighbor- tincoordinaned and thus unlikel tum specties. Vol. 102, No. 6/7 (1994), pp. hoods, wlhichi face a multitude of haiz- markedlv reduce the risk these neigh- 54254. ard s. borhoods face. 6. .Michael Greenberg and Dona Schineider, The inner-city neighborhood of East I cannot offer a realistic and simple so- EnLircncne'nially Devastated Neighbor- Elizabeth, New jersey, exeinplifies the lItion to the multiple environmental (Riirgers UPeiversios Press. Ned Brunsetik, array of problenms facing declininig probleins of rhese neighborhoods. How- New lersey., 1996t. U.S. cities. Residents conifront deafening ever, if efforts to rehabilitate our cities noise fromi Newark Airport. the 10th are to succeed, we must redefine the busiest airport in the ULnited States, concept of environment in a way that located just 1.6 kiloineters away. matches the realities in multiple-hazard The New Jersey Turnpike, the most neighborhoods-in a way that is closer heavily trafficked road in the United to Webster's definition. We caninot set States, runs directly thiouIgh the priorities for actiol uiiiless we under- commn1unity. stan)d the full extent of the risks these The largest petrochemiiical complex on commn nities face. For now, those best the Last Coast, which, according to equiipped to ser priorities are the resi- toxic release inventory dara, is the sev- dents and local officials who live and enth largest waste-producing site and work in these neighborhoods. eightlh largest emzitter of toxins in New It is also clear that no single agency Jersey, is located on the southlwest can play the heroic knight. The agencies boundairy of rhe neighborhood. The site responsible for environment, criminal of a fornier hazardous waste incinera- justice, housing, transportation, and World Rcsoirsrcs 1996-97 33 Urban Environment and Human Health in developing counitries, the burden of Figure 2.1 Causes of Death in Three Cities communicable diseases, related to pov- A. All Ages B. Ages 0-14 Years erty, coombines with risks of chroniic diseases, assocciated with social condi- (percent mortality) (percent mortality) tions, to create a double burden of ill 100 100 health (161. 90 90halh 61 80 80 These changinig patterns of health in 70 70 urban areas can be seen by examining 60 601 50- _ 1 50- data on the causes of death in three very 40 40- different cities: Accra, Sao Paulo, and 30 30 _ Prague, Czech Republic. (See Figure 10 20 2.1.) The health profile depicted for 0 A 0 _ each urban center reflects not onilv the Accra Sao Paulo Prague Accra sao Paulo Prague impact of environmental health policies C. Ages 1544 Years D. Ages 65 Years and Older pursued in the past but also the impor- tance of the demographic mix in par- (percent mortality) (percent mortality) i u c 100 100 ticular urban centers. 901 J J " 90 5E3 E E In both Prague and Sao Paulo, two 80 80- economically advanced cities, the pro- 70- 70- 60 * 60- portion of deaths attributable to infec- 50- 50- tious and parasitic diseases is now 40- 40 - extremely low for the overall popula- 30- 3 20 20- ontiO (0.3 percent in Prague and 4 per- 10 c10 cent in Sao Paulo) (171 s). To a great Accra xtent, these statistics illustrate the level Accra Sao Paulo Prague Accra Sao Paulo Prague of wealth of each urban centcr and the iE Infectious and parasitic diseases * Respiratory diseases relative success of past initiatives for U Circulatory diseases * External causes * Other improving urban health conditions. Both lrague and Sao Paulo have made Source Carolyn Stephens etal., Environmentand Health in Developing Countries: An Analysis efforts to p ro vi de comprelhensive water of Intra-Urban Differentials Using Existing Data (London School of Hygiene & Tropical and sanitation coverage, along with Medicine in collaboration with Fundacao SEADE and Ghana Ministry of Health and Ministry v i o gis pv ta of Environment, London, 1994). vacctnl.tioil progrillls for preventable Notes: Data are for the following years: Accra, Ghana. 1991; Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1992; and infections and basic hicalth services. Prague, Czech Republic, 1993. External causes of death include violent deaths-mainly traffic accidents and homicides. In Accra the picture is somewhat dif- ferent: infectiolis (largely diarrlieal dis- eases, malaria, and mneasles) account for and cancer are nlow leading causes of death, just as they 18 percent of all deaths i ). Limited access to basic water are in London and Washington, D).C. 6) (7) (8) (9). Vio- and sanitation facilities explains part of the profile lence has now reached epideemic proportions in some withiln Accra. Yet, demographic factors are also impor- urban centers in South America as well as North Amer- tait. Of the three cities, Accra colntailns the largest pro- ica (o1) (II) (1 13) (14) (IS). portion of children under age 5, and young children are The health transition, however, is by no means com- most vulnerable to the risk of death from infectiols. plete in most cities in the developing world. In fact, the Respiratory diseases are significant in all three cities, image of a smooth transition from communlicable to accounting for 12 percenit of all deaths in Accra and Sao noncommunicable diseases as developimient progresses Paulo anid 3.5 percent in Prague (211 2n. does not seem to fit the evolving health profiles of these In both Accra arid Sao Palo, diseases of the circula- cities, many of which are struggling with high iiicidences tory system are the primarv cause of death in the of both types of problems. . population as a whole (24 and 33 percent of all deaths, Although data on overall causes of death in urban respectively) Q2?. In Prague, as in most developed areas of the developing world are sparse, they preseit a cities, the proportion is even higher (54 percent). general picture of urbani populations in developing Accidents and violence emerge as more important countries suffering the "worst of both worlds" in their than infections or respiratory conditions in both Prague mortality profiles. In other words, for residents of cities and Sao Paulo 2312 24). 34 World Resources 1996-97 Urban Environment and Human Health Differences Within Cities Figure 2.2 Infant Mortality Rates in Bangladesh, 1991 Perhaps as striking as differences among cities is the variation in health (deaths per 1,000 live births) among different groups within the same 160 city. This variation within cities flies in 140 X the face of conventional wisdom about 120 - the effect of urbanization on health. 100 * Until the late 1970s and eariv 1980s, 80 - urbanization was viewed as a consis- 60 - tently positive force for improved 40 - health, largely because it resulted in 20 - better access to health services. 0 Comparisons of average urban Total Male Female health figures with average rural figures Ci National * Rural U Urban U Urban slums suggest that this is so, but such com- parisons conceal gross health inequali- Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Bangladesh Demographic Statistics and 1991 Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh, as cited in Marcel Tanner and Trudy Harpham, ties within the urban population 12i) (26) 'Features and Determinants of Urban Health Status," in Urban Health in Developing (2'). In many ciries in developing coun- Countries: Progress and Prospects (Earthscan, London, 1995), p. 36. tries, evidence now suggests that health Note: Rural and urban mortality rates were extrapolated from 1991 data. tres, evidnenwsgetthteah coniditions for the urban poor are some- times worse than they are for their rural counterparts fivefold greater risk of contracting tuberculosis than j28) i29) (30). (See Figure 2.2.) their better-off neighbors, (4,. In London, there are two- In the developing world, mortality rates are signifi- fold health differences in rates of heart disease, tubercu- cantly higher for children in squatter areas of cities than losis, and other respiratory diseases between those living for children living in nonsquatter areas (3l). For exam- in poor areas and their wealthier neighbors (35. Similar ple, in Tondo, a large squatter settlement in Manila, patterns can be discerned in social risks too. In Kansas Philippines, infant mortality rates are nearly three times City, Missouri, in the central part of the United States, greater than those in nonsquatter sections of the city. In African-American adolescenits (12- to 1 6-vear-olds), addition, the incidence of diarrhea in Tondo (adults anid who tend to live in poorer areas, have a I 3-fold greater children) is two times higher and the incidence of tuber- risk of injury from firearms thani white adolescents (541 culosis is nine times higher than in wealthier sections of compared with 42 per 100,000 persons per year) (361. Manila .32). Urban violence tends to concentrate in particular In interpreting environmental health differentials, it areas of cities and towns. In a 1990 study, mortality is important to keep in mind that poor people in general rates among African Americans in Harlem were found tend to be more vulnerable, both physically and eco- to be the highest in New York Citv-and 50 percent nomically. With their greater levels of exposure to poor higher than those of all African Americanis. The study's sanitation, overcrowded conditions, inadequate niutri- authors conclude that the mortalitv rates among people tion, social stresses, and environmental pollutants and in Harlem justify classifying Harlem as a natural disas- their limited access to health care, they are ilmore likely ter area. Survival analysis showed that men in Harlem both to get sick and to remain sick. Moreover, the were less likely than men in Bangladesh to reach age 65 economic consequences of illness tend to be more seri- (37). Data on the distribution of violence within cities in ous among the poor, often unideriniing the already the developinig world are sparse. In Cape Town, how- fragile finances of the household. The financial loss that ever, honicides account for 19 percent of deaths in the occurs when an income earner is ill or when medical black community, but just 8 percent of deaths in the city bills must be paid can help create a cycle of poverty and as a whole (38i. chronic ill health (33). Nor are the health differentials between wealthy and The Special Vulnerability of Children and Women poor confined to the developing world. In cities in Even among the poor, certain groups are more suscep- developed countries as well, the poor show dispropor- tible to both biological and social risks than others. The tionately high rates of death and disease for a range of very young and the very old, for instance, tend to be problems. For example, in New York City, children in more susceptible to infectiouis diseases and are more overcrowded poor households in the Bronx have a likely to die if they do become ill. Worl/l Resourc-es 1996-97 35 Urban Environment and Human Health x I i [lil l railitels thc lli 1it rapidi Llisseitilltililt of respi- rIa.tor-V (diSCeas 4-i. _ _ ..... Inldoor- Midtl outdroor- air pnolliitait.till Cii d111iltta' eClhil- d rei's In. ng tiSSueS. pred i -i is O si )S itgL thlliit to viral OI-r lIactt- rial ilfectiols. Th .re is also didi.lee that iiraim n . w _ 7 } u t~~~~~~~~~~~lII' MM:lllI1tiltll lC;ltol'S IlSSoCiItC>t1 Wvltl l(} 1W Higl"oHI - c5''+ '* 9tttii vi rlgm nal lftiC rlsa t stilli tIiwer-IIlCtlil setig caiagr tt, andIL perhap;jS eVenl ii1iitiat, child1.- hloodi astliiiia. Thlese tfCtors 111CILC inclu oor pOlluiililtts tfro lIl ookin,g tires, co0al-fired hlarelrs, SeoitdhaiLd11L. ciga1- rette simioke, aidli Other sotires, als we11 as a Ilergt ls associated withl i iJust IImites aiid cci ikr iclics 4;. 44' (4s. i ; 1 rInifantan; liildll deili iII poor settleitielits is Oftenl lor y) W j _ _simply the resuilt If a1 diSCrete dIiseaIe bLIt tI1 oLlteCilic t i a series o(I lwalt ILh problmnis. This tvpicaf li ilnlvlves aiin itIrp-laTz11 of MilillitlritiOll, a VsllaetV Oft iitt1CtiOils kis- eiases, and, pitssIh1l1, xlostire tl liio tiiical pollitallits. lack ot Ifha1t1 care iItCraSeS vutillcralbilits& Social flctors, too cii hle itlillrtailt ill iilctlasinigthe: halclr1i risks tl at ii trhilt clil ird ril tace. AdI Ilesceilts scceit L tul he poitll-ti.tilarlk aIffCtedL by illiladcLnairt Lirltaii soliia i ei_ tiviruiiiiiits. l)tta trii siili cities iii Notirtli aitd Souti AiiienAica-l siggeSt stri kiig, age-speifitc P I blitis wvitIi lioIitiicitl1s ;tii0Iilg o0111ig eIIlI aid1 ItOs. 11) publiC Ih;ltlh trterms violIcco 1i ) iversiltlO ws iitfeictlOins dl sa lses als a cau1 tse ot (If death anioiig hIdert- childC eit1 iIl s0111o i lbilh _citvirh)ii tieiit.s h, 4,. Yl- orOeai tie, vilciice-i0tsrly lloni icid ts-aC i nnC tedfohir Xf v6prcenit of All deatlhs if boN's algteS Is to I') iII Sa ltPaulo III M9L9 iii.C2 rirltal hal, Of ;ll cidelaths aiiiong S- to 14-ya-old-O11l bOy's 14si At risk. P(?r uc?ien ani ci/dwin iw '.spltt' I' "''d U: b' ' Urban, Wuililil a Iso face ilnCreaISed lita irisks, lal-gel /54!;} 1/)1?V.#(Sil1§1( lcd 1'w soc ia TOats 0^ i/I;' ,IlJ11 111O 'i}ijiw l'O,'' 1t ,) '1! becus iiftltt (thi tl s oc(}ial andt ec)liioilitc rhile s. svhilit cx- !;oii;olrs> (''( ts {91Xw 1 507(0 a o2lvidto Cs) ( 1 .;t. ~1)0>t trlhlni to grelatelr iiniiters otf eiilviliiliitital hla.- JrdlS. \W0111tt allrC usually responsille for torakiig CalreL Ot StuLdit's show rhalt rhe inc ireased lical ri rsks thiat sick clilidretli itcreasiiig theirdtiR-er x p uO ilc to IJisaise- iiipuove -islied Cl11iirell ffaCe Ill cities enall be sigilific i itc a;LIS1L'g orgainis s. They usually take pri r [rs it,01- ( hlildrenall eCXposedi tO al ni-rage of inifectionls agents sibilir t o linilig Wifrt aicl Washing liltiry- allL toxiC CoIitii1iinaiitS dtiirinig play, at nmeals, antd at activities that cali 1rt be ha,raLotd s wvhre sanllirtationl is poor, schlool or othler coitimnitlzall acttivities [ '; Intestinall Xstashin g facilities lreilnadeulalte, aiLt waterl-suppliesar iSol-trdi trs such aS severe dLinarrlic, causedi bNyI a allnetst C(Iltiiit lliltnIt ted m,. As, theC hIiSeiiOl fOO1u 1 r ar r, uif bacrteriia viruises, 11t1 Ic;l' p sites, are tig the most bai womenii flit (develllpiitg Wo d](1 alr oft(ii -xphisOCl pFrCeivlent 111C] serioIus ilClii risks to elili(reit expOsedL to very higl levelsot sitoi e fromiicitksroves svliiclt illso to poor sainita tiont or conitaiilited water suLIpplies. (0r ) it rithim at risk of receivilig liii rits. rite 5 itilliiincliildritwho ar eStiiliItedLt die a iiiLil' Plhisiological ftLicrrs also play- a parr in iiiakiiig of ali;arl-lcal cliseases ini the dlevelopiig vIOirld. rtih mllai- woitien's lw-a lthi itlroi vuliierable. \Xoiltie tie parrtiel- juIrirv conte tfltil prl r bin fmlln.'lii lie 4i) . Iriv alt i-is k during pr-gnialicy altla flrfrclliIdliirr-ifl, bcilig lRespirtitrvn ii[ecrttiols, whlicih are the seOnLid iinosr itOre vnliiera ble to solite Acliitticl toxins andi(I Ilnont eOIIIIIIOII Cliise of deaithl aitto0ig chlilLireil iII rlth de-el- sLlseCti Isle tuo certa it diseases, suLchi as iililalhari i,t, (si oupinig wsOrldl 41i, lso pusti a1 p aIrrtilC1i- i risk ro eliildi-eli The kindis of eittllo itteitt that wvoiieii bavs iccess to ill Lirbaii setrings. switli Overui o-e- tlisig andi air pollht- OfrtL-n pit thiciti at i-isk as ssell. Mainy uiri;tin woiteii ili tioiii-1orhi iIlOOIurs duld ol tdooi-s--eing two signitii- dexeloping cthIiitiies work it siialil-SCAhel indusirrics uoiitt coittribuzntors to this risk. ()vc-rcriI\vo.e eciiw t ions wxlure roxi c deliiiiea arc l itctin tisudl witloiuir adCpi;tlat incr the l evels IOf exIustire toiXSL- to i ii fectCLiiid ivida 1 IC s , safegiard.1s. Pvlec-work dIone lltie, suLIch ;ts, falbricatilig 36 Wo;/h/ Rcswerfr-s I )")-9) Urban Environment and Human Health san1;dals or articles of clotlilig is a onimii soutr-ce of thie threat fromii thlese uiLihealrhfu)C l rrlaii coiiditioiis was t inCOmeI amo10nlg urban women nld ca involv t uIL Lse of inidLed Public and reLired(l ;a plblic respoise. dangerous alidhesives andLI othier- flamniniahle or toxic mal- Thie environnitalr concerns of the wvorklds wealthy terials zŽ. Risks to w\oinen (duec to cheical e xposLre, Ilhave iiioveCC on. aLn international atrteLioln h as fol- repetitive iliotioli, or stress are highi eveni in many miiod- lowed L sLt. Now, comparisons of average 1Lthanll ai cI-iL rban inl dustries such as microelect r oiics,s ain. Ia 1ge- t-o1111 iortalitt rates dI(o iilt dlisplay the sanei ur,rlai sea Ic ga riment iiianufactmriiign where w iia.11ke up a d1islad altal, eveli iII cotilirrics wlihere urbanl sailit.tioii high percentige of the work torte W tlostitiitioi witl is p1'or. HI eVr, as illustrared III t1h pre [ iOnS seCtion, its predominantly .ita foctis. is assocMiatedI witil a hlosr aserages hicid gross (dispriatit s 1ii tlhe leailth staturs of urbaii dlwellers. \laii city resIC-idens la1ce eiis Iitoniiieiital if hieailthi risks. -rom sexually traiismiiitteLl (diseass Schl I als AlD. LO and gonlorrhlea to phlvsica Ia ;lMie. CondLitio11s roughl0 v l c ni,iprabtae to thlose that slIoncked Social factors are especially impl3,3ort-allt contribuztors to thle loLirgeoisie in the I 9thl ( letiit. Alrhiomigh tIle li mi- ,I'Miillieital Ilellth bur,1-len, tor the iii-haii poor, ioi the 1I;>a Inric_l halliri VII)I-ab lilirl tII;)t 11dlr111 WO11101 liII)Stl\ iIIfilt thedevelo g pi llltHieS, 1iii1\ iOt be as hligh experience. Violelnce aga inst Wiollell-witl1`iii 1aliL oLut- als It oiice Was, Ill POM- Ilirn gllhborhoodis ii1I,ideqtiaI.lciCS Ill slide of the hiomie-has beeni Ilicreasinglt rccoggiiizd a-s a t iroiiiliciit r-iiiiii > ~~~~~~~tile plysica;l (lxrlell" II rll;lzi mit iost Impro-rtant Plrime thIreait ro wotilelis healrh ill hotl- rle dlevelop(edh ;11iid the developiiig wvorldl i-i Altlhouglh rltis is by Io ) - - mleallns 1 strictly urban pliellomeoit,o its iiicidence is high in cities a ntl may he iniicreascl by psychoSI icialI factors slchll as stress associated.] with pinr Lt lball holusi g, illade- - 4 , plte iicoOlle, ali lack o(f CLIl (oPl(rItLIiiit-\ to eniploy- iit ot edIuICatioi, athiouglih the precise Ii iiks brct\eei - these stresses a rLd V ioilenCe are hi0t Well LhtfiViie t* A aS THE URBAN PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND s - HEALTH - Acent- ttr a-id a half ago, average urball miortality i,ites '-;t iln Eut oipea n Cities Wete oftteIl tar Ih igher hla Il rtIs. ill the sLurroLun.ing ru1ral areas S ad sallitatiOll, Whih t then referred tO a raigc of poorh 111v iCii StOOLi eCiviroin- 4 1 llental heallth hazLrIs rtll'et `ha ii juLSt dlisposal of ex- ccrta, was increasuiigly seenl as being repolsiblec for ti is ; - - - uLrbaii LisaslitLa1Irge. Promiiinenit s.ciclitists studied siii- tar-v cioiiitioiis and1l health, aiid refotiriiers ill r-1aii - colitetrs atllotild the Wortld discuLssedL lhoth the til tc -I,I IC'I ,id thie lilora l aspects of u rban saiiiry i-eforili. Ii viarny savs, thie- so-cal ledl sail tars revi olutionil tha-t result(ed ttfroin tlhes it-forms wais tle eritir-o niils *t ii-it illoiveulcliit of the I 9th Cl( ituir. As ill ens irolillital r discussions toda1, oie of the most hearted. debzates was _ abou(lt the apprropriate -ole foi giverililetald w tlerl- - g i attCiiipts LI) i1liose saltlrar\ Ilproveiiets collrstit(rcid an1 iifriuigelllerit on what vwoull ilow be callek ie -l - tIn va te sectiO;. e itiial y, tlhe reformiiers \ ioi. ()ine rea - _ . sOnl is tIlhit, altloLgll rthelicta Irl r(llriweproble v w r worse - a- ill poor aieas, tIle svaltliv svere also at risk. Politicians Shaed stanrpipe I ! 1'' AUG >Uf>/)IIi'> 1/v i eveii WorriedL thiat tIh lMlita ry str-cigtli of thc-it liatiouis 1 V. I F i Fn , - )t (Ill' hut /n. IN svas Iicig Ihi deruil- ld byv u-baii lltalthl problellis i-T. Ixmilt- - Un F iii'1'I /01/ tIflmis ci JSIm ,(1(I!hnn The Poihitic;lI powefufilI g rad u accepted thlrl facr that - 'i F / , ' ' Xo (-/, C'MI-On I R(Op-UT 37 Urban Environment and Human Health Box 2.2 ASHA Works To Improve Health in Delhi Many health problems of the urban mosquitos. One study found that al- there were repeated recurrences of pre- poor arise from the poverry and the de- though latrines were available in 46 per- ventable illnesses. Realizing that the graded environment in which they live. cent of the settlements, most were community's health problems were intri- However, conventional health delivery poorly maintained, and nearly 41 per- cately linked to poverty, pollution, and systems in most cities provide curative cent of the residents still defecated in environmental degradation, ASHA be- services to people, whereas environ- the open. Jhufggies are often located gan to focus on a broader approach to mental improvements or social services near garbage dumps, power plants and dealing with health, directing its efforts are the responsibility of different gov- factories, and roads, exposing residents toward improving the environment, em- ernment departments. Because these de- to risks from chemical residues, toxic powering women, increasing the liter- partments tend to work in isolation, wastes, and car exhaust fumes. acy rate, and educating residents about they seldom make a coordinated effort Not surprisingly, jhuggie resi- the links between environment and to improve the qualitv of life of the dents-particularly women and chil- health. poor. Even existing health care systems dren-are especially prone to respira- ASHA began by forging a partnership are ofren beyond the reach of the poor tory and waterborne diseases. The in- with the public agencv responsible for because of cost, inconvenient locations, fant mortality rate in ihuggie settle- delivering services to squatter settle- and overcrowded conditions n. ments is 100 per 1,000 live births, ments. Acting as mediator between the In Delhi, India, a local nongovernmen- compared with 40 per 1,000 live births public agency and community mem- tal organization, Action for Security for the city as a whole. Roughly 40 per- bers, ASHA managed to get the govern- Health for All (ASHA), has spent the cent of children under age 2 have not ment to implement site and service past 6 years trying to improve the received all immunizations; 40 percent improvement projects. ASHA also health of poor residents through com- of women and children suffer severe helped community members form coop- munitv-based programs that address malnutrition; just 17 percent of preg- eratives. The cooperative objectives both poverty and the environment. The nant women receive at least three prena- were to improve local environmental challenge is daunting: more than I mil- tal checkups; and 80 percent of all conditions by acquiring land rights and lion of Delhi's residents live in ihbuggie deliveries are conducted by untrained establishing long-term leases, providing shelters, temporary structures made of midwives. home improvement loans, maintaining miud, thatch, plastic, and other dis- ASHA began in 1988 as an emergency and repairing common spaces, and ex- carded objects. Jhuiggies are small and health clinic in a slum in south Delhi to tending coverage of basic services such devoid of ventilation or natural light; deal with a serious cholera epidemic. as water and sanitation facilities and many are susceptible to fire, dust, During this period, the clinic staff ob- roads. smoke, and noise pollution. The streets served that although treatments were ef- These initial efforts were marred by of jhuiggie settlements are heaped withi fecrive in curing patients, the incidence difficulties. The site and service upgrad- garbage, attracting dogs. pigs, flies, and of disease remained unaffected. Indeed, ing schemes had mixed results as news Most of the following discussion centers on the In one of the few attempts to conipare systematically physical environmental conditions that pose a large risk the environmental health risks in low-income neighbor- to health and also on the question of who bears the hoods with those of a city as a whole, a recent study of burden. In poor cities, and particularly poor neighbor- Quito, Ecuador, found that all inhabitants faced a high hoods, the most threatening environniental problems risk from microbial food contamination and outdoor are usually those in the household or neighborhood as air pollution, whereas the inhabitants of low-income opposed to the broader city (59). Inadequate household neighborhoods also faced a high risk from had water water supplies are typically more damaging than pol- and sanitation, indoor air pollution, and occupational luted waterways to the health of urban residenits. Expo- hazards (60). Roughly, the better-off citizens of Quito sure to air pollutioll may be higher in smoky kitchens could do little to avoid buying locally marketed foods than outdoors. Uncollected waste in neighborhoods or breathing the air outdoors. poses more of a threat than waste at the city dump. (See Although the aggregate health effects of such city- Box 2.2.3 wide problems are typically less than those associated The wealthy, by contrast, can avoid some of these local with poor sanitation or other problems affecting poor threats by buying better houses in safer neighborhoods or households, the more articulate and politically influenl- buying water from safer sources. However, many environ- tial members of the public often perceive them as the menital problems, such as air pollution and lead contami- more important health threat. The result is that re- nation, are spread over large areas, and it is difficult for sources are often devoted disproportionately to address- households or individuals to buy their way out. ing these problems relative to their public healthi impact. 38 World Resources 1996-97 Urban Environment and Human Health of slum improvement attracted addi- Recognizing that women plav a kev more affordable than formal medical tional settlers and increased land mar- role as health care providers, ASHA set care for the urban poor. ket values, displacing the original up a training program for female com- Even now, ASHA's work is not obsta- residents. Local power struggles arose munity health workers called basti sevi- cle free. Factors such as heavy work- over access to the improved facilities, kas. Selected through a process of loads, resistance from husbands and and the cooperatives ultimately dis- community consultation and aptitude families, and personal inhibitions pre- solved after ASHA decided to withdraw testing, basti sevikas are trained to pro- vent women from participating in Ma- from the daily tasks of running them. vide basic health care treatment for hila Mandals. Residents resist paving Through this experience, however, colds, fevers, coughs, and diarrhea, and fees to basti sevikas because they are ASHA learned that women play a far for more serious diseases such as ma- not formally trained. Still, by approach- greater role than men in managing laria, scabies, and worms. Each sevika ing health care at the community level households and the community. is responsible for 200 families and and encouraging residents to take Women's health is a decisive factor in charges a small fee for visits. Basti sevi- charge of their environments, ASHA the well-being of their families; thus, kas also provide health education about has helped to improve the health of they have a much larger stake in im- environment-related issues such as hand many jhrggie residents. Between 1988 proving the living conditions in the com- washing and boiling water, encourage and 1993, ASHA increased its reach munty. A clear disadvantage of the first pregnant women to go for prenatal slums and about 115,000 people. Em- cooperative structure was that it had ex- care, and maintain health records for pirical data are lacking, but a commu- cluded women from an active role in households in the settlements. In ex- nity sure tatktrout aSHns community decisionmaking. change, the basti sevikas also receive a programs, child morbidity and malnutri- In response, ASHA helped form Ma- monthlv honorarium. tion have decreased, residents are more hila Mandals within some of the Delhi The use of basti sevikas has proved to likely to seek treatment for minor ail- jhuggies. Mahila Mandals are commu- be an effective way of improving health ments, and overall environmenral condi- nity-based women's groups that meet care delivery to the urban poor. By select- tions in the slums have improved. once a week to talk about community ing women from the community, ASHA issues and that also serve as a forum for ensures that health care is available to References and Notes health education sessions, income- the community at all times. Basti sevikas earning activities, and loans. ASHA acts reduce the load on the formal health care 1. This box was taken front Pratibha Mehta, "Ac- as a facilitator, helping to inform the systeni by taking care of illnesses nor re- tion for Securing Health for All," Mega-Cities as a ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Urbani Environnental Poverty Case Study Se- communiry about relevant government quiring the attention of a doctor or hospi- ries (Mega-Cities Project and National Institute policies and serving as a communica- tal. Although the basti ser'ikas charge a for llrban Affairs, New York and New Delhi. tion link to the formal svstenm. small fee for their services, they are much Ilndia, 1994), pp. 1-40. Even in cities that have excellent water systems, Household and Neighborhood Problems relatively clean air, and most other features typically associated with environmenral health, there are serious Water and Sanitation health hazards that fall heavily on the poor. As described below, many of these involve more social than physical Various diarrheal and other diseases are spread via the threats to health: stress, depression, chemical depend- fecal-oral route, and this route is far better traveled ency, and violence. Others, however, such as crowding, where water supplies and sanitary conditions are inade- clearly have a physical aspect. quate. Although contaminated water can carry many The following discussion distinguishes environ- infectious agents, it can nonetheless be a critical tool in mental health problems both by their scale of impact maintaining good hygiene: Washing, even with water (for instance, at the household and neighborhood levels that might be better not to drink, can help curb diseases or the city and regional levels) and bv the principal spread by the fecal-oral route as well as a variety of other environmental mediLIm through which people are af- health problems ranginig from scabies to louse-borne fected (air, water, food, and pests) or proximate cause typhus. (e.g., traffic accidents). However, there is no truly satis- Better sanitation can lead to less contact with fecal factory way to classify environmental health hazards, material at defecation sites and less indirect exposure which do not respect boundaries, either physical or via water, insects, food, or human carriers. Given the conceptual. That, in part, defines the challenge of envi- number of illnesses and deaths attributed globally to ronmiental mainagenient: it is not possible to deal with diarrhea, it seenis fair to say that human feces remain each problem in isolation, one of the world's most hazardous pollutants and that World Resoiurces 1996-97 39 Urban Environment and Human Health related water and sanitationl inadequacies still conlstitute chole ra epidemiic, for examiiple, the ingestioni of seafood one of the world's mnost serious health prolenis. contaminated by sewage canl he all important trranisiliis- In mainn poor urbiani neighborhoods in the developing sion route. world, other hazards contribute to the burden of dis- eases spread by the fecal-oral route as well. Indeed, the Houisintg boundarties between waiter, saniiltaition,l food contarnii- ~ The qual itV of housinlg is a significant factor affecting tion, insects, and solid wiste problems are blurred. Althoughl it is difficult to determine which routes are the opngwol C sh Sth amcs l30 ct I0 perclentlo opilig world tshow that as n u.-li as 3() to 6r0 pecrceilt of most iiimportant, the most cominmoni techliiological I iter- the ti ra i popu lati n Iivys in sibsra idard housi ig ventions involve providing new facilities both for sIp- although this perceirage may be less In smaller cities -1. plvinig water andl for saiitation. Epidemiiological stu1dies Housimig qLalIitV extends beyond the availahility of have conisistenitly shown that improving access to such water or sanitation facilities. Overcrowding, damnuess, facilities caii reduce the incideince of diarrheal disease inadequate inIsuIlationl from the extieilmes of heat and substantially-more than 20 perceit, according to ; cold, pest iiifestatioim, noisc, dust, i1aIdeqaLtel drainage, recenit review (i). anid insu fficient veitiolilii ll contribute to the healthi In the developed world, these problems wer-e solved, risks assoCiated withi substandard housing. \Womeni and or were at least displaced, by lrovidinig indoor piped chlildrem, mian y of win speitd considerable tie iiin the water and flush toilets to virtually all uirban residenits. houSe, are eslpeciallV sub.ject to these haZal-rds (65s. The samie is true for the wealthy iln developingcouLitries. Overcr owcd iig is particularlv colillmOll a iiiloig pi or For the poor majority, however, comilprelhensive techiio- Urban ri-esidents, nivny of whomi live in clcihea boardilng logical solutionis like these are no realistic. Neithier low- 11ouses or tenemiienits. In L)elhi, Imdia, a caSe study of a incomle resi dents nor their fiia mnci ally strappecd typical two-stor-y teilcilieilt found . I X pople (constittir- governimlenits canl afford anything likle comnplete cover- ing 106 sepa rare households) living in 49 rooils, allow- age with indoor pl umbiming ing approximately 1 .5 squaLr-c mlCtCl-s prcl pcrson1 fWe1. I n cities of the developing world, households withiout Overcrowding cani aid the trausiliissioii of a variety of indoor pipling ofteii obtain their water from a umniber in1fectiotis diseases, particularlv' airborne respiratory of Souirces, sucI as overcrowded or distant comm11iintal diseases sucicls colds, PrIel.inia, and Mucrculosis in5i standpipes, expensive private water vendors, or heavilyv Overcrowded conditions, where privacy is an tiaCCuS- polluted wells or opein wvaterwavs. Those Without fhush tomied luxury, caii also be detrimental to iicltaIil hcalth, toilets miay end up using pit latrines, pani latrinies, or adding stress aiid contributiig to depression aid other latrinies located over ponds, streains, draiiis, or opemi psychosocial diso)rders (fN). sewers-all of whilch demiianid far ilmore rigorous hygienle Also contributin1g to the psychological burdein of behavior thani is required for rhe inore standardized inadequate housilg for imaiy is insecure teiliurte. Fear of techinologies of the wealtly. evictionr is a ciimniiioii worry aiionlig ollOst low-i ncoile Techniical iiipr-ovemiienits ar-c ainiportant part of the tenants or residelits in illegal settlemcnts and causes solutioll, and ther-e has been somiie suiccess with relitivelv considelable stress a, simple b)ut more hygienic latrines (&2). For examlilele, the "ventilatedl improved pit" latrinie developed in Zim- Food CotntaminattionI babwe is desigined to eliminiate flies and odors while Food, like water, can transmit infectious diseases anid providing a iiiore li vgielnic and com fortab le facilit't harm fu I chem ica Is Ivifectious bacteria calil mliti pl ini Overcrowding, however, coibined with poor maillte- food, aMiid Some1 of tIlh bacteria and funlgi tlat grow (On nanice, can and ofteii does dcefeat sucIh desigin improve- food produLIce toxins. The mia jor healtli bLurdcil arising ments. Public latrines are difficult to manage aClI, w\heii fr-om food contailiiiationm is almost certainly its coiltri- overused, can becomc puiblic health hazards-less hy- lUtion to rhe diarirlea and dvsciterv thait figure s gienic and conivelnieiit for thc user than dcefecitionl in thc higlhlv in the illness and premature deathil of chilidren iin open. Even when private latrinies are availahble, sharinig the developing world. them aiimong severial families semlis to inmircase sanita- However. the exteint to which food cmiitamilli1atioi is tion problems 1 i'. involved in the spread of these diseases is lioorlv uiider- Poorly treated tint untreated wastes releaLsed into (Pell stood. Epidemiological studies give little indic ation of waterwvays caMI also hia ve healthi inipacts oii Water users the relative iiiPporttaince of food colitaiiinination, and onit downstrearn. Although the overall burden on healthl is of the few atteivIpts ro Cstiliiate mindirecrly rhe share of relatively sinall, it cani be qlultc severe locally. Durinig a diarrhea involi ng food contamination giVeS a strilk- 40 Wortil Resources 1996-97 Urban Environment and Human Health inglv wide range of 1.5 to 70 percenit -71. Even so, it is species of these insects in rural areas. In addition, the safe to say that microbial food contaminiation is a health opportunities for controllling such disease vectors are prohiele th.at is more severe in poor coulitries than in generally greater in urban areas. However, Some tvpes wealthiy ones, althIough some klinds of contamination, of disease-hearingn mosqluiros and flies have adapted such as saIlmonlellla, may be niore cominoni in the latter. well to particular urban habitats and find themiselves Food hanldlinig and storage practices are critical fac- relatively free of comiipetition c7-; tors in food conitamin nation, and the dan,gers of containi- The Aetlcs aegypti miosq lt breetds in smiall conltaill- niatioii are heighitenied where wvater and sanitation are ers, sLch as flower vases and water druLIs, and has heen inadequate. Washing hanids before food preparationi carried from its Fast Africiian hoime to every tropical and avoidilng contact between food and flies are two continent, often following the oisetl tire tratle. Its Asian obvious examples of preventive meJsuLres in the home, relative, Aedes albopitufs, iS nIOW USinlg the salimc trick They are also practices that are easici; althoughi less and lias receiltly invadetl Northi and Southi America, tile imlpolrtant, in hoies withi good water and sanitatioll Meiterranean, and West Africa. Both of rhese species facilities. tranisitlt dengtIe, a tlisease of increasing importa nce in Contamination can also occur- durinig transport or latin America and Southeast Asia. (See (Chapter 8, processing, before the food is purchased, which is tliffi- "population and HLuinall D)evelopmnentr.) cult for the conIsuminer toi monitor. Finally, urban coni- In African and Intdian cities, malaria is the most su tiaten aic rbUte to footd containii l prevalenit mosq oiito-biorne disease antI is oftein a prille problemis. In a stutdv of Monrovia, Liberia, it was fot iid caiuse of hospital a(idmissions anld deaths, particu1Iarl'-V that most poor urban households storetd cooked food, amfnong clilldren. In Accra, for instance, mualaria ac- anid 63 percenit of the stored food samlples weere heavily c f ) a r iles C OLIntedl ror imore thnal 40 perceiit of reportedl Ililnesses contaminoated \with enterobacteria (8 I percent for hahb at outpatient facilities from I 9X7 to I1990 (74). In both foods) '-H . On the other hand, rural hooiseholtls were , ~~~regIOIIS, Urbanizaltionl has crealted important iilw breed- less incllned to store cooked food, and only 39 percenit of their food smiples were conraminated i-in. mgsteu. be in orhead te storae tank s. In wealthy cotintri es, complex reguilations antIi in- Jmosqtilto hreeds in overhes d walter storarge taninsa * ' tn ' ' ~~~~~~~~~'illSt as Ul -Iall i-nosLliltO Dr-Oblel1lS are It' IIItCntlv spectioni procedures lielp to conitiol foodi-hnzdl ing prc- iked t water, urban fly problems art' liiiked to waste. tices at the point of sale in restaurants and markets. Hoevr .n poo CO.tis Stc.eLlrosaeot V;irious fam ilies of flies ha ve adapted to tht opporruiiil- H owever, in poor coun1tries, such regula1tions are omtten too) costly to enforce. Inforial ineaos of avoitiiog bad ties of urban ecology. The most obvIoLus health risk Is .' ' . r~~~hat thev provl(de a shortCiLt oil the fec;al-orall rouite, tood proovide ani important alternative ro regLlatiion. For althoLIgh the extenit of thell contributiol Is still notclear. examiiple, the econlomilc tir-e of future salles and(1 th1e The houIseflV, along with severail otlher- species, is a filth pDsvchology of pDersonal colltact call IlndLCt' a vendor to psyco Iigy o perolnaI cotactcan nduc a vntio to feetder anIL breeder. Given pioor sanitation, somle filies ar1e avoid selling conitai iiiiatred food to regular cuIstomiers. ket tn rat'r with houmao teces anIlater lavaC H0vwXcrstiil lifrilil Ilexlalisns a-egnal es likelv to lbe il1 contact wirli 11,1_1111al feceS andt I;iter land( However, SuIChI iniformaiLl oiechiaiisoiis are genierally less effective in an urban cotext. In any case, measuires rlirit 00hmn1l fOOd drink, or ski l'lets of garbage ica * . * - ~~~~~~~flv populations. Open foodi preparation andic food stor- help to prevenit food spoilage are likelv to be far more effective thann mealsulres thalt attem1pt to stop spoilet age areas provide oppo)rti.ilities for flies to land ol footl. food frofiv heinag sold. S0me 1diseases are transin itretl by inlites, fact flies, or other pesrs rha1t thrive in dwvelliigs or neighborhouo)tIs P(7). Chagas' disease is carried by triitoiiiie bugs, leish- Pests 7 inanlmasis hy sand flies, schistosonilasis by snails, scabies Rats, fleas, and the blubonic plague firmlv established v nites, and yaws by face flies. Globally, rhese diseases pests in the annals of urban environmental heallth. Even are less serious urrban heailth problems than those spread(l today, a millor outbreak of plague can q(uickly make by mosqLuitos or the fecal-oral route diseases transmit- international headlinies. (See Box 2.3.) However, for ted by flies. In manv locations, however, they cani1 be 0ost wealthy urbamites of the developed wvorld, diseases critical problems. tranisimitted by pests are no longer a major conceri. AntI Some of the measures used to coiitrol insects and in urban areas in the developling world, mosqllitos anid other pests indoors create their owVI einvironmt'ntal flies are far iilore important health threaits than rats or health threlats. MosqLito c'ils antd other substances fleas. burned to repel insects caLuse air pollution. Inidoor spriy'- Neithier miosquitos n01 flies are particularly urban. ing with aerosols and pump sprays exposes residents to Intdeed, there is a far greater variety of habitats and potenltially damraging pesticides. There may1i well be Wortld Resourcecs 1996-97 41 Urban Environment and Human Health Box 2.3 The Black Death Revisited: India's 1994 Plague Epidemic In September 1994, nearly .30 years af- people through the bite of an infected Action Force of police to stem the exo- ter the last urban outbreak of plague in flea. In urban areas, rats are the pri- dus and to prevent frightened patients India, plague struck Surat, a city in the mary source of plague-infected fleas. In from abandoning the hospitals where western part of India I i). The Surat out- parts of Asia, Africa, South America, thev were being treated. break, which killed 56 people nation- and the United States, wild rodent popu- Fortunately, the Surat outbreak was wide, did not have the devastating lations are persistentiv infected with the diagnosed quickly, and widespread impact originally feared, but it did gen- plague organism, serving as a natural treatment with tetracycline was begun. erate considerable anxiety worldwide reservoir for the disease. About half a million capsules of tetracy- while also exacting a heavy economic However, the outbreak of plague that cline were distributed in Surat alone. toll in India (2) (3). It also served as a occurred in Surat was pneumonic The death rate dropped dramatically, chilling reminder of how rapid urbaniza- plague-a highly contagious form of from roughly 10 each day from Septem- tion and deterioration of the urban envi- the disease that kills 100 percent of its ber 21 to 23 to none at all after Septem- ronment can bring people into contact victims if left untreated. Pneumonic ber 28 (8). Not a single case was with forgotten disease vectors. plague is caused by the same disease or- confirmed in Bombay, the nearest large Plague has long been a scourge of cit- ganism that causes bubonic plague, but city. ies. The disease, caused by the bacterium it infects the lungs rather than the Yersinia pestis. is best known for its role lvmph svsrem. Since the disease invades WHY AN EPIDEMIC? in the Black Death that swept across the lungs, it can be rransmitted to oth- Why did plague reemerge in an urban Europe and Asia in the Middle Ages, kill- ers in close physical contact through ex- setting after manv years of relative qui- ing roughly one fourth of the population haled sputum droplets. Crowding and escence? Evidence points to two princi- of Western Europe-an estimated 20 mil- poor sanitation can provide ideal condi- pal factors: the squalid conditions in lion people. Yet, its roots mav be more rions for the spread of this type of much of Surat and the occurrence of ancient still: as early as 1190 BC, plague (6) (7). two recent natural disasters in the area. Homer referred to a plague-like disease Because it is so contagious, and thus Both of these factors contributed to that was associated with the movement easily portable from one location to the bringing a plague-infected rat popula- of rats into populated areas i4). next, the pneumoniic plague outbreak in tion into contacr with the human popu- The lasr major epidemic occurred Surat caused panic botli locally and in- lation of Surat. Even though pneumonic early in the 20th Century in India, ternationallv. In Surat, hvsteria fol- plague does not require rats and fleas where it killed more than 10 million lowed reports of the rapid and painful for its transmission among humans, the people (5). By the 1970s, although a deaths of seven people on September 21 Surat rat population is regarded as the number of small outbreaks continued to and the preliminary diagnosis of plague. original source of the infection. occur around the world, plague as an The fear of an epidemic was so in- A year before the plague incident, an urban health threat had been largely tense among Surat residents that within earthquake measuring 6.4 on the Rich- relegated to the past. Or so the world 4 days, one quarter of the populace had ter scale hit the adjacent state of Ma- thought until the Surat outbreak. fled the city. This exodus fueled anxiety harashtra, killing at least 10,000 people throughout India, with the fear that and causing extensive damage (9). Re- Two TYPES OF PLAGUE plague might be transporred far and searchers believe that the disturbances Bubonic plague-the form of plague wide by Surat refugees. On September and resettlement associated with the that ravaged Europe-is transmitted to 25, the government brought in a Rapid earthquake helped bring the wild ro- cases in which the health damage caused by using such ation, many users of smoky fuels are exposed to disturb- measures outweighs their sometimes minimal effect on ingly high levels of particulates and other pollutants ^76). the spread of pest-borne disease. Rough data suggest that, on average, indoor air pollu- tion tends to be a problein that is worse in rural envi- Air Pollution from Domestic Sources ronments than in urban environnients. However, in the For muich of the 20trh Clentury, air pollution has been homes of the urban poor, especially those ini small identified with urban sniog or smoke spewing forth tons,particulateconcentrationsarelikelytobehigher from factory chimileys. In wealthy couintries, these im- than urban averages and to exceed those of rural house- ages can seem outdated amid discussions of invisible hiolds. pollutants. In the developing world, however, smoky Three major health risks have been associated with household fires probably constitute the largest air- the domestic use of polluting fuels 77). First, by irritating pollution health hazard, with women and children be- the respiratory passages and perhaps through other ing the principal victims. meanis, pollution from domestic fuels may facilitate the Studies of personal exposure and indoor air pollution spread of acute respiratory infectioni, a major killer of levels indicate that althougil there is considerable varn- children tinder age .5 in poor countries (75(. Second, 42 Worldl Resources 1996-97 Urban Environment and Human Health dent population inhabiting the forested plague in greater detail. The National 2. Centers for Disease Control and Preven- area near Surat into contact with the do- InstitIte for Communicable Disease's tion, 'Update: Human Plague-India, mestic rat population, introducing the plague research unit has been modern- 1994, Morbtdrty and Mortality Weekly disease into the local rat population in ized to make diagnosis easier. In addi- Report, Vol. 43, No. 41 (October 21, the process. tion to activating plague control units 1994), ' Surat's sanitation problems then all over the country, the national gov- 3. Molly Moore, "Plague Turns India into helped the rat population grow dramati- ernment plans to set up a more sophisti- Region's Pariah: Outbreak of Disease cally. Surat, a city of 2.2 million, gener- cated national surveillance system(ioL HOrtsouri,cTrad," A29. Post ates close to 1,250 metric tons of This reemergence of plague is a strik- (Octobe 2, 1994n, pp.rA29g A33. garbage each day, 250 metric tons of ing reminder that infectious diseases 4 Insttute of bedilTheats to Healt in the which remain uncollected. To make have not been defeated. Malaria has United States, Joshua Lederberg el al., eds. matters worse, floodwaters inundated consolidated its strength as a major kil- (National Academv Press, Washington, the city during the 1994 monsoon, par- ler, although it had almost disappeared D.C. 1992), pp. 16-17. ticularly in low-lying slum areas near a few decades ago. Cholera and tubercu- 5. Ibid., p. 16. the river. Surat residents complain that losis are donning new faces with drug- 6. Tom Post et al., "The Plague of Panic," nothing was done to remove the great resistant strains. Newusweek (October 10, 1994), pp. 40-41. piles of rubbish that remained after the Bv comparison, the health toll of the "The Old Enemy," The Economist (Octo- floodwaters receded, offering an ideal Surat plague was relativelv minor. It bet 1T 1994). pp. 40-4 1. habitat for rats. killed just 56 people, whereas the ma- laria epidemic in Rajasthan in 1994 8. J.C. Gandhi, rPague Outbreak in Surat. LESSONS LEARNED killed nearlv 300 people (I L. By anv Gularat," presentaton at the World Health Organization Interregional Meet- An international response followed in other name, the plague probably would ing on Prevention and Control of Plague, the aftermath of the Surat plague out- not have caused the kind of panic that New Dethi, India, March 1995. break. The World Health Organization it did during this outbreak. 9. V.K. Saxena et al., "Earthquake in Ma- (WHO) announced plans to establish a In financial terms, however, the harashtra: Impact Assessment on Comnmu- Disease Intelligence Unit that will func- plague's toll was much greater, costing nicable Diseases Potential," Journal of tion independently when such out- the Indian economy in excess of $600 Basic and Applied Mediciiie, Vol. 2, No. I breaks occur to help diagnose the million. More than 45,000 people can- (1993), p. 77. problem quicklv. In addition, WHO celed their travel plans to India, and the 10. Government of India, Report of the Tech- asked the International Civil Aviation country's hotel occupancy rate dipped nical Advisory Committee oni Plague (Gov- Organization to tighten its health con- to 20 to 60 percent. Many countries ernment of India, Delhi, India, 19951. trols at all international airports and to stopped air and ship traffic to India al- 11. World Health Organization, "India Ma- strengthen quarantine measures that together. In total, exports from the laria," Weekly Epidemiological Record, seem to have lapsed since the eradica- country suffered a $420 million loss (12). Vol. 69, No.43 (October 28, 1994), p. tion of smallpox. 321. India has also taken steps to prepare References and Notes 12. Kai Friese, "The Norning After," India for future plague incidents. In response 1. John W. Anderson, "Plague Deaths Re- Today (October 31, 1994), pp. 30-39. to the outbreak, medical school course cede in Stricken Indian City," Washington work has been revised to address Post (September 27, 1994), p. A10. long-term exposure may contribute to chronic lung such as mosquito coils, waste burning, and tobacco diseases such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and smoking. Generally, the women and children who are asthma, which are significant health problems among more exposed to air pollution from domestic fires are adult women. Third, long-term exposure is a risk factor also likely to be more exposed to other environmental for cancer. hazards, which could also account for ill health. As with inadequate water supplies aid sanitation,the Household fuel choice in the developing world is extent of ill health actually caused by exposure to often described as an energy ladder, with dirty fuels such domestic smoke is difficult to determine. Cancer and as crop residues and firewood at the bottom. These are chronic respiratory problems are likely to be the conse- followed by charcoal, kerosene, liquid propane gas, and quence of long-term or past exposures, which are hard finally, electricity (8o). Generally, the higher up the lad- to assess. There are many other risk factors for respira- der, the less polluting the fuel. The cleaner and more tory infectiol-crowding, poor ventilation, malnutri- convenient fuels such as kerosene, liquid propane, and tion, poor sanitation, and lack of immunization-and electricitv are usuallv favored by wealthy households. thev tend to be interrelated (79). Other sources of domes- Although wood and crop wastes are less common in tic air pollution may relate to respiratory illness as well, cities, charcoal and coal are fairly common. Charcoal is World Resouirces 1996-97 43 Urban Environment and Human Health clectrified ieighl1hIOrhOi Cod. cnnake a significint Ldiffer- eice ill theI level of CI1 iCIII's CXjpoStilt re partictILa tes .S4i. Exposure to prolluir. Stileits of Coal Lis iS (ll(nal InaxT rodtOCed garba5lge, iniwver(, Carillso tinS tbll urtet iirelictly to sOn IOf theL IIIOst IConIn Vi gTI e v iteLie C f a link bLtw eenl 11ig0ig h l)1io0d eiiXiroiliiiciit;tl hiea th liprobleniis iy pro-) dinwiinsric furel Stis 1t' aridcancer ,s;*. vid irig finl or bir-breedlirig sitcs foir flies a ridl Other rsts. Somniie iidloon air- pOlltitioi probherils arc specifically irbarl. A large riuriiiber of domiestic isetrs ot siiiokv fiels Citywide Problems cani create a neighibirir-hioOtl h it polluitiril pro(ihIeil a11Il A Itliontigli the erivironniieiital thirets opleO are e-xposcrsed Laii exvii cotitrikir te to city wviti aiir poll urtii prolblerris, to ill thilr ionites atlI itigiig hirhootlss teilnL to PoiS tIle allshas I1hlapp1L1 ill Beijilg. Studlies ill SOititli Afric-a greatest 1ilita i isks, somic citywide problemiis ptOse sig- inthica;t that whether thte neighlbOrhooil is electlifietd 11 iificanit risks as vhll. These i,richCl tid occupatiOIn;l expo- allht.1 perhaIp1;S tVt11 Wviletltrl- thli ScIhOOI is ho tcl Ill ct Ml stires, a iIIbieiit aitr poll untioi1, tra ffiC aclCiCtLits, and 44 Wjrc/d Rcswt)II('SJ ,I9)'(1)- Urban Environment and Human Health eXPOSurIe tO lead. Box 2.4 CNplores whilch types Of hiouirs. fictrqu itlv dieniadiiedi by employers ini the decvel- probleiiis tendL to he loust severe-h-oulsehlold or- city - op)ing wo rld Or opted f it byv thli workerst dIlItISCl CesI iOr WIdle-hyv wealth alld City' s'ize. fi ilaiclcalI reaso ns, Call pla v a pa rt III IlicreCasing x p sLures to eheincall,l toxinis or increasing, accident rates duLet Occutpationial Exposuires to tat-9igu o. OCCupI-ationlal hIa/IrdS are a part11Ciclar IrI iit Ciii Hazards In the workplace call l)e a slign ieianii additiOtu smlall-scale Or hloime-basedI industries. Smlall eniterprISeLs th le hiealthi bu rdleis that iirai- Im lfe Im poses. Thecse Call make Lip a surprisingky large2 pIrCenCtage, of thle indulstrialI neltideICL contaCt Withl aI wide irange of toxic stibstances base i iiimansx' natioiis. I-or Le\aiilelll, siiiall-SCale indtIis- anld coi itiln tnicalhle di sea ses, unISaIfe machiiner, unl- tries withi fewer than Sf) LllplIOveCC" COnlSrtitut liiore thlan hecalthful nIOISe levels, JinadequLate igh)rIiit Or venitilati.onl, 40f percenit of,all indus11'tries Inl Si itlheast Asia. However, and1c ext remes of heat i r COILd. Thiese haairdls are offte'n Conditions' itl the(se, settings are iOittnl it uliCI wirse t ha it made woirse iy a lack of protectie clo thling or- eq u p- toeiiI griidtsre,wt wrpyia aiiis In narnv dlevelolping Cil.untrie1S, theC prOhlem Of ocenl- equipilleilt. anld a1 lower primrity given to Worker pro- parional ihaZards is compounded by the lack of anuv sick rcctioii aiid( safe operating rI'iCeLILires -i;in Pay or comlpenlsation for wiorkplace inuieIIIS, as well as Smaill workshiops and in1formlJ Or liniMe-liased enter- a lack of adeqiiate O CCLipati(nal I halthi care- 1)iw. Ill -rises are Of reii the wi r"t in terms (iti OcciiPa ti maII developing nations InI Asia and A frica. less thlan 25 expoSIIreS, frequentIIV ly ak iitg uIse i) it r ixc L1chemiCals percenit of the wor-k force is thouighlt to haive access ti0 Withlout the pro per equiipimeint or I)r CuIt ions and si mie- anly klind of occupJatl0ioal hlealthl serVice 91. Inl addition, tie sp ain cotiiait ito h om esir - appropiate CCuIpationlal hlealthl Stalida rdIS hIaVe htCII ilieiit. For x i\, pl e)I, aLut1i mIhieI IItIeChaiti,1cs aiid g1as nieliter uniiversa lv adO)pted 11or en for-ced. venldors in man ii tbtanl settings are 1o ititiitel LA xiIOsed OCCUp)ationlal eXp)OSLIIts are thoutghit to hie widlely to heuizenec, a gasoidine additis , andL stiffer Ii igh1 rates of tiiderdiagitosed and tiiderreportted and thecrefore to bie a icini1a anld o)therl diSeaSe`s a`ssociated WIth henCiie C\- a gre~ater problemI thanil government sta tiStics soilicti m(cs ps c nJmia okr nstaI nepie Indicate u.For exa mple, research)ers foundi( thiat thec that repair andit recycle lead-acid b)atteries iiftCii sLiffer ittinber f heath-ipaire orkrs ata sigle \exicii foml lead Cimtainiit'ationl, whichI can Almo affect theirl steel null was roughly twice thie ntiimber otficially ri-- ClistonIierS anld familI'IIes rII) corded for- the whlole iof Mexico Iii I 988; thet- resa rclhers reportedi that miore thiai So) percelit Of the mill1 workers Ambient Air Pollution werec exposed to extreme hecat, nIoise, aild toxic duLst ( ) The miost cominiii ti tiCCupatioital diSea`ses m tideILC Ill tho(Se cities Withl Iigigh air poll tiltionl levels anld aI respiratory diseases CaulSed lbV partiCtilItes, suICh as aS- comb-inaIItionl tf geographyN a1) ilWeatherI tha~t preVeilts b)estos, siliconl, and1c cottoii; 1ctal poisonling froml leaid; piolluitaiits fronli dispersiiig, ali ciiheit air polliiti"it canl Pesticide Poisoninig; hleari iig loss fr-oml excessive misCl"; p ise a siglnificanit liea ti-h risk to richi aild pi ir aIi ke. Thiat aiid skiii diseases dtie to chemnical exp)OSures '141 n: Ili risk is Coiop)(iitinde Ill Citie, Where- air- 1piillitiiii rTegla- soiii linstanices, disease rates anioiig1 v'\p(lSed workers tions, Or eiiforcemntit Is wea k. WXOrldidW eI, an esti1ilated canl bie very Ii igh . [In asbestos factories inl Bc im ba, India, I . I biIOll iiiiraIi residents ate ex pOSed to p1artiCLI late (It oine third of workers Sti ffereCd foiii1 aSbesNtos-related lung11 soIftir- dIoi\iide levels Ill eceCss Ofthle gtiidl-iiieCS set1 bN theC disease, according to a I 983 rt'polrt Is. \v rld Hea r-Im O rgan i/aitioii WHO ) f ci Heailthi hazards Ini the wor-kpilace may be exacerba,ted Althioughi air pollutioni tradiltim iia lv lias beenI I iiikedl II ma1111LIttritioii oi- thel b)tirden of cli roi nc diseases t1hat to HiCiid ustria I1eimissi ins, iii ott r seCli ides ha;ve iiows lie- workers already SLiffer fr-oml, bioth Of whilch may loweir ctime a major souirce of pollutionii Ina Icie. Ili resistance to toxic inistiltsO (Itnifectiotis dliseases enlcOtiui- pirilileit Is partictilarthr pr IiOjIiiiced in itis Wdit Ilarge tered at woirk. Ftor exa iinpIe, rimalcoi h lic Ii ver diisease mini iihers Of po orlv ma Ji i'jtt i ted veli ides aido' widespread IS wkidIespr-ead among Africains and Asiaits and Mail uIse of leaded gasolinle, whlich IS Still coitittIoiiii I Latiii mike workers whio su ffer- front it less alfle to detoxify, Amnericat, Asia', anld Fistrri-i l r ipc. the poisons thazt thiey enicountter- In the wvorkplace 9-I. StUdiesCOIiifi-ilt theC Illefctoftidirarpiliiii Hazards mayv lo i IttIsfelb c Imai onI- Onl healthl. POIllitIuii at tIme lesels typ)ically foiuitdl Mi the tionIS, SuIch as huot aitd huidLIIL weathier, whichi make it air of lare c itis as been i imll Icated Iil both1 act aLid~1 miore di fficti t to CdInVIItCe workers to tise protective cl-iri niic ilt sss isclh ,ts .tstIimva and elm mou ic briitltli ris. clothlinig sticli as respi ratoirs or a prioiis. Long woi-k i ug TIlos Isei ,ti rIstvil nra l)l art cliiIdrteit, the1 eILdr_lv. cigariette \\' old Rcman,ur-e J '9e) ' 45 Urban Environment and Human Health Box 2.4 Household Environmental Problems, Wealth, and City Size Very large cities are often portrayed as Recent studies of Accra, Ghana i), When rescarchers coompared a series environmental disasters, offering the Jakarta, Indonesia !2t, and Sao Paulo, of holusehold environmental indicators worst of health conditions. Certainlv, Brazil (3j, confirm that bigger is nor nec- (e.g., the availability of piped water or these so-called megacities suffer from se- essarily worse. Sao Paulo (9.6 million the presenct of flies in the kitclien) in rious citywide health threats such as air population) is larger and wealthier than Acera, Jakarta, and Sao Paulo, the pollution. But there is evidence that Jakarta (8.2 million popularion), which household conditions improved based household-level problems suclh as sanita- in turn is larger and wealthier than Ac- on1 the relative wvealth of the city. In all tion or indoor air pollution, which pose cra (1.2 million population) 4). Even Ac- cases, household conditions were better the most direct threat to human hiealth, cra can be considered relatively large, in Sao Plaulo than in Jakarta, and better in Jakarta than in Aecra. (See Table I.) are actually less of a problem in mega- since about two thirds of the urban Other detailed housholdstic als cities than in many of the smaller and population in developing countries live Confirm this trend. The most obViOuS poorer urban settlements, in cities of less than I million residents. epnat Is trelaThe wealt of ulie explanation Is the relative wealth oft the three cities. Table 1 Household Environmental Indicators in Indeed, as indicated in Table 2, simnilar patterns can be observedl by lookinig Accra, Jakarta, and Sao Paulo, 1991-92 across different ncighborhoods of Ac- Percent of Sample cra. The wealthy neighborhoods of Ac- Households era seem to have roughily the saime Indicator Accra Jakarta Sao Paulo access to water and sanitation as the No water source at residence 46 13 5 Sao Paulo average, whereas the middle- Share toilets with more than 10 households 48 14-20 <3 class neighborhoods are roughly compa- No home garbage collection 89 37 5 rable to the Jakarta average. Wood or charcoal as main cooking fuel 76 2 0 Flies observed in kitchen 82 38 17 References and Notes Source: Gordon McGranahan and Jacob Songsore, "Wealth, Health, and the Urban House- I. George Benii at.. Em'irotnetil P-tt hold: Weighing Environmental Burdens in Accra, Jakarta, Sac Paulo," Environment, Vol. /evis anid flt' Uirbant Houc,;hetld ccn it 36, No. 6 (July-August 1994), p. 9. Grcate ill Metropolit Area Note: In both Accra, Ghana, and Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1,000 households were surveyed; in Greater Atera M'trtssttlican Art',, Jakarta, Indonesia, the sample was 1,055 households. (GA,.MA)-;Gbana iSrockhohlt Enlvir rtn- ineit Institiire, Stochbolhn, Swdcie;. 1993). 2. (haIrles Suirj.pcdi et *l.. Ho,,isebt l Ernire, c- Table 2 Household Environmental Indicators in men;n;i-;t Insijitj, Srtockhotlm. 5we- Poor, Middle-Class, and Wealthy Neighborhoods of tle;;, 1994). Accra, 1991-92 3. Peti;ro J,tctlcb, Fin 'irttcncent,ial 1'rI,lemsca Fac'icng ltbt i Urban Httttseht,ill in it' C t*-l Percent of Sample Sat Palo,i;, Brazil (Srtockholm Fnvirott- Households i,ceni ilnsriiute, Stockholt. Swede;i, 1994;. Middle- 4. These popu;lation ligigres cicffer trmn thoIe Indicator Poor Class Wealthy repirted it; Ulijied N;ations (lI.N.) Popul.c- No water source at residence 55 15 4 tico;i Divisiont W'orld Url,ctnczatiitn Pr,,s- Share toilets with more than 10 households 60 17 2 /pc,s: 1994 Revisiotn U.N., New York, No home garbage collection 94 77 55 1994). As dcsctissed iii Chapter 1, "Citic, Wood or charcoal as main cooking fuel 85 44 30 itnd the E;vt'irotimeni," city popc;lattion fig- Flies observed in kitchen 91 56 18 ures cai differ dr:ilctaticAly depending on Source: Stockholm Environment Institute and University of Ghana households survey. the ;t,111cTlisrroivc bomndla;ries Used. iTO unpublished data, 1991-92. itOt iin in the consistence ol t iiis he;ilh Note: The sample was drawn from the greater Accra metropolitan area and included 790 study, these popul.ation ligitres i;stea(il of poor households, 160 middle-class households, and 50 wealthy households. those putblished by ihe tJ.N. crv hbeilg used. simiokers, anid those who already have respiratory diffi- Receit stLudies give stroig evidence of tle relationiship culties. Most research has conicenitrated on particilate between particulIte air pollution and premature dealth miatter, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. The Imtost i (hi (1t). One U.S. study that followed scIIe c550,0)0)0) dangerous pollutants appear to he smiall particles under people in ISI cities over 7 years found that residents of 10 microns in diameter, which cani be easily breathied the most polluted cities have a 15 to 17 percent higher into the lungs 10)4i (io5;. These arise mostlv from mottor risk of premature death from all CauLISeS than residenlts vehicle exhaust, coal-fired power plants and boilers, and of the least polluted cities t l,s I (i)) Since the late I 970s, certain manufacturing industries. epidemiological data fromi cities in the United Staites 46 World Resources 1996-97 Urban Environment and Human Health have consistentiv suggested that air pollutioni kills-pri- important source of dispersed lead in maIny urrban areas. manrly through respiratory or cardiovisctila r dis- Industrial emiiissiois, particularlv fromi smicitersand bat- ease-about 30,000to 60,000 peoplc per year, accoulIting tery rec vcling plants, are also a signiflicant soLirce. directly for 2 to 3 percent of all deaths i nI) ' i I i). HuLimans are exposed via the inhalation of contaniii- Suchi results have been replicated in urban areas ill nated air, ingestion of contaminated water and foods, other coulitries as well. Studies in the Czech Repulblic and, especially amonig chilldreni in North America, in- aiid in Poland, parts of which stiffer from ver hig-h gestion of lead-based paint. Contact\t with and ingestion pollutant levels, suggest that, as in the ULited States, 2 of contaminated soil provide another importanit route to 3 percent of all deaths there could be attributed to air ocularly among children. Serious OCCu- pollution ( 112),111 i . A similar srudy i lnakarta, Indonesi, r ~~~pational exposures occur amionig adults inv olvedl in where conicentr-ations of particulates are also very hligh, nietal ixdures eLeronic ndustS constructin estlimnates that redLucilng airborne particulates to the level trades, and battery manufacturing. recommlienided by WHO COUld preventr 1,400 deathis, The adverse effects of lead on health have been about 2 percent of aniual deatths In the citV 1141 .i) Although these data suggest that air-pollution-related recognized for centuries. LandIs prlincipal threat,other deaths are onilv a iodest contributor to urbannimortalitv than actite lead poisoning is neurological damge in rates the role of air l ollrichlildr-en. A 1988 stuidy in Mexico C(ity, where amlbient urbanites, air pllutwine inr cxausin ill healkth among lead levels are high because of the use of leaded gasoline, urbaniites IS muILch wider. For example, In jakarta, re- " searchers estimated that comipliance with WHO gLilde- founid that imore thani one quarter of newborns had lines could prevenir sonic 600,000 zasthimia attackFs and blood lead levels high enough to imipair neurological 125,000 cases of bronchitis in chilldr-eni each year (1 16. and motor-phvsical development (121). Studies conducted in North America, \Westcrin Traffic Accidents Europe, and Australia report that elevated levels of exposulie to leald in hiifancy cause Intellectual i11pMri- An estimated 885,000 people per vear lose their lives in nment, althoLIgh quantifying this impairuilet is still 'dtc ctents, accorditilg to W HO, i i-1). The maljority traffic accidents, acri to WOC i the mority soniewhar controversial '122,. Children withi elevated of traffic accidents (70 percent) occir In the low-and dentile lead levels are reporrted to have a deficit in middle-income conres of the developing world, even though private vehicle uisage is miarkedly lower there intelligence scores, speech, and lan,guage procssing than in wealthier nations i is. The differences in risk skills compared with children with low lead levels I12t. per vehicle are dramatic: in several Africall countries, A 199() study in Bangkok Tha land a City heavilv fatality rates exceed 1)00 per 1 0,000 registered vehicles polluted with lead, suggested that W(,000 to 70,000 conipared with fewer thain 4 in Westeri Europe. ln childreii risked a loss of four or niore IQ points because Kenya, 40 perceiit of road accidents hiappeni in citiesand i)f high leIad levels, and many miiore risked lesscr reduc- 60 percent occur in rural areas. tions in intelligelice 124). The rate of fatal injuries per registered vehicle has Moreover, it has been suggested that exposuLe to high climbed 30(0 pe rceuit since 1 968 in Africa, whereas it has lead levels in childhood mayiv be associarctd withi drol- dropped slightly in the developed world (119). One rca- ping otut of high school, reading disability, absenteeisill, soin for the higher fatality rate is that each iiicident and ieurodevelopmncitil deficits later in life ,2). Sonic frequenitly affects many people, for example, when an studies have also liniked increases in blood lead levels in accident involves an overcrowded bus. Inadequate adults with elevated blood pressure, althougl this find- safetv standards are another contributor to high fatality ing has notr been borne out in all studies (I11) (2 Ia. rates. The findings of neurological iiipairmcilt in chilldrein In developing coUlntries, pedestrians accouLnt for sparked theeffortlinthe 19 ()sand I1980storeducCelead about 40 perceint of deathis froin traffic accidents, conm- levels in gasoline and other sources in the lUInited States pared with 20 percent in developed countries (121)). A and Europe-an effort that has resuilted in lower anbi- major reason for this is the concenltrationi of different cur and blood lead levels in these areas. lOOd lead road misers Jostling tor space on croWdel city roads. (See conicenltrLations in the United States, for instance, have Cha pter 4, "U rlan Tra nisportatioii.") dropped substantially since the late I 970s, wlhen thc esc of leaded fuel was phased oiit. Many Countries in devel- Exposur-e to Lead oping regiois, however, have yet to enlaclt such regula- Lead is ubiLltqitous in tlc urrban enivironnieit. Emissions tions, and the risk of exposure to lea(d remains from vehicles b urning leaded gasoline constitute an dangerously high. Worldl Resources I 996-'9 47 Urban Environment and Human Health THE URBAN SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND implicated Il thec developmencit of asthmna iii children, is HEALTH str-ongly, related Ii0 theirl sCi)ealCZS I class ii The uirlhaii social1 ciiVIrollliIeTnt, however. alsoi iiiflul- Ailthoughi overcrowdin1g, alir poIlltIOn,1 unicollected gar- eCeICS health III leSS obVIOuIS ways. The Ii igher rates of bage, and othier deficiencies In the phyvsical environmiient socin lk related health iconditidoniis aii-iong the clis~adva ii - freLqueiitlv represent thle miost ob-viouis mnaiiifestations of rag,ed are of teni traced to r-isk hehaviors such ais siiiok rig ur-hiali enliroiiiueital health prolileins, cities imoist deal or drin-iking, whiclh. In tuirn, are often responses to social conicurrentlv w,,tit the less, xisi le problemis of the urlaii,1 or CCc 110111ic strecss. [or I nstance, InI the 1) ii ited Kinig- social environmentA-i. Although dehaite continuecs, it Ps dim, rates of smnoking, drnkng lad, in) somec ICase, likely that differential's In m1ortality amlong urhanl resi- druig abuse areC higher ;inioiig iciieiiphiycd aduilts, gnod dciits fromiiilouiconinIu III1CaIble diseases SuICh aIS leiellrt these blihavimrs contri- liute to t le Ii iglierl rates of henait disease and cancer are related to thec socinaI rather thm n disease foIi iiil ailmogtecnm lye thle physical elivil-roineiclt Withinl cities. LAotli hen rt disease and cantcer- used to liec coniisidered Thle COMitri hutioii1 Of thle urinSi CiaI enirVlonnlieiit to diseases~ of affluence, been uLSe theCy arie Ilinked w.,tit beC- Ill henaIthi is i ncreasinigly xrecogni/coed In (lie developedI ha vii rs stich- as sedeiita rv li festy1e, stress, and diets hiigh worldc, where ma iivin physical r-isks have liecoi largely In fnat a iid sdiuR 11tm tha are typicaly;)i' ssi cia ted wvith t lie addressed-. bot insrn nec, Wei rec-ent Helsinuki DeclaratiOn wen Irthv. Yet, recentl dntn SIgge'St tht1 nior1taIlirv rates Oii Action fur- Fiivironiim-nt and Health In Furope t'iii- from elihroinic di'sense 'In oth develop IIIg and developed plinszes tat te excptioally igh evelsof uieiiiloy- iintioiis alre higheLSt amlOnlg the. poor I1+ mient (especially n no iig yo unig Pepipe) enaused byv eConiiii1C anod tchn1Iologicl-J clliniigeS Can have adverse: effects on physical andl iiientalI lien Ili. Thei declnaratio n Social Marginalizationi also wa riis that a laick of action on thecse issuies. w lien Urliani areas are Ofiteii d.i ver-Se ethIII ica l, Culturn,IlIV yz and coiiibined Withl alreadCI unacceptable levels of deprival- economilicall v. Residen-ice timie Ini the( city also varies tionl aiid qunI ri Inn nIIV plaCtS. Co iiild thirea tein "the WIdLy,I fromIii mogtinme residenItS to reCenit In IIII ig ira LIItS. very cohesioin of societV" (I 'Vil Te close initeractioni and iiiterIdepeiide-I1Ce of these di- teeogii itiuni (if thle riole o f sociali fact.irs In pliiMic verse gnoups wirliiii ct-ites andlL towns cnii ei11il;iCe siclinl lien Idnl is slower Iiipn irOer cities III theU deeoigWorld, coliesii oi. Clouversekly dIiversi ty In Li rb)ni popupllatiolis whiere pliesicnl risks still eoiistittite a inalor' helthli CanI lead to SOCIal sItreSS, alienation1 or d.1SIefriMichise- tbrtent. L-veii si), socially related lien hti proMbeinis are~ liiien t if some gri i01-ps, and foliisif Insecurity by ;ISSt.iil1"iing iCren~`sin'lv I nr pioportions. As is t le case: iiivdal r CiililiitiiiitieS w1 W ill ith OViCi-al soik(v. withi physical r-isks Ini the urbaii enivironiieiiiit. it is thec All oif these contribKiter ti what is kiiowii as S(1cm II pooirest grioups wboii are the iiciost sever-ely a ffected. inarionI una tic muO. Grouips Iii cities Canl b-comeo. rimrgiliiahved ini 'co)- Socioeconomic Status iiimiiic termlis or thirough cultural di ffe-remmce.s froin doiu- As is clear- fromi enarlien sect oils, sociioiciciiomliic statuISI is miant griiups. The two tend to wor-k tuigetlier: arIei-CC.lar tie illiust i ibyiuiLis social - ~~CUltural- groupll'S Ill cities iiiay lie dis~adyamitag'cd iii terilms heron iiivuulved deonercesniinuctin iiig IlI-)ON.IIII thelie Iatl Ii isk thMan ni Lirtbaii esideiit faces, been uLSe It 1c deiiliiiioprtitis largely determiniiies his or licr- exposurie to physical eiivi- Iiicreasingly, social mnargimia hization is hielieved, to exact riminneilt,l threats and to ainmiliiies such as adqut a toll ciii hi unman health, largely thircughi hiehavioral hi(insi iig. It is iii siurprise thait access to sa iiit tic01 ii aid chiniges suich ais seek iniig relie'f thiriouighi sniokiiig oirac- rni-.1 iiiig water, for- examiiple, is closelv related tioi cnici * hho c it c ut aiid edi.eCnioii levels. In Saio Paulo1, Brauiil, districts with Stud(ies ill Seattle, \V"ashiingtomi, Ill theI. mUnted Stae,17S the lowest iic omean d Iic literncv rates hinid five ti nies lower suggest thie coiisequienmce uif soialm anmd econoiiic liii ungi- per enapita CcISiis tiiptun if Water than diStri-Cts Withl the( in limation for- NaLtive Amecricails alnll Alask a Natives iii highiest inicomie anmd I iteracv rates, 'I i;. UirIm im areas. Bi ithi griou ps invoe iliiucli hi Jighir dent Ii rae HloLSimig COiiditiools Ill the dleveloped wor-ld are dif- fr-oni inijLirft's niid alciiliol-rehliech Causes thanll ur1hiai ferceiit fron tholi se In de% elopi ig couni itries. I-ii n (le geii- whiites o r rralI Native Aniuerianis nod Alaska Naitives. cralI pa rterin-thiat miorec si ciank cIv eprived gro uphs are Bc it griou ps aIsi in ve a hiighier inCmiedeiCC iOf ha 1VInig illoire exposedl to poor- liviiig cmumditioiis-hlmods trueJt. In bah)iies withi low hiirli-l weighits. Tohiacco and alcohol uise, Lign-uid, fur- example. rlthe priopcrtinii uif household's JdOihe-Sce'iit pregiiaii1Cv', amid 1,1iCmJAdqite Prenlatal care are rcpoirr litg dmu jursa iolds, bioth iif whichi are- I II kedi to loiw b)i-rth weight ( i 48 \\orluI Rc'sucmcrLs 9'9(i'-ti Urban Environment and Human Health Relative Inequality Figure 2.3 Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates by Socio- AlthouZgh.absolute poverty isonvioislv Environmental Zones in Accra and Sao Paulo, 1991-92 a critical factor affecting a person s ac- cess ro the goodls aind. opportunities es- sentital for a healthy, prodLictive life, A. Accraa increasing evidenice stiggests that rela- rivc poverty or relative ine(quality hlla (deaths per 10,000 population) e juList as im1portantIr l .4s. Relative in- 242 eqnualiry or social dcrpivationi is nore 20 broadly defilned than absol Lire povertv 18 encomllpass iiig not onil the lack of ecuo- 16 n0omic resoLirces hot also the inahll tv 14 - to acqtire the same aneiniries anid tyes 120 -_ . _J of services that typicall accrue toI other, nior e pri1viLgLeLi, nienibers of so- 6 - ciet (I *-- * * Relative iniequa liry refers to the way 2 - ., in whilch a petsoii sees hiiiisel for herself 0 - Infectious and Respiratory Circulatory ini-relarioi to neighbors or otler groLIps parasitic diseases diseases diseases in sociert. Ir inplies thrat the social J Zone 1 * Zone 2 * Zone 3 F Zone 4 nca n inigs attacheidI to iniferior fa1cilities, (worst) (best) joh opportullities, or orher privations b are ijist as important as exposuLre to the facility or rhe loh itself in determininlg (deaths per 10,000 population) healtli I ;w. 24 - IntriguLiiig evidlelIce to sLipport the 22- notion1 of relative ineqtial ity as a naljor 20 - determ inaioii t of health comi;es fromii re- 18 - CeiLt studies sLggesting that it is coLic- 161- tries with the narroxvest gap hetween 14 . 12 rich andc poor i that ell oy the [lest na- 10 i tional he alth-not those that speCILI the 8J ro Illoney per capita otii health in 6 -J a bsol tite tLrills i, I 4 - 4 [)ifferential rates of Urhant violence, 2 describeLl earliler, have also been lilked Infectious and Respiratory Circulatory External to relative deprivation. This is perhaps parasitic diseases diseases diseases causes ii(t so surprising, siIce riclh aolLi poor j Zone 1 * Zone 2 *Zone 3 j Zone 4 often live aniil interacr closelv wvith'n (worst) (best) cities, naking rhe cliffereiices betxeen themil ohvionis tO each group. Source: Carolyn Stephens eta/, Environment and Health in Developing Countries: An Analysis of Intra-Urban Differentials Using Existing Data (London School of Hygiene & Tropical Accra and Sao Paulo Medicine in collaboralion with Fundacao SEADE and Ghana Ministry of Health and Ministry of Environment, London, 1994). The niportance of social eniviron- Notes: tileiltal ~~~~~~~~~~~a. Data for Accrs, Ghana, are for 1991. In Accra, residential areas were grouped into zones niilr;tii factors ini urban health is borne using three indicators: household income, population density, and age/ethnicity of ihe ouit bv (litau on Ldifferential mortality community and community dwellings. Zone 1 represented a high-density, indigenous mo tog di ent so ci tect til tiO ic ~sector; zone 2 represenied a high-density, low-class sector; zone 3 represented a medium- rotipsng tlifeelt ()density, indigenous sector; and zone 4 represented a middle- to high-class, low-density in SaO Patilo, Brizil, anil Accra. (Ghana. sector. Paio t s111 eSla IC,tivelx xvealtlIy city Of b. Data for Sao Paulo, Brazil, are for 1992. In Sao Paulo, an index that ranked the 56 districts Sa o Paul ar at v xe t citVsOfand subdistricts of the city was constructed to form four zones with equal numbers of till re rh a ii 9.6 ii ill1 i on people, whereas districts and subdistricts in each zone by level of education, income, percapitawater supply, Accra is a rapdly Lheve1oping city of I . access to sewage facilities, and population density. c. External causes of death include violent deaths-mainly traffic accidents and homicides. mzilliotn PLtPle ir IR.s,rI I 9 97 4 XVo r/a' R e so/rocs / 996(-')7 49 Urban Environment and Human Health Box 2.5 Community Perceptions of Urban Health Risks Understanding how a community per- banks of canals and rivers that good crop yields. leading to a positive ceives health risks such as polluted crisscross the city and on land located perception of flooding. water, inadequate drainage, or lack of in the city's flood plain. Monsoon wa- In designing a project to improve garbage collection is essential to design- ters frequently flood these communities, health conditions in 157 of Indores ing effective programs to address those submerging city streets and destroving squatter sertlements, city planners iden- problems. Individuals perceive risks to homes. tified flooding as a major health risk rheir health through a lens derived from Residents of the slums are well aware and constructed closed drainage chan- their cultural, economic, societal, and of the health risks associated with this nels in an effort to reduce flooding and educational backgrounds and respond flooding. Although thev might not upgrade sanitary conditions. Despite accordingly. For example, a squatter in know the epidemiological details of pol- these improvements, many community a slum i Calcutta, India, might happily lution and contagion, they are all too fa- members now perceive flooding prob- boil water collected at a public rap miliar with the symptoms that thev lems to be worse than before. rather than move to a house with piped suffer. The names given to differen't One important source of their dissatis- water that was located far from job op- floodwaters illustrate their perception faction is that the new drainage system portuniries, a middle-class fainily in Los of health risks. Each type of water has has reduced the ability of the commu- Angeles would probably make a very its own name. Dirty water that is con- nity ro apply its own risk reduction Until recently, these differences in how raminared with feces is known as strategies, thus increasing economic tJntil recenty, these diferences m ho C da p d hlosses from the flooding. Because the people view and respond to risks were Ganda pani and is seen as the worst drains aromte losed,eidnts Bcans noe not part ot formal health risk analysis, kind of water, containing "small unseen longer predict the severity of the ap- which has traditionallv relied on statisti- insects" (kitanrth) responsible for caus- proaching flood. With the previous cal correlations between exposure to ing stomach problems and other ill- open drains, communitv members risks and the incidence of various ill- nesses. Even wading through such would adjust their level of flood re- nesses. Now, health planners are begin- water is recognized to be unhealthful. sponse depending on rainfall lotensitv ning to realize that using such objective On the other hand, Maila pani (dirty and the volumie of water that thev could measures of risk to design public health water without excreta) is unpleasant to see in the open drains. projects without accounting for how walk through, but not dangerous. Pineh e In lighr floods, structural adaptations the affected communitv itself views the ka pani is water that is clean enough to including high internal shelving, raised health risk being addressed is a recipe be used for drinking, storage platforms for valuables, and for failure. For these poor communities, however, electricitY connections at head height the advantages of their location-close were enough to minimize damage. Food CASE STUDY: INDORE'S DRAINAGE to the city center, with easy access to supplies, electronics, and mattresses IMPROVEMENT PROJECT jobs, low land costs, and strong commu- were moved to ceiling-level platforms The importance of incorporating com- nity ties-far outweigh the health risks for safety. muniry perceptions into project plan- associated with flooding and contact When community m1embers antici- ning can be seen in the case of a public with dirty water. In addition, although pated severe floods, all valuable posses- project designed to relieve flooding in city planners view the flooding only as sions were moved to higher ground. the slums of Indore, India. The majority a recurring problem, local residents as- Children, the elderly, and livestock were of Indore's 183 slums are located on the sociate flooding with heavy rain and evacuated first, while clothes and uten- Case studies in these two cities examined differences tors of poverty and environmental qjuality. The indica- in mortality from circulatory diseases, infectious and tors included incomc, education, age and ethnicity of parasitic diseases, and respiratory diseases among dif- the comnmun1ity, per capita water supply, access to sew- ferent socioeconomic groulps across all age groups. In age facilities, and population denlsity. (Sec Figture 2.3.) Sao Paulo, the study was extended to include external As Figure 2.3A shows, in Accra, age-adljusted rates causes (homicides and traffic accidents) because they of mortality from circulatory diseases wcre more than account for a significanit share of deaths. Consistently, two times higher for the 46 percent of the city's popu- the disadvantaged have higher rates of mortality than lation in the worst zone compared with the mortality their better-off neighbors from both infectious diseases rates in the most affluefnt zon.c Mortality from infec- and socially related conditions such as heart disease. tious and parasitic diseases was likewise about twice as In these studies, the cities were divided into four high in the worst zone as in the best /one, as was zones, from worst to best, according to several indica- mortality from respir-atory diseases (14UI. 50 W(orlcl Resuirces- / 996-9' UJrban Environment and Human Health sils were generally moved last. Ulnable products canl he derived. In cities developing countries, health is a luxury to implemenit these coping strategies throughout the developing world, scav- thev cannot afford because their immne- with the new drainage system, residents engers collect waste such as plastic, pa- diate economic survival is at stake. fear they may now lose manv of the per, glass, tin cans, and bones, Aware of their limited options, they de- valuables on which they depend for contributing greatly to garbage collec- sign innovative ways to trv to oprimize their livelihood. tion and recycling efforts in the citv. their conditions. The slum dwellers in Residents also believe that the closed Of course, scavenging is hazardous Indore, for instance, haive developed in- system does not drain as effectively as employmenit. It is poverty driven, und(er- tricate strategies that attempt to mini- their previous open system. UJnlike the taken by the most vulnerable peo- mize the economilic damage done hv open sewers, which were wider, the ple-often women and children. In the fl T closed sewers are easily blocked by plas- process of sorting through trash, scaven- reduing.vulnerability to natl an d tic bags and other trash. Water backups gers expose themilselves to serious health tlood the area, in some cases affecting hazards such as in juries from broken man-made risks. houses that were previouslv outside the glass and cans and are disproportion- Second. It Is clear that a better under- flood-prone area. In addition, because ately exposed to disease-carrying pests standing of the culrural perceptions ot residents can no longer see the water that breed in garbage. community members can help in the de- flowing, they do not have confidence Nonetheless, implementing a modern sign of local programs that both reduce that it is draining adequatelv. Finally, garbage collection and recycling system risks to health and respect the choices the open drains had the added benefit in many cities in the developing world of the people living in these cities. The of washing away rubbish and excreta, is infeasible and would take jobs from challenge now lies in developing a reli- which now remain on the streets. those who need them most. Thus, city able means of ascertaininig community officials are starting to realize that this views on local health risks and incorpo- INCORPORATING COMMUNITY "informal" approach to waste has its rating theni into the planning of envi- PERCEPTIONS INTO HEALTH benefits. Rather than trying to eliminate ronmental health interventions. SOLUTIONS scavenging, governments are working -Anton Baare and Rajesh Patnzaik with nongovernmental organizations Can risks to health from environmental and communitv groups in an effort to hazards be reduced in a way that inte- reduce the health risks to scavengers An,1ton Baare is a social antihropologist grates community perceptions and pri- and to make scavenging more profit- uith Nordic Conszilting Group in Taas- orities? Some recent efforts to address able. For example, in Cairo, Egypt, trup, Denmark. and Rajesh Patnaik is a the health problems surrounding solid wastepickers have built special areas waste collections argue that this ap- where thev can sort waste, rather than research fellot' in social anthropology proach can succeed. bng the waste to their homes, as in the Anropolog Departet of Although the "formal" urban planner thev did previouslv. In Manila, Philip- Andhra Uniersity In Visakhapatnan considers municipal garbage a health pines, wastepickers are given masks, India. and environmental hazard, many of the gloves, and boots to help protect them poor who earn their livings as scaven- from injuries. gers look upon urban waste as an eco- Two lessons emerge from these exam- nomic resource from which marketable ples. First, for many urban dwellers in In Sao Paulo, while the overall rate of mnortality from These studies indicate that for urban aduilts living in infectious and parasitic diseases was muLchi lower than poor coniditions within Accra anid Sao Pallo, the health that in Accra, the same differential exists between the risk of commillLnicable diseases appears to be conm- affluent and the disadvantaged, with those living in the pounded by high risks of circuIlatory diseases aid, in Sao worst zone being nearly twice as likely to die from such Paulo, by epideinic rates of tratumiatic health problemis an infectious or parasitic disease. The differenitial in such as accidents and homicides. Such findings suggest mortality rates from heart disease between affluent anid the comnplex nature of health impacts inflicted by the disadvantaged in Sao Paulo was m uch smaller than that "web of insecurity" 14Ž entailed in the deprivation of in Accra. It was still significant, however, as was the many cities of the developing world. differential for respiratory diseases. In Sao Paulo, the Both cities are clearl caughlt in an incomplete health death rates from accidents and homtlicides were also transition, witi chionic and infectious diseases coexist- nearly twice as high in the worst zones of the city as in ing, and the disadvantaged most subject to this duial the best zone f 14T. risk. \V'orll Reswurces 1996-97 51 Urban Environment and Human Health MULTISECTORAL STRATEGIES FOR as water and sanitation servl:ics, along with provid ing IMPROVING THE HEAITH OF URBAN helalth prograims, preschool e'duCLation, and inlcOIlie- Celnelratinlg scienies. To the extenlt that these projects are DWELLERS proactive In addressilig Urban poiv'erty and achieving The compleix determinanl;lts of uIrbanil h1ealthl and2 the tcoordinated action, they repriesCit a step forward in linkages aniong themii uniderscore the magnitude ol- the urb i5ani pSlannin1lg. health clihallenige in urban a.reas. Throughout tile d Hiwever, there are n;ian obstacles to in uCVtiseoraI oping world, the blurden of death and disease related tO strategis for improvilg uLrban health. Chief aiiiiiig thel the urban environnient is great. In terimis of global is the diffictuilty of integratinig disciplines ais diverse as imllpact, the most pressilig nieed is to inprove the heallth elIgineerling, nedicine, social wcfare, and ecolloilimes. of the urhani poor in their local civironimiiciits. In cities Ml uirisectoral appr acilIS to Urban envirOninc nintalI - of the dcvelopling world, this will eiit ii both technologi- agernent p ose a ma jor challenge ro hioth local govern- Cal imprroveinents-chief ainong then, providinig water ieuits and initerinationlma lending agelcies, wicIIh mIust amid sanitation aiid reducing CxposL re to air iol1LIt- coorrdinate responlses and overlcoile the political diivi - ants-and, eq naillv important, institutional refornis. SiOns Witlilln cities. (See Chapter 5, "Urbani Priorities for Actioii. ) In the lo SUcceed, ainv st-rategy i1ILst addrcss the aCtual inore developed cities, technological reforins are of concerins of rhe li immniniitv affected, wvlicli mayv not lesser imporrtance rthc fumndainental problems appear to iniatch the priorities of the goverinimienit or rhe deLcvelop- be those of social juistice. mlelit ageiicv sponsorinig the project. (Sec, Box 2.5.) It Iimprovilng heailth and qullity of life will rcqLmire a has also blecoioe clear that an1 successffLlI attemiipt to significant departUre froiii the pliecenieal approich that address tht health conicerins of the irbailio p"" iiiist has domiliniated urban inanlagenient since the I 9th C(en- acilknoWledge the cemitrail role that womilell play ini eivi- tLiry, in wlhicll each problem is considered in isolation. ronniental nimamiaeciirt alrimoId the iolic, and therefore Most discussions of ulirball cilvioilomeiltra I iiiaiageiileit in thieir fail lieis' hlealtl. [)ifficulties aside, an integrated, still resort to a listing of priority problems, as it each equity-driv ppriial appears to be esscmitial if we are exists indepeildeitly. Buit the past few years have secil ro aLchievCe adequa lte qualitV of life ill an icict-asimigly an increasinhg recogn itioin thiatr the problemis of cities thai wiOrld cannot be adequately dealt with bv UsinIg Victorian approaches i 14;) In other words, even though providilitg water or shelter can make z'an ei(ornilis differenice. ieithier alone is stofficieiit to alleviate the bLirdeln of ill This chaptcr was written by Carolyn Stephenis of the health. London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine Recogiizilig the svyiergistic fLictors affecting the qLialI- (LSHTM), Gordonz McGranabhan 0 the Stockbolmn lin- ity of life of the lIrba ii poor., some cities in the develop ing miirotnmCnet Institutc, Martin Bobak (LSHTM and the wiorld have deIvised integrated strategies, somTtimiles University College London Medical School), Antonv called "slumii and sqLuIatter ini proveiient projects" 144). Fletcher (LSHTM), and Giovanni Leonardi (LSHTM). These projects tenid to incorporate diverse i1-uiiiicirpal Box 2.3 was w, ritten by Suhbadra Muown. a correspon- agencics, oftell under all Umbrella strLcttiure, that work dent i,m Newu, Delhi. In1dia. withl comi0iiullnities to imiiprove local infrastrUicture sLch ___ 52 W urhl Resomircoes J 996-97 Urban Environment and Human Health References and Notes 1. D,R. Phillips and Y. Verhasselt, eds., Health 22. Op. cit. 7 pp. 14. 52. 44. Ruth Etzel. 'Indoor Air Pollutioni and Child- anzd Development (Rotitledge, New York, 23. Op. cit. 18. hood Asthimia: Effective Environmental Inter- 1994). 24. Op. Cit. 7 vellttons," Ent'ironmental Health 2. Ellen Wratten. 'Conceptualizing Urban Pov- Perspectives, Vol. 103. Supplemileiit 6 (Sep- erty," F.nironment and Urbailizatiin, Vol. 25. Treidy Harphain and Carolynl Stephens, "Ur- tember 1995), pp. 55-57. 7 No. I (April 1995), p. I1. hanizatioi and Health in Developing COiun- 45. Floyd M.alveaux anid Sheryl Fletcher- 3. National Research Couincil The Epidemi- tries: From the Shadows iinto the Spotlght," Viniceiit, "Envirotiniental Risk Factors of ological Transition: Policy and Planoninig Im- Tropical Diseases Blletin, VOl. 88, No. 8 Childhood Asthma nin Urban Creiters," Eni'i- plications /ir Deielopiig Counztries i I 991). pp. 1-35. rowrnental Health Perspectives. Vol. 103, (National Acadeyilv Press, Washington, 26. ()p. cit. 16, pp. 186-247. Stipplemenit 6 (September 1995), pp. 59-61. D.C., 1993), p. 1. 27. Jorge F. Hardoy, Sandy Cairricross, anid 46. *Homilicide Deaths by Age & Percent by Fire- 4. Ibid., p. 2. [Divid Sattertlivaite, eds., The Poor Die arms, Nesv York City, 1993," Bulletin of Y',unig: Housing aitd Health in Third Woreld the Netw! York. Acadetmy of Medicine, Vol. 5. )p. cit. ,r p.H . Cities (Earthscan, London, 1990), pp. 1-309. 72, No. I (Sumnmer 1995), p. 152. 6.Pan American Heal1th Orgailti*szarisinz the A*lzerl- 28. TruLdy Harphal, Timl LLIsty, and Patrick 47. Op. cit. 15. pp. 2-3. I PAHO), Health Conidititots in the' Amern- Vihn d. nteSao fteCt: 4.O.ct ,p 4 cas, Vol. 2 (PAHO, Wash ingron, D.C., .iValtiuhati es.lnthe adt eo 4P. Op.cit.7 p 4. 1994), p. 7. (Oxord Univerity Plress, Ostnird, U I.K., 49. David Sarrerthwaire, "The Impact on Health 7. Carolvin Stepheis et al., Etvir'ioiitentand OxotUveiyII 198 7s8) pp . I-237. of Urban Etivironments," Ent'ironmienta,ntd Health in Develorpimng Counitries: A.4 Analy- ; . 7rbatization, Vol. 5, No. 2 (October 19931, 29. World Health Organizationl (WYHO), C.otil- (\ sis o/ Ilntra-oUrhan Differenitials Lsitg Ex-ist- p. 107 utiissitin oil Health anid Environ wient. Reporte ing Data (London School of Hygiene &o 1the Pantiel on irhbantzatison (WHO, Ge- 50. Ibid.i pp. 106-10)8. Tropical Medicinte itn collaborstion wtili Funev- 1992) pp. 5I-i4 S].Jacquehne Sims, ed., Women. Hed/th and daca.o SEADE and Ghana Ministry of Eine Sims.,ted., gyomen l Health Health and Ministry of Enivironment, I on- 30. World Health Organizatitan (WHO), The tlr- Eni'rc,imemtt: A i Anthology (World Health doni, 1994), p. 52. ban Health Crisis: Strategies for Health[ for Organizatioi, Genieva, 1994), pp. 24-26. All in the Fac e o/ Rapid Urbatiizatit,t 52. Jorge Hardov, Diana Slitlin, and David Sat- C8 pe Tvn 1992 (OMffr o Health, AttHtih Cape (r:WHO. Geneva. 1993), pp. 1-4. terthwvaite, Ent'iro,tmental Problems in Towii, S0itih Africa, 1992), p. I 0. 3 1. The World Bank, Wor/d Developmemit Re- Third World Cities (Earthscan, Londoit, 9. (p. cit. 7, p. 14. port 1')9 9: ltit'estintg in Health iThe tWorld 1992), pp. 50-. l. '. Paulo Piiiheiro' "Reflections on Urban VBaik, Washitonoti, D.C., 1993), p. 40. 53. Op. Cit. 51. pp. 126-13S. 10. Paulo Piiiheiro "'Reflectitins tin LIrba i Vitt......... lence," The Urbati Age, Vol. 1, No. 4 32. Op. cit. 29, p. 55. 54. Ulitied Nations Developienit Programme, (1993). p. 3. 33. Jane Pryer. "The Impact of Adtilr l11-Health Human De'eloptmetnt Report 1995 (Oxford I 1. Aritf H a,ait, "Karachi and the Glotbal Nattire oti Household linconie anld Nuirition in Lliiiversity Press, New' York, 1995), p. 7. of LUrban Vitolence," The Urbami Age, Vol. I, Khulna, Bangladesh." Eutiirtnmtietnt anid Lr- 55. Op. cit. 49, pp. 99-100. No. 4 11993), pp. 1-4. hanizatioi, Vol. 5, No. 2 (I993), pp. 3549. 56. Pail Bairocli, Cities mitiii Eccnomic Dev'elop- 12. Mademha Ndiave, "Dakar: Youth GroLtps 34. E. DruIcker et a. "Childhootd Tuberculosis mnent: Fromt the Datii z of Historv to the Pre- anid the Slide Toswards Violenice," The' Ur- its the Broitx, New `tork," Laimncet, Vol. 343, semit (Mansell Publishing, Lioidoit, 1988). baia Age, Vol. I, No.411993), p.7. No. 8911 (June 11, 1994), pp. 1482-1485. 57. Ann-Louise Shapiro, Housilig the Poor of 1 3. Rodriget GLuerrero, "Cali's Iniiovarive Ap- 35. Megan Landon, " hIrra-Urban Health I)iDfer- Paris, 1850-1 912 (Unirversirv of Wisconsin proach to Urhan Violence," Tbe Urban Age, elrials iii London," Master's chesis, Lotndon Press, Madison, Wisconsin, 1985). Vol. I, No. 4 (I 993), pp. 12-1 3. School oif Hygiene & Tropical MedILinc, 58. Op. cit. 31, p. 90. 14. Jose Carvalho de Noroiihta, -Drug Markets Londoin, 1 994, pp. 1-33. 59. Gordon McGraiiahan. "HoLusehold Eniviron- .and Utrban Violence in Rio de Janeirto: A 36. Deense Mi. Ditvd et 1l., Pediaric Firearm mnital Problenms in Low-Inicome Ciries: An Call for Action," The Urbant Age. Vol. 1, lInIuries, Kaiisas City, 1 992: A l'optilation- Overview of Problems and Prospects for liii- No. 4 t 1993), p. 9. Based Studv," Petliatrics, Vol. 94, Net. 6 (De- provemetit," Habitat lnztertiatuiutal. Vel. 17, 1 5. Pan Americani Healili Orgaiiizatioi *cVio-eber 1 1994), p. 867. No. 2 (1993), pp. 1Oi-121. lenice: A Grotwing Ptblic Health Problemii in 37. C(ohl McCord atnd Hartold Freemiian, "Ex- 60. Gustavo Arcia et al.. "Environniental Health the Region." Epidemiologtcal Btilletiti, Vol. cess Mortalirv in Harlemii," Neiw! Eniglandl Assessment: A (Case Studv Coniduicted in the Il, No. 2 (1990) pp. 1-7. .l'iurntl etMedlicie, Vol. .322, No. 3 iJanu- City of Quito aiid the Coulty of Pedro Mon- 16. A. Rossi-Espagnet. G.B. Gtldsrein, and 1. ry 8 1990i, pp.l73-l77. caiyo Pichincha Province, Ecuador," Field Tabibzadeh, "Urbanization and Health in 38. Op. cit. 8, p. 13. Report No. 401 (Water anid Sanitationt for Developing CoLututries: A Challenge for 39. United Nationis Childreni's Fulnid (UNICEF), Health Protect, Arlington. Virginia, 1993). Health for All," World Health Statistics Eniiroinrmtent. Dei'elopmnent amild the Cbhld 61. Stephen A. Esrey ct al., "Health Benefits Q)uarterly, Vol. 44, No. 4 (1991). p. 208. IUNICEF, New York, 1992), pp. 19-44. froin Improvemenxts in Water Supply and 17. Op. cit. 7. 40. Op. cit. 29, p. 67. Sanitation: Survey and Analysis of the Litera- tuire on Selected Diseases," Technical Report 18. Czech Statistical Office, CoImpulterized re- 41. World Health Organizatioi (WHO), The Nt. 66 (Water and Sanitation for Health cords of deaths in the Czech Republic in World Health Report 1995: Bridgling the Prolect, Arlington, Virginia, 1 990). 1993 (Czech Statistical Office, Prague, Gaps (WHO, Geneva, 1995). p. 9. Czech RepuIblic, 1994). Cotinpiled by Martin 4 l ct 2, p4 62. Gehan Sinnaramby, "Loug Cosr Sandtaton, Bobask, Lliitversirv College of L.oidel, 1995. in The Poor Die Young: Huisilzg and 19. C)p. Cit. 7, p. 14. 43. David Bates, 'The Effects of Air PolilLitioi Health it Third World Cities, Jorge E. Har- 20' 'p. Ci'. 7, pp. 14, 52. on Children.'' Environmient,al Health Per- doy. Sanidy C airencross, atid Dasid Sat- 20. O)p. cit. 7 pp. 14, 52. spectii'es, Vol. 103, SuIpplemlient 6 (Sepren- terthwvatre, eds. (Earrhscan, Lotidot, 19901, 21. Op. cit. 18. her 1995), pp. 49-51. p. 133. World Resouirces 1996-97 53 Urban Environment and Hurnan Health- 6,3. WIilitn H,,igrew, , Sietce 1). Joyce. ,iid Iiisiiruiic Siccckliiliii, SweA drll, 1 992i, pp. r,It,,n lbs,,seas, Vol. 144, No. 3, ("Sepreiilmr Eduiiido A.- 1 erez, ILe Ubo.,jc ( :t'.,lc'nj ,- 4-4. I. I991 ), P. 66$S. Iilp/rclinig Pco-Ut!eh ai z . ir.ltlc,l \mvier K2. Ni-k R9. \i 1ik ii? 1 ciicheiig Iit], Iiildiiol 1115. I )o,iigl.i s W. I)i,cke-rr ei i., "A i Asscx,i:iitioii bit1 Sanitiaiion fon H-calrhi Teclnicii,i Repori Air Poclutiloi in IDe%elopiiig I Ioiiitries," in erwct-ii Air PIlcililoj ,ii11l Nii,rralliev ini Six No. 86 (I.S. Ageiicy ocr Inierii ioital D)csl L/iiemuiicdic)' ,/ LIOg can r. lon.iiiaii Nl. (1.5. 1 ili-s, Niiw I igl/,ni /ccnotat of Mist-1 cipmllni, . V0 1iniigtoii. I). ..ll 99.o, pi. Saiiier. ed. (NEiricei i)ekker. In-.. New% York. cont, V"Ii. 3129, No. 24 )I)eeitiher 9. I 19 ),1 44-47. ~~~~~~~~~~1994). P. 154-. V1 181. 64. Up. cit. Ž9, p p. 41-43. 8. (ht.P. 1 6.1(6 IIiIi. 6.8. 1)/i. It. 29. pp. 41 -47~~~~~~ 84. AIlma i.S. f-rhIichiii tli a l.. "FXPOsiire to (I) Ardlei IPopc II 1 t c!.. I'P.iri ICHIJIii A ir Piii- 66. 1 o.,t. 29. p. 42. Air 1 1Li'o ilir i froii 1 raniioilcci,l Hoiiseiholdl Iiiliiii 15 .1 Prr licnr or ci ortril in ii:i Pro- 6'. I p w Ž, .44Fels in ,r Siciiri Atrxi-i: Popiii.iioii. 1air- 5(11-dve Sotly4 of I IS. Adiiits'- *Am ieijln 68. Sioliliaii Iiii, td.(-J . sil' Hiatt/c: itall, if xp-.ep Si,re .4 alvi,i)i .ind EII Iiiiiiir ilte / iiOl ,l Rcf spiri/iat, ire and it naTo l Cat n, Wiiniin ccucit(I ilisaciw Fllirhy IlIe l'O- h/itc'Icciicchc11, V,ii. ;, SiippITie itei I I 1991 Ni.Vi,'cin,ii Vol. I181. No. 31 (N1.r,h 1 998) p. atcl (iia.sgii . Scotland. 19)94), pp -1.8 . IS)),. t646p 1 1 -. 6 94 . f69. ( lp. ,it?. Ž9, p. 47. 8.8. (V (p. Res, 49 - I v t,p ,-II. 11r18 iut.. I p. 66. .I 5 70. Stepheii A. Fseer. .11111 RihAird (;A. ~ ~ ~ R-circ ltlii i ci.ilrliii 11.I/.ct I.p 78 1-e,iciieii. t,itiiac'iiticiiu fiie iii cm/nd if sill k I tli t U iiie Nitriiis F-iilircinic riin P'ro. I It It/i. cIt1. 1 (7 p. 6 -2. Diirrhceat Di.,casi-, Acim~iig Vccmio 13ild gr:oonic and Ihe IUJiiied Natiiii I)eeelop- I I I. Phillip J. I hIts., "Siiidlie Say. Siooi Kills rip toi idren:i P hi...icinictc of F"iccIllFtgicine. Do) ir-fiti Progr.miiiiie. Rie/l Rtsi ,eaicrc- f6030(0 in U.S. Iell )ecr Newi i-ik neian WHOA/ 1)M)/8. 10(IlWi rld? He.i rk (Ii )'t9 - 3 (Olxfir Irs 1liiversi I Preycs New FicWs 1 irkli I 9. I 993). p'. A I. Oreg.izti noiini Gencyi, 1 9891, pp. 1-22. ork 9 2,I.19S I1Ž. NUaeek J.l.kiii'iwsk i. Ailiiieilli A ir PI1ii (i iirii I K. hie Moiihak it a/.. -h.ictici-i,l ( ccuiiaiiii.i- 87 ilad N Aidrscit.(iiceii.frOd Hieiiih F.Itci," iii Aie Pcct/iiti in )l C ii- nu(ll (Iif Sioied \V.ie ,iid Siiiredl Focid: A Po- lipcl rW,ci-ieaitS/t( sttealalo I/ ai-.scrnI u-iro,p: Htstt ,li c/ InllP c/ic Initial Scurice Tit I Imiarhkci,i [)ise,rse n -i .Xcaiagccliun. Warer lind S,lii,ior l ln Pc/i-y Maiiai.g-nrm ir ierices liir l'Ic.iirii Af/rica.-- Upidcmiii icc/i x-ndc tnfeli.cp. Vcii. Heilt.cii Te miii.liI Repicri No. $8 M.S. RIlsoqcn, I99 I). 10)2, No. 2 (I 989) pp. 1149 -116I Ag1 li hu inirreii,iiciin,il D,elpnv .t I I . N i.iri huiocik iind RicIiidu ( A. F,i.il1eiil1. 72. lid W,ishiiigiccii D. .. Aiugiii,i 1993.). p. i. AlAr Pl uiioin and1 Miiri.ilm 'ii Cjuririil mid 88. ( Iinl [i.iriccilr ci i.. 'PrieATT. SCdop1 ii.rr,itp.i- Ii in Euriope: Au siii F imie- Tiith Iiiij.i .3. Jii Linies et .t/.. -Teric.(I, IiriicrrtiL.s .iiil Piiiic tion1 ii Niuciircpal S(Ihld Wiiste Servic: Fxspr- F iiu/c'.lwa fiiurcalt ii Putiti I (clthi. Vii.l D)irectiiis lin dii ( Ticmiic oif \Vcne-Scerionn iiciice' iii I .ciii Aiiirric.i,- 11.31 as1998j., pp. 82-86. Diseases ii I rehin Fill ironiiii1riis," fli, / tiIyI.i1. 1111/ lngie . (,scall, b) Viii. 9) I LI'i).I I ( 4. 1K.rei ( tici. is uiiiiiitig iliy He:idth Flikcrs P'otie ,icint Plnit,i giil Viii. 9, Nii. 2 )j1994, i,. 4118. P. I I _ .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f -Ae1cirPo ir.cnis: A M\etihid wilrlii ;u .Appii- ( eorge Beim h ct al., Fit mmmcufal19. Ikhccii- N,i iii Olig), Jeeri) Jee:ie:ii ii.cii~i i. d ctiicil tc j.kai:.'iIiicv. Reseaichl Woreking .4 . (icrn Beii( ti. IirIIic/i ecl ).iei1l Ikciii -Fm,r lIP 1`S ii ilieiisu tin Asses. Ii.iprr Nii. I 11(1 (TheL Worldi l8k, W.ihiikriua lcmii hnt tin Ir )ntculitclllic ill t/le ienyl .id I Iiltrcil ,i)I 0)ccpaiiciil Hi,ie.rd,I icoii D1.1.. I 99)4), P. 47. (;rliatcre .Ac,ra c\ictrci/cic/t.n Arc.t i(;AA4A -(;f:.tl,l lSii1kiicliii FieiriiiilIliiIn] IDr hiipliiig COcl111rres." Finliei/iniiIiit,l I IS. ljrr Ilsiric Iinu, Air Iiiiciicigy. ;inid iG AIAsiii li , mSlikcri (Swc elh l.i 19vi)1). e. R.. scesarch. \Vo~l. wii, Nic. I (I.iiiaary 1, 1 991.:pIsiliH Iiii .liiiiaIiiei- ( ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~1(.I1-Ž.iiieiiiai1 ieiiircitiii Agen cy, ISerkele. I ,i litoi- . . (I. SCI'llelI eis t .11., .TFie (ole oli Hoiie Der 90) lIp. . it. 82-, p. 49L) nia. 1)11.8 iersloii:l cMITLlIHICiiic .iIii). sign ii i. iiiiting VectcrBioriie I ies. ii Thei Pici .... ' r iiiiYmm : HcilslIiI ,Iidc Hccltbl 9 1. / )/c. cit. $9, p. 1 14. 1 16. 1 i.:. 1 14. in Ticiit Wcctt (JUls. Jcige F. 1 LaIiidcv. 9". I )e-iii1 B Iiukee .nd PITijiiP I .niIrigali, ctip:i - I117. 1 p. cIt. 4 1 p.)S Sairdc.v Iiancrilc us, ,iiid Dei1-i, Satterthvsally. ticllil Ex1iicsires mid( HlUliaIl Heailr(l," inl I 18. 1.1.D.Jickhs. Ricid S:uleiy in rue IDs-a.iop- eds. (E.irlih-ii, I ccidic, I 199t, p. 1911. 1 :riticd I cii,htiti ci: Hamanll Vi-c,i/th aiic tik- nipi Wiceid.," in (h-a/tlb at the- llCi,s,R ,dc,c/: 76. Kirk R. Siiniti, "Fuin ICoitbustiiicii Air Poiii) I-m iiflII/ii/ Eric Chkii:i l al .2/ edJc. fMXiT U;r/ban Hcaltb Il 7ilc radIsplcrt /I/hev limi Expciusir., .11d Heaiih: Tke Sntii:rii ini Press, C.iluiridir, M1.issachiusrtts, 19913), pp1. I . Fitciter tiid T. McNiici;ci. ssds. J,mindoli Deveiloping Clui riitees. Ainuilul Riicii icf 1,7 Schiooil ut Hyiy eine &5 Ticpicii \lhi'dciiic, LiEe,cri lni/ itb- FiIIlec ic,lci/, VcIi. I8 9.3. I)P. fIt. 8 2, p. 49. I .widitli, iii press) p'. I. I 99 1i, P. 52Ž9. 94. 1)/c. ,it. 82, p. 49 11.I f/lill 77 1H. C hell ut it., "Ildicleo A ir 1Pociiutioni iii 98 1)It. cit. 92, pp. 1 47 121O. LIc ct I8 IS. . II1. Deeeloiipig up ouilt ries," Hic//Uca/it Statii-21 /I t.4 .IT 3 ti, s Qu1)rferiC/, Vi I. 4 3. NI. l 1 9901). pp. 96. 1//c. it. >2. pp. 49-810.I2I.It.ci.4. . 12$-I 14. 9'. i/ cit. .99, 1,I. II 1- I114. 1Ž22. lPeter igihuirst cit ,it.. "Enirlniiinelt,i I xpoc- sIlee tii Ividi itid I :kildreius hiiteliiprniic ill 78. 1 )/i. c it. 4 I . 9 )c It. 89, pp. I I 6- I I .7h p I eeiY. s. Ni ;i,/ic ie '9. Srpeiierin biell1iic ctA ii 9 p. cit. 894, p. i 14. nai ,u/1 Mol,tiu. X',V,ii. 127. Noi. 18 ( l 992j. RStphiritBiuny i -Fe pi deis inmIluidei cit Acevil- 1) kcsprato~ IneLtin' I Chidrvi .f e%d 10(1. T11 it. .Ž. P. ill. pp. 1279-1Ž84. 151513i1. VIcI. I31, SillppIelenlm 6 I Mie-1ilili I11 l/. i. 81), P. I 18 1Ž1.L herOiLe iNdeiL mni i otri icl I)efrniciis ' I 91 )1) pp. S4i4-S460). 1102. )1 ). it. S82, p. SI0. I hililirei witit Fievjited Di)eiinii I.eld Ice Xii). Kiek R9. Siiiirh ct a.1. "Air IiolIiiluioni .1d tIle lI O. Eletricli Schwe),. H~ici -ealthc Inipiic.i .is Nui-l b.ng/7livt cIM1oc. I/ Iif A iccLlnI.'I- Eiiergy [ .Iddee iii Asi,niilIes 1LIcTev Tlions , ( eF Ur i Air Piliimonici iii DevellipIng VoII. lIt), Nic. I 1 II 179), pp. 6X9-6,98. Vol. I 9. No S M;ie I. i 94 1, p. .87. 1 Cciilmies. p.ipee presented it the 11(11 1 24. U.S. Apeilcy fccr lInturnii.iil Ia Dvt)eeiupiiiei Xi1. ATiders FlIepard Ilid fimi1 F.pneiis. "I le~ilii Wcorld ( Jiii Air IIiiirees., ELe ,1c`s. F 1lil1d, W.S Aill)), Office cit I ilmi,mg i d 111 U)rlcii Effects if I hiircial Illd Woodlii-i Use ini MI.ir 8-jiiiie 2., I 99.8, ITP Iiriipr,inis, RanIlking I.liliciiIu- imet.l IIccdth LoIw-Inicinii Holiisehoildsi, insLcuki, Lill 1114. 1. Aedeii PIcpe IlI l "I A.. "RnsiH or.lce Rsk., i ;nc t kut,kiik i/lcdalclt. Vcu. 2. Ti,cklli- Ina,'' Eiierizy FIiIirimclilile it lls DI ,)epI eiIu;l F1 miti P/si- I0l PiiiillIil: A5 DI).i Tirnic-a A1/ plcclct/cs 1U1S. All), \Vilhiniuiuli munit Serisc 1 4 iStccckhlmlltI irircniiiueiiIu SeresAiv , il s .AIlicriuln )ii)yeontile steep gri wotii 41). Itich of this growth wi ll th wll take place in slopfes surriouiniiiig the c1itv iiistrb tiliia tiral IICV-ileve -l pi igiltiolls; iveli nlow, groiwtli rates iii mlaii 5 tio>n aldtl ilestablilize tile hillside soils, leading to iiteilsi- coastail cities in the dieeoiling wiorld su bstantialily ex- fied uidlslicies that claiil hunidirteis of lives adiil thar cecil those in suri'oiidiing rti-ai regions 42). Fvei ill CleaVC thOi LiSaidS Of peoplIC hiOiiIeiess eacIh VeCi d ilevelopedl c(2t.11r1tics sll as tie LJ nirtl States, soiiie of Natural areas are also sacrificed ro fornmal Urban tile higilCst vIelS Of tUri x). groiwti are occunririg iln saIllI LdeVC[OpiIeiilt, StiCI alS resiSlnni.a Ie'statCS, i niltiLStry, a 1 il Ci lastll citics :4U. Accortlii)giv. irlbaI iiiipacts along the tOllitill is,. FOilests, wertllilans, ahInci other cciOs%stemiils iolasts stalild to increra s viarkedl v in the yCears aIleadl. Figure 3.1 Changes in Land Use in Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1930-1988 A. 1930 B. 1965 C. 1988 * Urbanized area [ I Water basin U Forest area V Other natural vegetation Source: Prefeitura do Municipio de Sao Paulo (PMSP), "Plano Diretor de Sao Paulo," brochure (PMSP, Sao Paulo, 1990) and PMSP, "Sao Paulo: Crise e Mudanca." 2nd edition (Brasilense, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1990), p. 83. 60 W"or'II Rc's m)IiiL'S I 99%-V Urban Impacts on Natural Resources In coastal cities, the higher vaIlute plaed on- shorellile locations. in- creases the econioinic iricnCI- tivc,; to ceIvelol) rlhere. , >- - Thus, as coastali cities grow - - and ( e xp and (, o riginaI n a coastal ha hitlat is inlcreas- P _ inglv coniverted to other ¶ %,x,' Uses. Landl coniversion1 ac- - tiviries range from draiillng and filling of marshes anid or her wetliand s to ion- srructin'g homes or resorts o11 hv.aches or duines, to n ! i i I,s p i-a b)Uildrilg seawall Is, t tin dertaking large-scal I Ia A1~1_ ni a1 tI rh n proe)i ccts t h .1rt extend( thec shiorel ilie into thle seal. Accordl irig to a ricirit Double t/ i.,t. study by thec World Re- stiti'ces Inisitite, roughl"v half of the world's coasts are threa(ltIeLn Ivy develop- In addictiori to haliltat loss, sioreillon dVe0lopu1ierit nireitr-related aCtivities 4t4. (See (ha ir I1. Iiodoiver- call intelnsitf coaltal errosion, alter the hvidnrology of sitv.) In Siga pore, for i nstalICC, deailaid for Ianrd is so estuLal-ies a rid otherwise (isrti nt at raI proiesses. 1:or great that the islanid natimnIr has addeLd 6.000 hucatres ro instarince, beachcs, sari di lie, Ia rsle ,1 r ii gIoxve its land area tv filliig alorg the shoi-reliln, increasing its saiValiips hai-rier islai ri.d anrid reefs all act as physical area onric 10 percent frorii what itr wias three decades barriers aglillnst Srto-il da lnlllge X. CeuI these buffers alrc ago 14i. Along the Sari Franciscuo Bay, tIre ihiist Iligil loist ro devulopirienrt, tie 1 r cast Is lioe vulrieralble to urbanized estuarv ill the Unt.ed Startes, filling has re- erosirn. The protctrive StruCtrilreslty pica l n Ilt to dis- dUCed the ael extelt Of thetlbc bay hone third in the past sipatc stloli elergy Iin turLn1 call disruLpr the nrrior I 1 50 Vears -i4f, processes Iv Wllih slkl is re,lerished, leadig to fLir- Table 3.1 Distribution of Cities with More Than 500,000 Residents in Coastal and Noncoastal Areas, 1995 Number of Cities 500,000 to 1 Million Residents 1 Million to 10 Million Residents More Than 10 Million Residents Region Coastal Noncoastal Coastal Noncoastal Coastal Noncoastal World 124 214 108 159 6 2 Africa 12 31 13 14 0 0 Asia 61 102 59 88 5 1 North America 8 12 4 4 0 0 Central America 6 9 3 8 0 1 South America 17 10 12 10 1 0 Europe 16 20 8 15 0 0 Former Soviet Union 4 30 4 20 0 0 Oceania 1 0 5 0 0 0 Sources: Compiled by the World Resources Institute from the following: World Cities Population Database (Birkbeck College, University of London, London. 1990); United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, Urban Agglomerations as Assessed in 1994 (U.N.. New York, 1994); United Nations Environment Programme and World Health Organization, Urban Air Pollution in Megacrties of the World (Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, U.K., 1992). Notes: City population data are standardized to a common year (1995). Urban agglomeration data reported by the United Nations often include several cities within a defined agglomeration. In this table, these agglomerations have been subdivided into their smaller administrative units. Therefore, the number of cities of a certain population may not correspond to United Nations urban population data used elsewhere in this report. ~\ ())r/(/RLScllircl I('/)()O-') - 61 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources ther erosion in adjacent areas (4') (4X) (49]. Expansion of brought into the c*it eachi da, altering natural drainage the port in TaLfgiers, Morocco, has altered the coastal channels and increasing the level of flooding of large profile and modified local current patterns; as a result, areas in the region oss. In Jakarta, Indonesia, 1.2 millioln nearby beaches are now eroding at a rate of 5 meters cubic meters of wood, mainly from the nearby rural per vear i5c). islands of Kalimantan and Sumatra, is imported to the C.ities have been a particular locus of coastal wetland metropolitan region each year s(,. The process of re- conversioni because marshes, mangroves, or other wet- source extraction can also have negative environmental lands are apt to line the estuaries and bays where most impacts, altering natural habitats, increasing land deg- coastal cities are located. Of the estimated 80,940 hec- radation, and indirectiv leading to pollution, such as in tares of coastal marshies that originally fringed San mining discharges or saline intrusion into aquifers. Francisco Bay, for instance, 80 percent have been lost to The range of inputs that sustain city life is enormous, development s 1, and a discussioni of all of these inputs is bevond the scope Wetlands scrve as spawnlilng grounds for nmalny of this report. However, a discussionI of two re- aquatic species as well as habitat for waterfowl and sources-water andenergy-illustrates how thescaleof other wildlife. In addition, they filter ouIt manly water- urban demiand canl deplete local resource stores. borne pollutants and provide extensive flood protec- tioil. Often, however, the importalnce of urban wetlands Energy Resources is apparent only after their services have been lost. In East Calcutta, India, 4,000 hectares of lagoons and Patterns of Energy Use swamips that had been used to raise fish were filled to provide home sites for 100,000 Tniddle-class families, Urbanization has a profound effect on the amount and resultillg in an estimated aninual loss of 25,000 metric tvpe of eniergy consumed. Along with population tons of fish and contributing to local floodinig problemns growth, econiomic development, and industrialization, 2i 5s3). Even if wetliands are not imimiiiediatelv filled or urbanization is one of the principal forces driving the drained, they frequently suffer from proximiity to devel- global increase in energy demand sin ss. (See Chapter oped areas, acting as a receptacle for citv wastes and 12, 'Energy and Materials.") Although traditional ru- runl off rhat Iliay overv9hcep talei citur'l absorpti ral societies rely heavily on human and aiilinial energy that may oveturwthelm their naturalabsorptiv and on nearby wood for fuel, todav's urban societies a re characterized by their reliance on fossil fuels and clec- tricity. These differenit patterns of energy use lead to different environmental inpacts. In the developing world, per capita energy consumnp- NATURAL RESOURCES tion remains low. For mlalnV urbani dwellers, especially in smaller cities in Africa and Asia, a large share of Cities require vast quanitities of resources to run-both e n a - i econmic ctivties energy needs are still met by biomass fuels 59) (6))). As for urbani inhabitants and for the economic activities these countries uirbanize, however, demand( for energy that are clustered there. In conitrast to ruiral coimmuni- iicreases and traditional, bulky fuels such as wood or ties, whici are immediately dependcnt on the land that charcoal are replaced y oil 'and electricity (6l 62). supports them, urban communities are rarely con- Energy consumption tends to be greater in urban areas fronted witlh the impacts of their resource consumnp- in the developing world as urban houselholds acquire tion-advanced tranisportation networks allow mnore appliances, such as irons, televisions, and refrig- resources to be tapped fromi distant hinterlands. Rich erators (6h3). Urban dwellers are more likely to travel to cities, in particular, draw on resources far from their work via energy-intensive modes of transportation, and boundaries, food and other materials consumed in uirban areas must The demanid for supplies for cities is much greater be transported across greater distances i64). Urban and moore complex than ever before. These supplies manufacturing and industrv are more energy' intensive range from sLIch basics as water, fuel, sand, and wood, than traditional farming (h). Building the urban infra- to minerals such a3s aluminum and steel, to advanced structure necessarv to support the high populationi den- plastics and synthetic materials. For instance, urban sities in cities requires eniergy lnot typically expended ill expansion creates demanids for construction materials traditional rural settlemients (h(.) (6'7 s16]. such as clays, sand, gravel, and crushed rock to make By contrast, per capita energy' use in urban areas of conicrete, cement, and road stone (541. In Aligarh City, the developed world tends to be lower than that in rural India, approximately 1,000 cubic m1eters of soil is areas 69. Part of the reason is that industries are no 62 W`orld Resourccs 1 996-97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources longer located strictiv in cities (7-), bIut much has to do creases but new problems emerge! often at considerable with the efficiencies of scale possible in cities. For exam- distances from the city itself. The enviroImental im- ple, attached housing and apartment buildings require pacts of, for example, coal mining and oil and gas less energy for heating and cooling, and mass transit drilling and transport can be severe (x;). In Katowice, requires less energy than transport by personal car (7n. Poland, for example, local coal mines are causing water Far greater amounts of energy would be required to and land degradation. In 1992, Katowice's coal minies provide similar services to dispersed rural populations discharged more than 4,80() metric tons of salt into the than to concentrated urban populations. Vistula River each day, leading to major declines in aquatic life (841 ,85. About 20,000 hectares of land in the Impacts of Resource Extraction region are degraded (up from 9,500 hectares in 1975) by mining excavations, tunnels, land subsidence, waste In the developing world, biomass fuels provide betweeni dumps, and flooded areas. Each year, 500 to 600 hec- 25 and 90 percent of domestic energy supplies, espe- tares of additional land is degraded; in 1988, onIv 74 cially in smaller urban centers (7)2. Although urban hectares was reclaimiied (8hl (8-h. consumption of wood as fuel is neither the primary use for forest products nor the major cause of forest loss globally, local impacts on niearby forests can be severe. Even in cities with low levels of per capita consumptioni Many' countries, inclutding those with enorinous of biomass fuels-Bangkok, Thailand, and Manila, amounts of available water, face urban water supply Philippines, for example-the large number of people problems 88,. Local water shortages are especially' acute concentrated in a small area can place considerable total in the world's megacities, although they are also appear- demand on forest resources W. ing in smaller urban agglomilerations such as Dakar, The growth in demand for wood resources around Senegal; Lima, Peru; La Rioja, Spain; and Lucknow, cities has caused deforestation around some urban cen- India. ters reaching 100 kilometers and more. In India between The growing demand for water, along with poor 1960 and 1986, the closed forest cover arotind 18 urban water resource management and moulitilng pollution centers decreased between one fifth and two thirds (74). levels, contributes to water supplyV problems in and In Africa, urban regions are now experiencing rapid around cities. Although municipal water use accounts rates of deforestation (75), as in the peri-urban region of for less than one tenth of the world's overall water use Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, and the subhumid (89), urbanization increases the per capita demaind for wooded savannah around Dares Salaam, Tanzania 76). water for domestic purposes. Part of this growth in Deforestation also contribLites to a variety of indirect demand can he attributed to better access to water environmental impacts, includinig soil degradation, supplies in cities than in rural areas. Induistrial denianid water siltation, and the loss of indigenous plant and for water also rises. As the number of people in urban animal species (7-7. However, since forests are a renew- areas grows, so does the demaild for food and, hence, able resource, proper management can help mitigate the for irrigation in agricultural areas close to the city. These impacts; indeed, in sonie cases the scarcity of fuelwood pressures can quickly result in demands for water that has led to additional tree plantilIg (78). surpass local water suLpplies. As a fuel source, charcoal is often preferred over Poor urban water management practices exacerbate wood because of its compact size. However, pressures local watershortages.Wherewaterrigihtsarenotclearly on forests can intensify when urban households switch defined, users may claim supplies well in excess of their from wood to charcoal because charcoal is produced at needs to deal with future uncertainities. Water is usually low conversion efficiencies from wood (79) (80). In priced much lower than the actLial cost of securinig, Senegal, for example, charcoal production accounts for treating, and distributing it (in part because of govern- the clearing of between 18,000 and 33,000 hectares per ment subsidies), leaving little incenitive for households year, or between 11 and 20 percent of total estimated and industries to conserve water. Inefficient water svs- annual deforestation 181). This percentage of annual tenis are another major source of water loss. In manLy deforestation can be attributed primarily to urban re- cities in the developing world, leaky pipes and illegal source demands, since in urban areas charcoal accounts connections waste between 20 and 50 percenit of public for 91 percent of wood-based fuels compared with 8 water supplies 9g0) (91n. (See Figure 3.2.) In developed percent in the rural areas i82). countries, aginig infrastructure is contribtitilng to similar As cities increase their reliance on fossil fuels and problems. In the United Kingdom, as much as 25 percenlt electric power, pressure on surrounding forests de- of all water used may' be lost because of leakage (,)). lVorhl Resources 199o-97 63 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources Box 3.1 Water: The Challenge for Mexico City Mexico Citv's struggle to secure enough bottom was 2 meters higher than the water is a good example of how urban Figure 1 Subsidence in the city (12L Expensive drainage channels growvth can quickly oUtstr ip the natural Center City Area of Mexico have been built, but flooding remains a resources of a region and lead to envi- City Due to Groundwater problem during heavy rainfall I i ronmental degradation. Sprawling over Extraction, 1935-85 The aquifer is also at risk from con- 3,773 square kilometers (1), the citv is tamination and faces expensive and dif- home to more than 15.6 million people ficult cleanup. Currently, 90 percent of 21. The city's location-in a high, natu- Surface elevation the municipal and industrial liquid (meters above sea level)thmuiiaanidsraliqd rally closed basin-uniquely challenges 2,241 wastes from MCMA are discharged un- water provision. The absence of an ade- 2,240 treated into the sewer svstems (14). In- quate nearbv surface water source 2,239 dustries generate an estimated 3 million means that the city must depcnd largely 2,238; metric tons of hazardous wastes per 2,237 on the local groundwater source, or im- 2,2367 year, of which more than 95 percent are port water from several hundred kilo- 2.235 process effluents or treated effluents dis- meters away. However, the high 2,2341 charged directly into the municipal sew- elevation of the valley makes water im- 2.233 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 age system (151. In manv areas, this portation an expensive alternative (3). In wastewater travels in unlined drainage addition, continued urban growth and canals (IS). There is the potential that poor system financing have limited the Source: National Research Council, Aca- pollutants may leak into the underiving demia de la Investigacion Cienrtifica, government's ability to expand service A.C., and Academia Nacional de In- soil and leach through fractures (from coverage, repair leaks, and provide genieria, A.C., Mexico City's WaterSup- land subsidence) into the aquifer, con- wastewater treatment (4). ply: Improving the Outlook for taminating the water supplv (17T. Other The largest problem, however, is the SustainabilityNational Academy Press, identified threats to the groundwater in- depletion of Mexico City's aquifer. To- clude hazardous wastes illegally day, almost 72 percent of the citv's dumped in landfills, pesticides, arid sa- water supply comes from the aquifer ceptible to dewatering and compaction line intrusion i18l w)). that underlies the metropolitan area (.). m. Over the past 100 vears, the central Demand for water in the region contin- The groundwater level is sinking by area of the Mexico Citv Metropolitan ues to grow. Overall, 94 percenr of about 1 meter each vear (61 1). Although Area (MCMA) has fallen by an average MCMA's residents are serviced by either overdrafting of the aquifer has been oc- of 7.5 meters. Neighborhood children a piped water connection or a standpipe curring at least since the early I 900s, mark thit height on well casings to see 20), but coverage varies widely. In Tlal- the problem has intensifiedi liegh recently.ins t se the problem has 12tehisified recenvlv. whether they are growing faster than pan in 1990, for example, 14 perceint of rhe aquifer showed a net lowering of 6 the ground is sinking io). The result has homes did nor have access to ay formi the aquifer sliowed a net lowering of 6 ~~of public water supply (21)i Mexico to 10 meters in the heavily pumped been extensive damage to the city's in- Citv's urbati peripherv is growing zones (8). frastructure, including building founda- quickly, and providing adequate sup- Because of this overextraction, Mex- tions and the sewer system (i L. The city plies of water to these residents poses a ico City is suffering from severe land is also especially vulnerable to flooding. further challenige. Average per capita subsidence. (See Figure 1.) In part, the In 1900, the bottom of Texcoco Lake water use is still far below that of devel- city's location is to blame, because the was 3 meters lower than the average oped countries, indicating the potential clay soils in the region are especially sus- level of the city center. By 1974, the lake for increased demand. The Federal Dis- Water scarcity is closely linked to water qLalitvy cause struIctural damiiage to buildings aind roads aiid can Freshwater lakes and rivers provide affordable arid conitribLite to urban flooding. For Bangkok, which over- easilv accessible water, but unconltrolled dischaiges of draws water froii its aqcuifer by a conservative estimiiate domestic sewage and indlUstrial effluenits have left many of 0.6 million to 0.8 million culbic meters per day, the Urthan rivers heavily pollited and their water unsafe for comIpacting of uLinderlyilig soiIs h as led to land subsi- use. Consequently, cities must search for waiter supplies dence ranging from 5 to more thani 10 ceintiiittetrs per well beyoid their boLIndaries (931. vear throughout the region ()7). To alleviate this land Other cities rely on groundwater, bLut mianyv of thenm subsidence, Baligkok would have to reduLe its grouind- are withdrawing waiter from aqluifers faster than natural water extraction rate by at least one half-a foriIIidable rates of replenishinient, leading to salinizatioi arid suib- challenige becaulse water demand is cxpected to grow sideilce. (Sec Box 3. I .) Saline intr-usioni is co(ilion in rapidly in rhe comiiing decades (9ss. allmost all coastal cities, from Jacksonville, Florida, to Water shortages anid conflicts alilolIg urban, indLIS- Dakar, Seniegal, to the Clhinese cities of Dalian, Qing- trial, and agriciltural Lisers m;iay becomiie cspecially se- dao, Yantai, and Beihai 144) 0'i) (96i. Land subsidence cani vere in parts of Iricdia, China, and the MNidcile Eastern 64 World Resourcecs I996 -7)7 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources trict uses 364 liters per capita per day water per flush; older models use 16 Ii- look for Sustaznabzlttv (National Academy (22) coinpared with New York City, ters (27). By 1996, this program alone is Press, Washingtoit, D.C., 1995). which uses 680 liters per capita per expected to reduce water consumption 8. Op. cit. 1, pp. 12-13. day (21'. by 4.3 cubic meters per second within 9. Op. cit. 1, pp. 6-7. Mexico is actively pursuing new solu- the Federal District (281. (Total water l0. Op. ci. 1I pp. 13-14. tions to meet these demands and to pro- consumption in the MCNMA is approxi- 1 Op. cit. I, p. 14. tect the environment. Aggressive efforts mately 60 cubic meters per second (29).) 12. Op. cit. I, p. 14. are under wvav to protect the aquifer re- The State of Mexico recently began a charge areas from urban encroachment similar program. 13. Op. cit. 1, p. 14. '24) Officials are attempting to institute Despite these efforts, the financial and 14. Op. cit. 1, p. 40. new pricing systems that wvould ensure environmiental costs of supplying water 15. Op. cit. 1, p. 41. that the full cost of urban water use in- to Mexico City are expected to increase 16. NM. Mazari and M.D. Mackay. "Potential cludes the cost of developing sewage as demand continues to outstrip sup- Groundwarer Colttamination ha Organic systems and wastewater treatment facili- plies in the near term (301k Compounds in the Mexico City Merropoli- ties. Currently, oniv $0..10 is collected ran Area," EnVironment. Sciezce, and per cubic meter of water, even though References and Notes Technology. Vol. 27, No. 5 (1993), as the marginal cost of supplying water to 1. National Research Council Academi.i de cited in Nional Research Council, Acade- MCMA is estimated at about $1.00 per Ia Invesrigacion Cientifica, A.C., and Aca- mia de la lnvestigacioin Cientifica, AC., cubic meter 25). In 1991, the MC(MA demia Nacional de Ingenieria, A.C.. Mex- and Acadexia Nacioital de Ingenierit, A.C., Mexico Citv's Water Suipply: Imn- began a new rate structtire that charges ico City's Water Supply: Improving the proving the Outlook for Sustainability more per cubic merer as consumption Outlook for Sustainability (National Acad- (National Academy Press, Washington, levels increase. The goal is to provide einy Press, Washinigton, D.C., 1995), p.6. D.C., 1995), p. 39. metered industries with the incetitive to 2. United Natiois (U.N.) Populatioln Divr- 17. Op. cit. 1, p. 40. conserve water, evenitually leading to sion, World Urbanization Prospects: The 18. Op. cit l,p.4I. full cost recoverv-an amtbitious goal. 1994 Revision (U.N.. New York, 1994), Now only 53 percent of the users are Table 1, p. 4. 19. Op. cit. 1, p. 44. metered, and not all meters function 3. Op. cit. 1, p. 7. 20. Op. cit. 1, p. 20. properly. To achieve full metering, sev- 4. Op. cit. 1, p. 1. 21. Op. cit. 1, p. 58. eral million additional meters would 22. Op. cit. 1, p. 20. have to be installed at a cost of roughly . . p. ct p 23. World Reso..rces Institute. The 7994 lnfr- $>101() each 2i.). 6. Op. cit. 1, p. 17. niatizto Please Environmental Altnaniac Sonme more modest conservation ef- 7. For a detailed discussion of these calcula- IHoughtoti Mifflin Comp:inty, Boston, forts are already showing success. tlions. see 1. Herrera-Revilla et al., "Diag- 19941, p.209. Water utilities are making routine re- itostico del Estado Present de las Aguas 24. Op. cit. 1, p. 53. pairs part of their overall strategy, and Subteraneas de 1a Ciudad de Mexico y De- 25. Op t I i tnore thati 3,8010 leaks in the MC(MA teritiinacion de sus Condiciones Futuras," distribution system are fixed each and AIC-ANIAC, "El Agua Isl Ciudad de 26. Op. cit. 1, pp. 55, 65. minonth. In 1s989, the Federal District in- Mexico," both of which are cited in Na- 27. Op. cit. 1, pp. 63-64. itiated a program for retrofitting large tional Research Council, Academia de la 28. Op. cit. I. p. 64. Ilivestigacton Cientifica. A.C., and Acade- office and apartment buildings with inia Nacional de Iigenieria, A.C., Mexico 29. Op. cit. 1, p. 21. low-flow toilets that use ot4ly 6 liters of City's Wlater Supply: Intproi 'ng the Ot1t- 30. Op. cit. 1, p. 70. nations. MucI of sub-Saharan Africa is likely to face flicts are emerging In China, where about 30(0 cities similar pressur-es, althoughi data for the region are alreadv experience water shortages 10 n scare.e Already struggling with unieven distribution of water resources and local water scarcity, the urban populations of these regions are expected to douIble inI URBAN WASTES less than 25 vears I991. In India, total demiaind for water is projected to The increased levels of consumption characteristic of nearly double by 2025. Although agriCulture will still the populations of urban areas lead to the generation of claim the bulk of water supplies, demand is growing copious quantities of wastes. The impacts of this pollu- fastest in the urban and indutstrial sectors and is pro- rion are experienced both locallv and at great distances jected to cliiil 135 percent ove- the liext 40 years (io). from the source. Domestic and industrial dischiarges Already in Hvderabad, liidia, the nieed for irrigatit)n contaniniate air, land, and water with ntitrients and water during low-flow years is in direct conflict withi toxics. In turn, degraded air, land, alid water har-m flora the need for water withiin the city itself. Similar coni- anid fauLLa. World Resource's J 996-97 65 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources ties of domestic sewage harmless, yet thev are no match Figure 3.2 Percent of Water Supply for vast quantities of urban sewagc. Urbanization itself Unaccounted for in Selected Asian reduces the assimilative capacity of the enviroiniiment by Cities, 1990-91 removing vegetation, slowing the flows of a ir and water, generating heat, and reducinig the infiltration capacity Singapore z of the land (ii)2). Bombay - ,'- This section looks at only a few aspects of pollution: Beijinga 1 air pollution, especially the formation of urban ozone; Delhi - ' muiicipal solid waste; andl water pollution, in particLI- Bangkok _ lar, the problem of urban sewage. Calcutta Seoul ;6- Urban Air Pollution Hanoi ; Jakarta 63= - .--; Despite the poteintial for energy efficienicy in cities, Dhakarta K , . urban energy demanid and fossil fuel con1sUIlmption con- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 tinue to grow. Already, the concentrations of airlborile (percent) pollutants in and around cities far exceed those in rural areas. In addition to their toll on huliman health (see Source: Asian Development Bank, Water Utilities Data Book: Asia and Chapter 2, "Urban knvironrment and Hu man Health"), Pacific Region (Asian Development Bank, Manila. Philippines, No- these air p0ollutants cani damaige terrestrial and iquiatic vember 1993). p. 30. Note: a. Dataarefor1988-89. Unaccounted-forwateristhewaterthat ecosystems. Not all of this damage can be attributed to is treated and distributed at public expense but that is not accounted uLrban activities. Nonetheless, sources of emiission s are for by sales. concentrated in or around urban areas-especiallv in developing couIntries, where industries still tend to be Much of this pollution stems from economic growtlh located in cities. In addition, combustion of the fossil and industrializationi rather than urbanizationi per se. fuels used for urhan transportation is playintg an ever Cities, however, concentrate these wastes in one place, greater role in air pollution problemis. (See Box 3.2 and straining the ability of local ecosvstemiis to assimilate Chapter 4, "Urban Transportation.") them. Wetlands, for example, can rencder small qtuanti- Air quLality standards are typically set with human health in nmind, but some forms of eco- svstem damage cani occur at far lower levels. Table 3.2 compares health-based Table 3.2 Comparison of World Health Organization standards with the levels at which eco- (WHO) Guidelines Versus Critical Levels of sVstenm daniage has been documented. Atmospheric Pollutants Known To Cause Ecosystem In most nortlherii Europeani cities, for Damage example, sulfur dioxide concenitrationls WHO Guidelines Critical Level rarcly exceed World Health Orgaaniza- (micrograms per for Ecosystem" tion guidelines, yet sultur deposition cubic meter) (micrograms per still exceeds the levels at which ecosvs- Pollutant I hour 24 hours cubic meter) tem damiage can occur. In fact, some Sulfur dioxideb 350 125 1Oc-20d,e efforts to reduce the health effects of Nitrogen oxides 400 150 30d1 urbanl air polltition in developed cooin- Nitrogen oxides 400 150 ~~~~309 Ozone 150-200 100-120 (8 hours) 80'h tries have actually increased damage to Sources: 1. United Nations Environment Programme and World Health Organization, Urban ecosystems. The tall snmokestacks built Air Pollution in Megacities of the World (Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, U.K., 1992), pp. 222, 225-226. 2. The Swedish NGO Secretariat on Acid Rain, "Environmental Factsheet No.6 to disp6rse pollutants m cities SLCII as Critical Loads," AcidNews, No. 2(April 19,1995), pp. 4-5. New York, Philadelphia, and Pitts- Notes: a. Critical levels are defined as the concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere above which direct adverse effects on receptors, such as plants, ecosystems, or materi- burgh in the Unimted States u ltimra tely als, may occur, according to present knowledge. b. Guideline values for combined expo- contributed to the acid i ficatioii o f lakes sure to sulfur dioxide and suspended particulate matter. These may not apply to situations in which only one of the components is present. c. Annual mean. d. Both an- Il the Adirondack MoL1t11S 00;1. In nual and half-year mean. e. Forest ecosystems and natural vegetation. f. Agricultural moist developed counltries, however, crops. g. Maximum annual mean. h. Threshold concentration. Critical levels are now ex- pressed as cumulative exposure over a threshold concentration, using the formula x parts stringenit polultiron con1trol laws anid per billion (ppb) (2 micrograms per cubic meter = 1 ppb) for y hours above the baseline new tech ii logies lhave reduced sul fu r ppb. pbemissionis dramniatically since the 19S0s. 66 Worldl Resources 1 9')9-97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources In China, where urban uise of high-sulfur coal for cooking and domestic heat- ing is common, urban emis- . . - - .- - sions of sulfur dioxide-a precursor to acid raini-may double or even triple over the next two or three dec- ades j104). Alreadv, damage to aquiatic and terrestrial ecosystemils has been docu- niented downwind from :;'-> most Chinese cities. In the W'ianxian District down- , wind from the city of: Chongqing, 26 percent of a 65,000-hectare pine forest - has died, at least in part be- . cause of air pollution. Fx- o rensive soil acidificationi in the region has caused dam- E v rrs,o, Ia19 Cr ' ' I' At age to farm produce and a drop in harvest yields, I0)s. tions of 60 to I 00 parts per billion for several hours is Urbant Ozone sufficient to cause significant plant, tree, anid crop dam- age [io8. Once injured by oZolle, planits are more sus- Whereas in most regions of the world problems related ceptible to insect attack, root rot, and other diseases. to acid deposition stem more from industrialization In the Unite( States, ozoie is responsible for inost of than urbanizationi, ground-level ozone-which dam- the crop yield losses from air pollutants ()9). In addi- ages both human health and vegetation-is a distinctly tioni, ozone has been implicated in the declines in the urban problem. The combination of cars, pollutanits, numbers of ponderosa and Jeffrey pines in the San and meteorological coniditions unique to cities is key to Bernardinio National Forest east of los Angeles, where ozone formation. Ozone levels seem certain to increase daytime average ozone conicenitrations of 1)00 parts per as the number of cars (a primary souirce of the pollutants billion are typical dtiriig the sumnier months, and in that produce ozone) in cities continues to climb. (See the white pine in the eastern UJnited States, downwind Chapter 4, "Urban Transportation.") from the urban industrial centers in New York and New Urban ozone is a particularly difficult problemi to Jersey i ino. address because no one polluter actually emits it. Ozone The declinie in the numbers of trees near Los Angeles is produced wheni nitrogen oxides, czarboni monoxide, sends an importanr message to other expanding cities. and hydrocarbons react with sunlighit, a process that Withiout policy interventionls, ozone will become a takes 8 to 10 hours. In addition to cars, other sources pro(blem for virtuallv all mid-latitude cities where motor include the production and use of organic chemilicals, the vehicle traffic is increasing. Forest damiiage associated use of natural gas, munuicipal waste disposal, and waste- with ozone is already apparenit around Sanitiago, Chile, water treatment plants. and Mexico C(ity ei i il l, il . In Asia and the Pacific, ozone The greatest damage to ecosystems froni urban ozonie damage is likely to be occtirrinig in forests downwind often occurs many kilometers from the city itself, al- from Tokyo and Osaka in Japall; Bei jilg, China; Seoul, though inversion layers can trap ozone within city limits Republic of Korea; Taipei, Taiwan; Delhi, India; and and cause health problems there as well. Plumes down- Karachi, Pakistan (I I I, 1 14,. wind of large North American cities canl have ozone conicentrations of between 70 and 200 parts per billion, Greenhouse Gas Emissions often over distances of several hundred kilometers (106) (io)71. Ozone concentrationis as low as 40 parts per billion Although the upswilIg in fossil fuel consumption is not can injure plant leaves, whereas exposure to concentra- due solely to urbanization, there is iio doubt that major World Resources 1996-97 67 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources Box 3.2 Los Angeles Copes with Air Pollution In the past two decades, in the face of tion jumped from 2.3 million to 10.6 tionary sources of air pollution, whiich sustained population and economic million its include about 31,000 businesses ranging growth, air quality in the Los Angeles In an effort to improve air quality, from large power plants to small gas sta- area has improved dramatically. (See state and regional agencies are imple- tions and which account for about 40 Figure 1.4 From 1955 to 1992 the peak menting a stringent and innovative pol- percent of the area's pollution 1-!. Also level of ozone declined sharply from lution control effort that targets under the District's purview are con- 680 to 300 parts per billion. Smog lev- industry, transportation, and consum- sumer products, such as house paint, els in the early 1990s were the lowest on ers. The political arrangements have charcoal lighter fluid, and products COn1- record i). evolved over many decades. taining solvents. The District's air quality Despite these gains, the citizens of Los As earlv as rhe 1 940s and 1 950s, pol- plans nmust be approved ba rhe Califor- Angeles suffer from the worst air pollu- lution levels in the city were bad nia Air Resources Board (CARB) and tion in the United States. Pollution enough to prompt public outrage and then by the U.S. Environmental lrotec- reaches unhealthful levels on roughlv political action. The Los Angeles Times tion Agency. CARB also was given juris- half the davs each year-as opposed to published dozens of editorials demand- diction over mobile sources of pollution 279 days in 1976-causing irritation ing action to reduce smog, and several such as cars, trucks, and bLuss s:X. for many and illness for some (2) (3I. A efforts were started to study the chemis- The region has used a variery of strate- 1991 study fouLid that those living in ar- try of the atmosphere above Los Ange- gies to curb air pollution. For exainple, eas where particulate pollution ex- les (6. By the mid-1970s, each of the programs were initiated to recover vapors ceeded government standards for 42 four counties that niake up the metro- that escape when gas or other petroleum days per year or more had a 33 percent poliran region-Los Angeles, Orange. products are transferred and to eliminate greater risk of contracting bronchitis and parts of Riversidle and San Ber- industrial solvcnts, which play a major and a 74 percent greater risk of con- nardino counties-had its own pollu- role in the formation of ozone. To help tracting asthma (41. tion control program. But it was combat the region's continuing growth, Several ingredients contribute to the already apparent that local programs officials in 1976 issued "neW source' city's air pollution problems, including would not be able to solve problems regulations reqtuirinig industries to use the a bowl-like setting, abundant sunshine that were regional in nature, cleaniest technology available for any cx- that drives photochemical reactions, In response, the California legislature pansion or new construction 9!. low average wind speeds, and rapid in 1976 created the Soutil Coast Air Even so, if Ios Angeles is to meet fed- growth in the numbers of people, cars, Quality Management District and gave erail health standards by 20(10, morc and factories. From 1 950 to 1990, the it jurisdictioni over much of the air qual- stringent requireniits wvill be needed. region's population grew from 4.8 mil- itv throughout the four counties. The lIIvdrocarbon cmissions must be cur hv lion to 14 million; the vehicle popula- D istrict was given responsibilitv for sta- about 80 percent, nitrogen oxidles by 70 Figure 1 Number of Days Ozone Exceeded 200 Parts Per Billion in the Los Angeles Area, 1980 and 1991 A. 1980 B. 1991 ardino ~ ~ \~~ ~ ~~ ide Pacific Ocean ] 0-20 days E 20-40 days * 40-60 days * 60-80 days Source: James M. Lents and William J. Kelly, "Clearing the Air in Los Angeles," Scientific American, Vol. 269, No. 4 (October 1993), p. 36. Note: A 1-hour average of 200 parts per billion represents a Stage 1 alert according to criteria established by the South Coast Air Quality Management District and the State of California. 68 World Rcsoufrces 1996--97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources percent. sulfur oxides by 62 percent, gram was expensive for businesses, ing an elaborate network of recharging and particulaites by 20 percent. The however, costing about $110 per em- stations in Los Angeles, but few other benefits will be immense; meeting the ployee, or $17,421 per metric ton of power companies in the United States federal standards for ozonie and particu- pollution reduced. In April 1995, the are making simiilar plans (20). lates could provide $9.4 billion in District revised the program bv allow- health benefits every vear 191L The pen- ing firms to voluntarily substitute emis- References and Notes alties for not meeting this target could sions reduction meaisures. Alternatives I Jap Ni. Leaits and William. J Kelly, be severe, however, including the possi- include scralpping old, high-polluting "Clearing rhe Air in Los Angeles," Sles,r- ble loss of millions of dollars in federal cars and trucks to earn emissions cred- tofic Ane rican, Vol. 269, No. 4 (October money for highwvay and mass transit its, using remote vehicle sensing equip- 1993), p. 32. construction. The California (lean Air ment to identify high-polluring 2. South Ciiasi Air Qualiry District Govern- Act also requires steady progress-emis- emplovee vehicles and earning credits ing Board. Final 1994 Air Qiality Manage- sions reductions of 5 percent per for repair of the vehicles, or paving ment Plait: Meeting the Clean Air year-unril the stanidards are met il. $110 per emplovee per year into an air Callenge (SouthCoastAirQualityMan- To meet the 2010 deadline, the Dis- quality escrow account, which would agemens Dsctri and Southerii California trict has devised an elaborate two-stage be used for other programs such as the aliorniao 94) ernmento 2-i. air quality management plan. relying on purchase of clean-fuel school buses. B Cbif 1 pp both current technologies and sonic that Some of rhe alternatives provide stib- 3. Ibid., p.2-I. do not ver exist. The first stage includes stantial savings to businesses. For exam- 4. Op. t. , p. 38. some 135 different measures, all using ple, old vehicle scrapping costs $2,755 5. Op. Lit. 1, p. 32. existing technologies that cain be to $6,102 per metric ton of pollution re- 6. Op. cit 1. p. 3.3. adopted by 1996. For example, electric duced, which amounts to a 65 to 84 7. Op. cit. 2. pp. 1-5. companies will install new burners and percent reduction in the cost of the pro- s. South Coast Air Qiality Management Dis- catalysts that will cut nitrogen oxide grain (14. trict, "Introductiig AQMD." March 1994 emissions. Reformulated charcoal Perhaps the most ambitious plan to (public iniformation brochure). lighter fluid will help cut pollution from cut automilotive emissions was a 1990 9. Op. cit. 1, pp. 35, 37. backyard barbecues. Manufacturing statewide mandate that required that 2 10. Op. cit. 1, pp. 38-39. plants and construction coimpanies are percent of all passenger vehicles sold in 11. Op. cit. 2, pp. 6-1 0o 6-22. using newly forniulated paints, solvents, the state by 1988 he emission free, in- 12. Op. cit. 1, pp. 38-39. and adhesives that minimize pollition. creasing to 5 percent in 2001 and 10 13. Op. cit. 1, pp. 38-39. The seconcl stage will take advantage percent in 2003 1t5L For more than 5 14. South Coast Air Qualiry Management Dis- of technologies that are just entering years, the mandate has been driving trict, "Air Qualirv Officials Approve Major the commercial market, such as a new technology advancement in electric cars Oserhauil of Rideshare Ruile," April 14, house paint that does not release hvdro- (16). However, in Deceinber 1995, the 1995 (press release). carbons and auroniobile engities that California Air Resources Board decided 15. MarIa Cone, "State Paiiiel Puts Electric Car run on methanol, natLral gas. or orher to ease the mandate and proposed stis- Mandate in Reserse,' Los Angeles Timies, alternative fuels. The District has in- pendinig current requirements for zero (Decembser 22. 1995S, p Al. vested over $40 million in seed monev emission vehicles until 20)03 ti- citing 16. Ibid. to support new teclinologies (1 /c technology constraints as the ma jor con- 17. Electric Trainsportation Coalitioi, "Califir- To ease the financial burden for the cern. Yet some believe the Board is sub- nia Air Resoitrces Biiard Proposes toi Sus- business coinintniti; the District has mitting ro pressure from the auro and perid ZEV Mandires Unnil 20.'3 mud to provided free techniical assistance and oil industries (mI. liistitute a 'Cal/Big 7' Tecchbology Develop- has offered loans for the purchase of Promoting widespread penietration of mtu'nr Partnersbip, " meniorandurn from pollution control equipiment. The pro- clectric vehicles will he complicated by Kateri Callihan, Executive Director, Elec- gram also enables firnis to adopt the other factors as well. The current price tric Transportation Coalition, nr Board of least expensive ways to cut nitrogen for miiost such vehicles is $25,000 and DiCr, Decetor her a 7 , 1 s99 t, p I. and sulfur emissions to meet standards, up, which is too expernsive for the aver- 18 Marla Cone, "Air Panel Bending tinder In the first mitltipollutant emissions age U.S. buyer. Coivsentional lead-acid Pressure," Los Apgeles Tibnes (Decemlier trading effort for an urban area, busi- batteries take up to 8 hours to recharge 20. 1995), p. A3. nesses can either reduce emissions them- and must be changed every 2 to 3 years 19. Girv Lee, 'Californi Recharges Electric selves or buy emissionis credits from at a cost of $2,000. Most prototypes Car Development," W.a,hingtion Post companiies that have reduced their emis- have a limited range of 96 to 121 kilo- (April 18. 1995), pp. Al, As. sions below the standards (uc. meters. Research is under way on bat- 20. Ibid. In 1 987, the Disrrict implemented a teries that provide twice the cruising carpooling program that by 1994 hail range and can be recharged in an hour increased the average number of per- or two, though such batteries currently sons per vehicle by 13 percent since the are twice the price of lead-acid cells 11it. program's inception. The ride share pro- Somitherii California ldison is develop- Worldl Res'isuc-cs 1996-97 69 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources Figure 3.3 Comparison of Per Capita such as Los Angeles and New York are vast producers Foigur 3.3te Co artison ofd Percapita oof solidwaste,whereaspercapitasolidwastegeneration Solid Waste Generation and Percent of Is still low in cities such as Calcutta, India, and Accra, Waste Collected, Selected Cities Ghana. (See Figure 3.3.) As per capita incomes increase (kilograms per capita per year) in cities in the developing world, the qLuantitv of solid 1,300 1,246 waste will likely grow in tandem. With increased 1,200 wealth, the compositioni of wastes chanlges from primar- 1,100 ily biodegradable organic materials to plastics and other 900 synthetic materials, which take much longer to decom- 800 pose. When solid waste is not collected and disposed of 600 efficiently and effectively, it pollutes and degrades land 500 and water resources. Managing the voluine of solid 400 321 352 300 200 281 3 3waste can pose a major challenige for city governments, 200 2 l from ensuring that all waste within city boundaries is 1000 lf_j collected, to reducinig health impaicts, to acquiring va- Abidjan Quito Bangkok Sao Washington, cant land sites for landfills. Paulo D.C. fIn developing countries, the environmental impacts C] Solid waste collected of improper solid waste disposal are especially severe. U Solid waste not collected In maniy cities, only 30 to 50 percentr of solid waste is Sources: 1. Abidjan, Cote d'ivoire: Joseph Leitmann, "Urbanization and collected; the rest is either buLrned or dum ped in uii reg u- Environment in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Input to the Post-UNCED Urban Axis,' draft paper (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1995), lated landfills Uncontrolled disposal of urban waste pp. 14, 20. 2. Quito, Ecuador: Gustavo Arcia etal., Environmental into water bodies, open dumps, and poorlv designed Health Assessment: A Case Study Conducted in the City of Quito and the County of Pedro Moncayo, Pichincha Province, Ecuador, WASH landfills Is a prinocipal cause of surtifce water and Reprint, Field Report No. 401 (U.S. Agency for International Devel- groundwater contamination. In Manila, the biggest opment, Washington, D.C., 1993), p. 46. 3. Bangkok, Thailand: UnitedNations(U.N.)EconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaand solid waste dtinip Is Bal ut, Tondo, which receives ap- the Pacific, State of Urbanization in Asia and the Pacific 1993 (U.N., proximatelv 650 metric toils of solid waste each day. New York, 1993), p. 2-55. 4. Sao Paulo, Brazil: Josef Leitmann, "Environmental Profile of Sao Paulo." draft paper (The World Bank, This dump site has reclaimied 34 hectares of Manila Bav Washington, D.C., 1991), p. 10. 5. Washington, D.C.: World Re- and has created ani enormous mountain of refuse tow- sources Institute, The 1994 Information Please EnvironmentalAlma- nac(Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1994), p. 205. ering 40 meters above sea level 1121,. Many cities dispose of household wastes along with industrial wastes, exacerbating pollution problems. In metropoltaon areas have the greatest conacentrateions of China, for example, inost toxic solid wastes are dis- population industry and energy use and henceithe posed of in the MuniCipal waste streai without treat- largest amount of pollutionl and the highlest greenhlouse metit leading to c(itainati(n of soils and water gas enissions. (See Chapter 14, "Atmosphere and Cli- bodies with heavv metals such as mercurv chromimtin, mate.") une recent StLidv estimates tnat almiost 40 p er- lead, and arsenic. These toxics can threaten or destrov cent of total carbon dioxide emissions froni North America come from 50 metropolitan areas (I.I). Al- marine life (12%1 i124). thouh tis sioud b conideed oly rOigh pprxi- Disposal of solid waste In legal lanidfills, as is the thouigh this sh1ould be considered only a rough approxi- nornm throughout the United States and Euirope, averts mation, it demonstrates the iieed for policy interventions to reduce urban output of greeinouse gases. In develop- ing couIntries especially, the rapid growthi in energy de- managed, however, runoff and leachates cani contami- nate Suirface water and groundwater supplies. Landfills mand in urban areas (i.e., from electricity and transporta- are sorface increand experisupes Landfills tion) is projected to greatly increase greenihouse gas are also becoming icreasinglyexpensive owing tothe emissions ( 1 l6o) e 1 1 UTh ull S). (Globa l wa rm ing is predicted tO risling costs of conscrucction and operation 'isi Incinera- emisios I 1) i1 7) I ~.Gloal ar-nig i peditedto tioni, which can greatly reduce the ainiount of incomiiing cause a rise in sea level, placing coastal cities at risk 11i9 micia solid waste, is the s nd mot ommon munlicipal Solid waste, Is the seconid most common method of disposal in developed cotintries 126i. How- Solid Waste ever, incinerator ashes may containi hazardous materi- Solid waste generation, both mun1icipal and industrial, als, includinig heavv mietals and organic compounLds continues to increase worldwide in both absolute and such as dioxin (127) i)125. Recycling plavs a large role in per capita terms 120). Wealth is a primary determinant solid waste maniagenmenit, especially in cities in develop- of how much solid waste a city produces. Wealthy cities ing countries, and should be encouraged not only to 70 World Resources / 996-97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources reduce the need to dispose of vast amounts of waste but also to protect new raw inaterials from extraction _ - and use. (See Clhapter 5, "Urban Priorities for Ac- tion.") a. Water Pollution a. - ___ Water pollutioni probably beganl with the foundation - of the first cities 7,000 years ago along the major river systemils of the Tigris- ,2 Euphirates and Indus [129). Cities have long used rivers, v lakes, and coastal waters as receptacles for diluriiig and _ . dispersing wastes. The - naltural processes of wVater Urban sewage. T1 ji)i(tlit te dl cit U C ' 7 '9 >ol t 91t p ' ,'/It 1 or J (0 1.> IoP,7SP id 11 flow help to break down tc'i ,lisii.stX/V 1 to.?i /tdU' l t,0 I 'oo Gi j'1r00tc9 o i fi0.l.i5/ iiU , iIr,iilai/0 101/ wastes and render them O,HtOCIVO pll//th. mkin ici,f l .it ti f 1, 0,) ,C, ii!il'.'4..1' . I hi r llii' iitii,i/'s wholw harmless. Evcr-increasing iii at',1UPi0r Is (i- u fnl Iiq(o/Illi Urball populations anld their growing amounts of wastes, hiowever, have over- the sunlight that other organisins need. As plants die taxed the nartiral recycling capabilities of local rivers an(d decompose, the dissolved oxygen in botrom waters and lakes. In cities close to coasts, untreated sewage anid is depleted-a conditioni that is deadly for fish and other industrial effluents flow into the sea and damage aquatic life (i ;). Those fish and otier imobile species that beaches and inshore waters. can survive may nonetheless lose critical habitat, their Although there has been significanit progress in con- food supplies may he disrupted, or they may be forced trolling water pollution in developed nations over the into shallow areas where they are subject to increased past three decades, pollution1 has continued to rise in predation n it2) (11 i 14i t SI i). most cities in the developing world and remains high Nutrients come from several sources, including run- around cities in the transition econlomiiies of Russia and off froni upstream agricultural and urban areas, particu- Central Europe, posing a threat to human health and to larly silt, and air emissions. Atmospheric deposition is the health of aquatic ecosystenms. In some areas, entire thought to be responsible for about one third of the estuaries and even international water bodies such as nitrogen in the Chesapeake Bay, which is surrounded by the Mediterraneani Sea aiid the Caribbean are affected. several large urban populations i I c6e. The biggest single Urban-generated pollution conies from both local- source of nutrient loading in urban waters, however, is ized and dispersed, or point and nonpoinit, sources. humani waste. Even after conventional wastewater Major point sources include municipal sewage, indus- treatment to remove much of the organic material and trial outfalls, and air emissions from power plants and pathogens, humanl waste still contains copious amoLints heavy industries. Nonipoint sources include silt from of nitrogeni and phospphorus-the primary ingredients earth-moving activities; storm runoff from roads, home in fertilizers. gardens, and industrial sites; infiltration from aquifers Nutrienit enrichinent problems are especially severe contaminlated with sewage or indtistrial cheinicals; and in urban estuaries, where water flushing is minimal and automobile eniissions. inputs, often from numerous cities, are large I ;7) / 3s8. Of the many' problenms associated with urban efflu- The Baltic Sea, for instance, receives the effluents of ents, nutrient loading, or eutrophication, of local waters inore th1an 70 million people and related industries in is one of the most serious ( io). Nutrients are essential dozenis of cities. Since 1980, it has manifested increasing plant foods, but excessive amounts cani cause radical symptoms of eutrophicatioin, with a lengthening list of plant growth-often miassive algal blooms-that blocks hiological effects, from declining lobster and cod Worldi Resources 1996-97 71 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources catches to increasing numbers of nuisance algal blooms is hoth toxic to aquatic organisiiis in its own right and 1139, (140) (141). Without a major restruCturing of how can also coinbine with some organic comp ouLnds in the urban wastewaters are hanidled, nutrient loads in waters effluent to form organochlorines such as clhlorofoirimi seem certain to rise as urbani populationis increase and and various chloramnines, whicih maya be carciniogeniic or agriCultural prodLIction expands to feed urban residents directly toxic. Moreover, convenitionial treatilient resuIlts i1421 (143). in the acCulimulationi of large quantities of sewage slidge, which often containis heavy metals and other contanil- Urban Sewage nants and which caLn have a variety of toxic effects if it is disposed at sea (I5-). Given its sheer volumIle, sewage is a major threat to local urban waters, as well as one of the most vexinig prob- Industrial Pollutants lems for urban managers charged with its safe disposal. Not only is sewage the major source of nutrienits in Especially in the developing world, industry is conicen- urban waters but it also poses a significant risk to health trated in urban ceniters, resultilng in severe wiater pollu- from such sewage-borne pathogens as the cholera bac- tion problnems in most large cities. Maljor sOuIrCes of teriurni hepatitis viruIses, salmonellae, and shigellas 144) water pollution inClulde chemnical-intenisive indCUstries (14i) 114fi. such as tanneries, metal plating operations, pulp milIs, Most of the world's sewage is still disposed of uii- and refineries. Typical contaminiants incLide organo- treated. In developling coulitries, 90 percent or mo)re is chlorines such as polvchiloriniared biphenyls (I'( Bs) and released withotit treatmenit of anv kind-usuially to a dioxins, pesticides, grease and oil froi a irtomlobiles and water body, whiether a river, a lake, or an ocean (147- (148). shipping traffic, acids and caustics, heavy mIetals sucIh Even in niany developed counitries, oniv a portion of the as cadmiumii and lead, sewage sludge, alid a long list of sewage receives conventional treatment 1149i. synthetic orgalc compounds. In countries where a higher percenltage of sewage is Urbani runioff is anothier source of industrial pollt- treated, building the infrastruCtuire to collect and treat ants. A 1990 study foulid that a single veiir's runlolf from wastewater has required a concerted anid costly national the Washington, D.C., metropolitani area cairried with it effort, and polIltion episodes still occur li s. Manv 3.8 imillion to 19 million liters of oil, I 8() metric toiis of older cities still have outmiioded sewer systems thart zinc, 29 merric tons of copper, aid 10 merric tons of collect sewage and storm water together, so that whieni lead (Ii8s. For somile po1llutalntS, Urban runiloff rivals or rainfall is heavy, the capacitv of the treatnient plant is exceeds the outpuIt from industrial sources and sewage overwhelmed and untreated wastewater is released treatment plants and is often mucih more difficult to through overflow drains i in. track and contr-ol i i ). Increasingly, fisheries are being damaged or de- Industrial releases of toxics have declinied in mny1011 stroved bv the volume of urban sewage 1 Q2) j ic*. Major cities thaiks to stringenit poIlltioil control measures) li6) declines in fish catches have been documented in rivers i 61). On a global basis, however, toxic effluents are still and estuaries around cities in India, China. Venezuela, a maijor threat to urban waters, particularly in miany and Senegal (l i4). In Manila, two rivers carry vast quall- developing countries where industrial growth is rapid titles of the city's sewage into Manila Bay; fishery yields (1I ) (16h ). In Jakarta Bay in Indonesia, whicre untreated there declined by 39 percent from 1975 to 1988 ii s. In industrial wastes are dischiarged by somie (30,000 smiall addition. fecal coliform counlts in most urbani rivers in industries such as batik factories, heavy metal acCuLInLl- developing counitries far exceed health standards. For lations are alarmingly high. In fact, shrimp raken froml the urbanl population that relies on these rivers as a JaIkanrta Bay hav levels of mSercur contamination sec- source of drinking water and food, this poses severe ond only to thosc of shrimp taken fromi Minarnata Bay health risks. The Tiete River downvstreamii from Sao in Japan i14,. Paulo, Brazil, is heavily contaminated by the city's Cleaning up contaminated sedimiienits is extremely wastes, yet it is still used as drinking water by several diffictilt and costly. In the United States, where sedililent rural communities in the interior of Sano Paulo state and cleanup is being conitemiiplated at a numb.11 er of harbor as a source of irrigation for nearby vegetable farms (15S). sites, costs arc estimated at from $14 3 per kilogramn of Even the release of treated effluenits to waters is not PCBs remioved in easily accessible areas to niore than without environinental repercussions, Iecause these ef- $6,600 per' kilogram for miore disper-sed colntarillinatioil. fluents are a prime source of nutrients and suLbsequent Such costs mean that, once conltalilillnated, most sedi- eutrophication. The chemicals used in wastewater treat- menits are likely to remail so for years, despite the effects ment can also liave toxic effects. Chlorine, for example, on the local environmentinc. 72 Worldl Resouirces 1996-97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources INTEGRATED APPROACHES TO PROTECT THE RESOURCE BASE The true impacts of urban activities on natural resources . . 5 cannot be captured with a media-specific approach-in 4N other words, looking first at air pollution and then. water. Natural resources are linked, so that the degra- r w dation of one resource affects not only the resource itself , but also a wider resource base in and around the urban area (166). In Tetuoan, Morocco, for instance, peri-urban - . deforestation not only destroys local habitat but also 3- increases soil erosion, which in turn leads to heavy siltation in downslope water reservoirs; 50 percent of . the Nakhla Reservoir has already been lost. The con- - - ' struction of new dams to meet urban water demands has in turn reduced river flows, affecting riverine hahi- tats and wildlife and reducing the capacity of the rivers to process sewage wastes (167). j ;' As the Tetuoan example makes clear, strategies for environmenital management need to consider the entire ecosystem and the range of insults it experiences. lIte- E grated coastal zone management (ICZM) is one such 7 strategy. Its premise is that a coastal ecosystem must be , considered as a whole, even though it may be subject to o an array of dissimilar threats and under the control of many separate governmenlts. ICZM is also a participa- , tory planning process that seeks to involve all the af- E5 fected parties-from city residents, to industries, to the @ different levels of state and city governments-so that i the problems at hand and the possible options for Stem the tide. An erosioni control proJect on the Chesapeake addressing them are widely understood and the choices Bay ises mats of Bay giass staked directly Into the sand at the for action are broadly supported 165 i169 070) 071. shore! me toslow wave action and restoie habitat This approach relies on scientific assessments to help . . . define the scope of impacts, the natural tolerances of Chesapeake Bay: Regional Mitigation ecosystems to stress, and the benefits, costs, and trade- Efforts Bearing Fruit offs of control options. Even after a managemiient choice The effort to reverse the decline of the Chesapeake Bay, is made-perhaps to treat sewage to remove some but the largest estuary in the United States, represents both not all nutrients-scientific monitoring is used to evalu- the promise and the difficulty of a regional approach to ate the impact of this action, which may then prompt coastal zone managemeit. In 1983, Maryland, Virginia, further action in the next planning cycle. In this way, Pennsylvania, and the District of Columbia-all of ICZM evolves as environmental conditions and the whilch are part of the watershed of the Chesapeake attitudes of the stakeholders change i 172m 1I73i. Bay-entered into a formal partnership with the federal The two profiles presented below provide a more government to restore the Bay, which has suffered seri- comprehensive view of the variety of impacts that urban ous degradation from more than 300 years of heavy areas canl have on coastal ecosystems, from land con- exploitation and pollution (174). version, to land-based pollution, to urban use effects. In the years since the Chesapeake Bay Agreement was The Chesapeake Bay profile illustrates how an inte- signed, specific restoration goals have been wedded to grated approach to environmental management has a comprehensive set of actions designed to improve begun to pay off. The Hong Kong profile dramatically water quality, restore aquatic habitats, regulate devel- illustrates the range and severity of pressures on urban opment, restrict overexploitation of the Bay's resources, coastal waters and the difficulty of addressing them in and develop a monitoring program to check the pro- the context of rapid industrial development. gress of these efforts. This Chesapeake Bay Program has World Resources 1996-97 73 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources resulted in measurable improvements in the Bay's stressing the blue crab fishery-the last major commer- health. The health of the Bay remains quite threatened, cial fishery in the Bay. Waterfowl populations have also however, and aggressive action is required if the recov- diminished substantially as shallow water habitats and ery is to continue (I-5). wetlands have declined 12 (18i2 The Chesapeake Bay is both extensive and ecologi- In the mid-1970s and 1980s, the U.S. government cally coniplex. Stretching nearly 322 kilometers in undertook an extensive research program to sort out the length, with a shoreline of some 11,263) kilometers (1-6), factors contributing to the Bay's decline. The research the Bay is fed by 48 major rivers that drain a combined revealed the central role of nutrient pollution, providing watershed of 1 65,760 square kilometers. This gives rise an essential basis for developing a recovery plan. Later to a range of physical enviroinents and salinity regimes modeling studies indicated that nutrients would need to as fresh water and saltwater nix, creating conditions be cut sonie 40 percent from 1985 levels for the Bay to that support more than 2,500 species of plants and recover. in 1987, this 40 percenit reduction goal was animals. The traditional productivity of the Bay has officially adopted as a centerpiece of the Chesapeake meant employment to thousands of crabbers, oysterinen, Bay Programi 184}l 415. and fishers, and has been one of the main attractions for As it stands today, the Chesapeake Bay Program is the Bay region's flourishilng tourist industry (17-). the most ambitious attempt at integrated coastal zone The productivity of the Bay, however, has been badly management in the lJIited States. The program grew compromised by ox eruse, pollutioni, and habitatconver- out of extensive discussion and negotiation among all sion. The very size of its watershed makes the Chesapeake interested parties-including state and federal repre- vulnerable to humani activities over a vast area. By far sentatives, industries, local goveriiments, environ- the most serious threat to the health of the Chesapeake mental and sporting groups, and private citizens-and today is the tremenldous influx of the nutrients nitrogen now has wide public and private support (i86). and phosphorus from both urban and agricultural Achieving that consensus was impressive, consider- sources throughoLIt its watershied. Whereas forest pre- ing that more than 1,600 separate coimnilunities in three viously covered 95 percent of the watershed, agriculture states and the District of C:olumbia surround the Bay now accounts for about (30 percenit of the land use and and its tributaries. A regional executive council coordi- is the largest source of nItrient pollution. Urban devel- nates the program, receivinig oversight and direction opnment, which covers about 10 percent of the water- from a citizen's advisory commiiittee, a scientific and shed, is close behind as a sourCe of nutrient pollution technical advisory committee, and a comimittee of local and is growing quickly. The situation is worsened by government representatives. State governments and the suburban sprawl, wlich causes the loss of wetlands and federal government have lent legal and financial support riparian forest cover, both of which, in their natural as well as enforcemilent powers and monitoriig capabili- states, provide important nutrient buffers I178). ties (187) (18X). Damage to the Bay from nutrient pollution became Although goals for nutrient reduction and habitat evident in the I 960s and 1 970s and provides a classic restoration have beeni set for the Bay as a whole, more example of progressive eutrophication. At first, exten- detailed goals have also been developed for each of the sive algal blooms appeared and the Bay's clarity de- 10 major tributaries. The actual actions taken to achieve clined. Eutrophication in turn led to a serious decline in these goals vary widely depending on the location and sea grasses and other submerged vegetation, whose loss the nature of the local threats. They include efforts to affected the numerous species that used the vegetation encourage better methods of farimilig and timber har- as habitat. Finally, a buildtip of organic matter in the vesting throughout the Chesapeake watershed, manage- depths led to a progressive decrease in dissolved oxygen ment of fish and shellfish harvests, stream revegetation levels in extensive reaches of the Bay; leaving anoxic and marshland restoration, regulatioll and monitoring dead zones along much of the bottom and stressing of toxic releases from industry, and mitigation of the maniy of the organisms in shallower areas 1-9) (iso) (181). effects of shoreline development through such means as In addition to nutrient enrichment, other pressures vegetative buffer zones, setback requirements, and other on the Bay inclide industrial effluents and urban runoff, zoning restrictions (is,)) (19)) (191) 192) (19i). which have left toxic contanlinants such as heavy' met- The results to date have been impressive. Phosphorus als, pesticides, and chlorinated hydrocarbons in sedi- levels declined 16 percent from 1985 to 1992 through the ments. Overharvesting of fish and shellfish resources use of a combination of banis on phosphorus-containing has contributed to the demise of important species such detergents, upgrades in municipal sewage treatment as striped bass, oysters, and shad and may currently be plants, and soil erosion controls and nutrienit manage- 74 World Rcsources 1996-97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources ment on agricultural land *>.w 194l Progress in controlling - . i nitrogeni levels has come niorc slowly, but it is still sign ifcant, despite the in- creasing population In thie watershed w.)i) These gains - in nutrienit control have led to dramatic improvements in the abundance of sub- merged vegetation, which increased 75 percent frromm 1978 to 1993 o(9o,. The striped bass popuIlation has E _ rebounded, thanks in part 2 s I!ImiaIIl - to improved hialitat and X strict liits on fishing 197m. CS F\Aen so. a significant ef - 4 fort will he required to Inect G 'A I ' the goals of a 40 percenit redLuction in nutrielts and a 7 significant improvement in habitat quality throughout the Bay-especially since the area's population is ex- urban growth. Filled land now accounts for more thain pected to grow nearly 20 percent over the next 25 vears 25 percent of the urban land area, and seawalls armor (19X). So far, the Chesapeake Bav Program has proved to much of the reclaimed shore. This has radically altered be a flexible mechanism for improving the quality of the Hong Kong's shoreline ecology, eliminating most man- Chesapeake Ba%; and area leaders are hopeful that the groves and reducing the diversity of shoreline habi- gradual improvement in the Bay's condition will fire tat (204). public enthusiasim for the difficult steps ahead (199) (200). Aside from the direct destruction of intertidal, sea- bed, and coral commuiities, extensive reclamation 'H'ong Kong: A Study in Multiple Impacts around both Victoria and Tolo harbors-Hong Kong's two main harhors-has restricted tidal flushing in the Pressures on Hong Kong waters are far greater than harbor areas, exacerbating the already severe poliltion those on the Chesapeake, and reversing them promises problems there i205,. Construction of new airport and to beeven niore difficult. Hoig Kong is the mostdensely port facilities has required sonic 500 mi11ion cuhic populated urbani center in the world. The Hong Kong meters of sand fill, most of which has been obtained by conilrbation consists of several adjacent cities on the stiction dredging from inshore waters. Dredging has Kowloon Peninsula and ncarby Hong Kong Island. It is stirred up clouds of silt that settle on nearby sea grass home to 6.1 million people and more than 200,000 beds and coral communities, significiailtly reducing their large and small industries whose hyproducts flow ilito original extent (206) (20)T. two maljor and several smaller marine embayments (2oi). Raw sewage from some 3.6 million people flows into Located in the subtropical climes of the South China Victoria Harbor, giving rise to severe effects from nutri- Sea, Hlong Kong waters once boasted productive coral ent loading. Despite generally good water circulation in reefs and mangrove stanids and yielded abundant tile harbor, water qualitv continues to decline. Fecal catches of fish and shellfish. However, extensive recla- coliforni levels from sewage contamination, for in- mation projects along the Hong Kong shoreline, inas- stanice, are extremelv high, and shellfish contaminated sive pollution of the harbor areas, and heavy fishing with human pathogenls suIch as salmonellae, shigellas, pressures b oth in nearby coastal waters and in the more and hepatitis viruises are common 20in. In 1998, a distant wvaters of the South China Sea have exacted a hepatitis epidemic involving nearly 1,400 people wias major toll 2021 k2031(. tracecd to the consuimptioni of contaminated shellfish Because inuch ofthe HongKonigcoast is rathersteep, (2719). Dissolved oxygen levels have steadily declined in reclamation has played a major role in accommodating harbor waters, and some areas where water circulation World Resources 1996- 97 75 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources is poor stiffer from permanent or intermilitrenit anoxic project. The first phase, now under way, involves reconi- coniditions. In nearby Tolo Harbor, a smaller em-bay- strucrioil of urban sewer lines. The seconid phase will ment with very restricted flow that receives the effluents inivolve conistructioni of a large sewage treatment facility of I mlillion people, coniditions are nticci worse and on a former islanid in Vicroria Harbor. The final phase anoxic waters are mctih more extensive 211)). will he conistriuctioni of a marine outfall to transport Firtiher toxic insult to the harbor areas conies fromli treated wastes well bevonid the harbor waters. Marine indtIstrial wastes-solvents, oils, acids, heavvy metils, s warn, however that until the marine outfall is tannerv wastes, and other compounds-most of which built-ca - t ln~~~~~~~~~~~Uilt-which is ilor scheduled for aiiiotiei- dlecLide or h ave been, Llutl recently, dischiarged through the sewer liave~ ~~~~~~~~~~~oecesv been,li lodm ro swgevt1co systen. Agricultural ciemilicals and animal wastes from sonetoegratleng Kong urban wate w coi - ~~~~~~~~~~~~tminie ro degrade Hong Kong's urh ln waters ili nearbv farms also flind tlheir wav into the waters arounid Tta Ilong Kong. Shippiilg traffic is heivy in Victoria Har- bor, bringing with it associated hydrocarbon pollution. lenges the Hong Kong government is moving toward As a result the coastal watres are signlificanly ctnltami- integrated coastal zonle management. The planning de- nated with trace metals sucih as cadium1i.1l1 and organio- Ipartimieiir has issued maps thar broadly identify regions chlorines suchi as dichlorodippielyltrichilor-oethianie where development should be coilcenitrated anid is now (DDT)22 ?. comnpiIing a data base on the ph'sicaI and biological Marine life in Victorlia and Tolo harbors has reacted characteristics of the coastal zone for tise in future predictably. Severe pollution has resulted in long-terilm planning efforts (220). c.haliges in community structure, species abundance, At the same rime, however, conitinued expansion of an1d species diversitv of the biottom-dwiellirig orga nisils, the Hong Koig urban zonie threatenls to degrade coastal intertitlal organisiis, coral comm111u.nities, and fish. Toxic areas to tile east of tiC urban core where environmenital algal blooms, prodtucts of the persistent eutropilicationi stresses iave previouslV been light. In responise, efforts also kiiown as red rides, are commiiiioni in Tolo 1arbor. are tllnder way to esta blish several marine parks and In 1 9717, 2 suchi reti tides occurred, but in the peak year - ~~~~~~~~~~~~reserves to afforcl somie pr-otectioii to these easteri of 1988, the numbler rose to 38. The incidenice has waters, whiere coral reefs and other comilponenits of the dleclined somliewhat withi imiiprovemienits in wastewater iimarille c0omm11uni.tV are still healthy 221) ,2221. treatment il ( i [214) (II 2 1le,i. Honig Konig authorities are tryinig to mitigate thecse To the west, Hong Kong lies adjacenlt to o(Ie of the Hong~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~evlpn areas ofiort China Chinesenligteths po1llutiol problems in several w\ays. Alrealdy in place are Imlost rapidly deeloping a reas of China. Chese a number of laws that restrict effluent discharges fromi athorities have alreatly commenced port construction, industry and ships antI that reguIlate the d1lum1ping Of altil proposals arc in bliad for conistr-uctionl of an auto- dredge spoils and sewage Sluldge at sea ,2 I m. Local mobile manufacturinig plaiir antd other heavy industrial autilor-ities have conistrtIcted a chiemical waste treatmnicit facilities in nearby coastal are-as. These potential threats plait, and efforts ire l being niade to collect and process give weight to the argument that regional coastal plan- animal wastes as well 2 si. ning is urgently neetedt to avoid catastrophic declines in To address the largest threat to its aquatic environ- coastal ecosystenis not just in Hong Koiig but along the menlt-sewage-Hong Kong has laulichied a three-phase entire southeren coast of Clhina 22 i2 References and Notes 1. 1liii-1 N.iiii,i itiN.i Pl.eeiliioi OIm, shee, ;. Ijmgu . H.iId(it Dil. Nliriji. mid 1.ieitl Ii 1Ts. U gAiit) [eer Ilnvii liel lD'telepilit W'I e.el I Urlkmi_ctce Iielec Is: Ih' 1(99-4 :t iii'vil i.iiwe', Fee'treeeeeeeeential Puel ten jeti ([S. AllI) (I) Of h1tfeel Ftirmimeeetnc ti dr- Re''cte ec IN.. N.,e N,erk, I ni k , I lot.Th) ip. Ihll , I anrnl C [ n tii. I i e5t lue F I 0tes IeeTe1 Preegre,ii. The' Rule' eit lc (ilj ine Fe'- 2. ll/e, p'. 1-. I 99 ' ). Ii). ,ieeetettttcnial Maeeg(metee. 1 994 'litcit (LIN. .1., Dlieie le, ''Hu .ini 5tt i n..'' itt /. (-eerdle \cU I hiieiiii tee) i:ielS o h oi c. All), \f.isbIigioeei D.C.. 1994), p. C i.e'. It l.eel 1(Se' lie! L.e,,,l C(e''' '' Wcililt. ,1li.ilht, e 11,1',,, 1 I,II i 111 Ieee'telcl: . 1 ( l. 11, (. j). S (NeI,al Mi F'/it'. tile' m \ Bjlli.eit R. NXI, r e, \Vriglmiieg ii.4 ee imimeitt.il Klird,i, it A:., I . 11. ti/i it. i. t FeiritL- LI 11d'. it . tlei iel9e 1111t1 I.tk.ert.i. t1' Nil eP ie' l;e, - it 'emeetet \Vel. I-1. Pc1 e.ek it id Nittlie'l C'. i]ee,ck. lrC s m ( itie. d L.K., 1994e. p. I S (6, N.-. h Iilt/Aiegetoi 1'c)c4jp 1'1l. 4-x're epeeliitil 'eertliteld lIrRlei N:eerai 4. I1/iil. '1, I 1i4-1 . (/i. eit. S 1p. I te. R(Ne-iec 1' Ire iii. n Tbe Th e/e'i, l(al': S. ( )j. it. S, ii. - -. I'te'ce't'it.!' i111- R.'sieerieen2 Uerlbeat Hmieelii'e'r- 76 W''iurl'd Resom-o'ees 9 )96-97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources arty, Rutherford H. Plait, Roswan A. Rostis- Conservationi Service, Washinigtoni, 1).(C. 44. Dick Bryairrit tai.. "Coastrlines at Risk: Air tree. airdi Pamela C. NMuick, eds. (I he Utirirver- 1995. Iindex of Piotertiral Des elopmnent-Relared sity of Massachusetts Press~,.Ainhersr, 2 6. Erri ted Natiurls Cenitre for Hit roanH Settle- Threats ro Co~astal Ecosy stems.' Woirld Re- Massachusetts. 1 994), pp. 251-26,8. ients. Globral Report otn Huttani Settle- SOLurces lisrsirute (WRI) Indicator Brief 13. Iirrernational Council for Local Ernvrronr- meneta 1986 (Oxford Uiniver-sity Press,. )WRI, Washrirgton. D.C.. 1 995), p. i. nicirral Inrriatives (ICLEll, "Crtres for Cli- Oxftird, U.K., 198-7), p. 130. 45. Chia Liir Sieri, Stirgajr... res Urbain Coastal mate Protection: An lIrterrrarionalI Ca inpaigri 2 7. Cle so N.E. C) rserra and Josef Lertruranrir, A4rear Strategre.s 1fr MAnairremtentrt Assocra' to Redrrce Urbani Em iissrons of CGreen house 'Sari PatiO," c:rticS. \'il. I11, Nit. I i 1994i. trrrrr (If SIOUtrheast Asra ri Na tions/Unir ed Gases," ICLEI paper (ICLEI, Torornrtot, P. IO. States CriastalI ReSriurces larragemnscr Prot- 1993). 2 8. Errired Na tionrs li. N.), FPrpultiroin Cr'rtd, Iecr Techiri cal Pub)lcatrrions Series 9 (TIre In- 14. Developmeirr agenicies are rutiw begrnnrrting to .tnd Policies itt m-Iega-Citri's: Sao r aitds erratrorral Center foir Livinig Aquatrc sponsior srrrdres on the r urpaCtS Of u rbaizatsa- ( U.N., Nets York. 199 3), p. 16. Restotrrces Manrragerrentr. Nl.r i it, Pin)iip trion oiii the surrouirdioig natrirral resoLurce 29. Ibtid. P is,192, .7 Ease. See. for example, U.S. Ageticy- frr sInter- 30 IS gic o [tritoilDvlpet 46. Sari Fiancisco Esttuary Project M-ans.gernetse nationial Development (UI.S. AID). The ltin 30 i .Aei o r eri aIIeeIirtn on nnr tre, Stir Ft,icrsc Estaritn Prroject: /pact oif L'r/banization sir Natutral Rcsourtrres: i SAID). "Urbarsizarion ITTthre Develoipiog C uttrprebensrr'e Cruisers 'atrrir .ind Mainage't- Tetourati. Mroroccot UL.S. AID, Washringtorr. CouInrtrrcs," r urerirus report ito Ctorgress (itS. rtt'nt Plair iSari Eranrciscot Etl.ra ry Prtoiect, D.C., 1992i). AID, Washintgtoo. D.C., 1988). as cited irs Slan Francrsco,. 1992), p. 52. IS. Op. cit. 5, n.p. E~~~~~~~LrrSrOiir Sllrri e't d.r/. "VaIrrrrlg ili Ecoitioninic 47.Matthew Auer, Uir/ban ltmprcts itt tben IS 6 U. Ro[e ci. Whr5 ra Evrnnna Imparcts iif Envr itronmersa iPIroiblenms' A sr:ran Coasta/ Zrires of Develop/iniig Ciountrtires: A6. Rdnig K.e hite, E r/raron istnnl riritregt,t/n Crires," UIi nam Matnagement Proigraii nr % PrbeUI iscain~ilRclnnn Urban Designr (Johni Wiley' & Scins, Chiches' :i,shronigaper. d.C., 994e P.IL B3 nk trais for Alirtrg.tirits (U.S. Agerrcx ftir Inter- ret, U.K., 19941.go,DC. 94P.s3artiorial Deseloiiprteiit, Washinrgrtonr D.C., 3 1 - World Rcsiirrces Insi~tutue iri collIabori raint I 1)91 , P. 6. I 7. Richard Siren, Rodirey White, arid Josephi with the tnintier] Natiorts En vi roi rtrrerit Ptroi Wliitirey, eds., ,Sustarina/ile Cities: Ur/ai,rrz,- gra trusts' arty] the Untired Natrotrs Dci clip 48'p.vriv fRid sin osa e tliri andt the Env'ironmtient int Internrationa tedi 'oraine Vrl co e sr1.trceS Ceirter (URI.RCi)/U.S. Ageircy for Perspectiv'e )Wests'iewv Press, Bioulder, Co l0- I 99t4-95 )i3'%frd U'riisersrrrP ltc-, New Intiernat ionalI Des elctprnent. Central/ Amtier' rado, 1992 i. Y'trkt. 1994). p. 7 1. h.t' S ('rsts: Pltt~i/ies .tndi n Agr -3.endah fr Ac - it' i i URIC RC, Na rragarnwtt, Rhodtei Isl.rnd, 18. William E. Rees, "Ecologrcal Fiotoprints and 32. op it. 3, p. 162. i 9'92i. p. 7. Appropriated Carrying Capacity: Whrat L.ir. 33. Dorrald W.. Jories, "Hows Ur-bailizatiotin Al- 49 opci.7,p.-7 ban Ecornomics Lea yes Out," Envit irteiotncsmeegn le i esl t 4rgCrnrc.90%Oplcd iterra trat En. 6iritrciltc7nc arnd Ur/banizat'ioan, Voil. 4. Nit. 2 r Ocrtoser Erergv' Pta/icv, Veil. I 9. Nit. 7 i Seprertrber .NchrraelEniom tlTcnclAs 19921, pp. 121-130. I91 Ii, P. 622. sitsr.nrce Progr.r ir, Tangit'rs: Mrtnriip.l Pitt r- I 9. Carl Folke, Jonas L.arsson. a rid Julie 34 avdE D wlttdGie laktMaigr,:mintal Autdit ttndt Str.rtegyi r,rnnrris,stion Swer tzer, ' Reticewable ReStiarce A pprrtprrai- o3.DyilE rw IaidCIsCak akn f ric Eirrorpe.rio C:rirrr1rn 1iri ies/Errred Nsa- tioni by Cities," Beiler [)iscussiotn Paper Sc- Urthan Larrdi Markers Wiark," rI raft pa per titans Developiprrrert Progra tnsirrc/W rld Batik, ties No. 61 1 Bi)er Internatioal Institute inprepared fori rlic Llrbisati Ma nagriureurt Pti Washringttonr, D.C ., 1993), p. 2 ries No. 61 (Beiier Internartionalro, TIr Word Batk, a pit edoi Ecoilogical Ectilstinics, Stuck hitl[ii. SwedeTn riine, TeW rdBn,a toe n5 I - l)a id Sal vesen. WY'irhtlr/s. -I rt,atiigri/ Jants D. Bertisteirs, "'Laud Use Co:tirsde ra- Ret/rigDt-l pier gractsng 2nded 20. P.M4. Holligais and H.- de Bootrs, Lantd- trm siilanEr irrrrriINIrrg-(TIre CUrbani Lanrd Institute, W.tslrirgtigtol. rneirt." Urbnsai NI iangerIen t Proi,gr.rnitt rite199),p 21 Ocerair l,rterac tronts itt the Coastal Zoite 1)rSCLISSIair Pa per Nit. I12 iThse Wiorld Batik, )C. 9) s I LOICZ( Scietuce P/tim, International Washinrgrton, ID.C:.. I 994), p. 2 S. 52. United Natrorm iLl.N .1 Ecoivnomic aird Social Geosphere Biosphere Prograiurinec ( GBP r 3 Janlis D. Berniste[ii, " Lanld Lise (.orrsrdcr.- Cot misirsrio forsti Asia aid thie Pactific, State' Globial Change Report No. 25 1IGBPt. Stock- ITIVg- i UrEaiz/,rrratir itt Asr.t aird fbi Pa(iri/ hoalm, Sweden, 1993/, as cited in John LinjnUbn niomnilM ng-193 (U.N., Neiw Yirk. 1 9931, is. 5-2S. Pernerra and Dan try Elder, Cross-.Sectiira,t stieit," UlaIs argser r ri s DisCrISsItin Pa per No. 12 (Tire \Vorld Batik. Ž3. Erritecl Na rtions U.-N. i Econorniirc .rndc SirciaI Integrated Cosustal Area Planittitg (CICAP): \Washinrgtonr D.C., I 9941, p. 26. Commrrissitin for Asia ,rid the Parcific State Gtuidelinres alytt/ Princeiple's fir Coasstal A4rea Dev'elopmrenrt t World Coirsersvartion Urn ii 36i. I/rid., p. 12. f the' livir'riiitentr Int Asr. aird f/t' Pact/ic, Gland, Switzerland, 1993). p.27. 3 7. Op/. cit. 35, p. 1 7. 19 L.. ago,TaLn,19) 21 . Ariialf Grubler, 'Techniology." to C/aattges 38. O)P. cit. 35, p. I]3. 54. Oip. cit. 3, p. 162. iii (anid Use rnd Lant] Covrer: A4 (Gloa/l Per- 39). Op. cit. 3i5..5.CntftrciieaidErvrnicuadth spectrrve, Wilihain B. M-ey er arid B. L. Tuirner 4(.D rt d .Fel tt..C.se ettts fIsenriar fosa Siencsrute a fur En rvirrtnmrent rindth II, eds. I Cam bridge Err trersirv press, CITor- 40 e Dona r'd W.SrFtes: Air a.4 Coastultrt cti nd[ ofri I)nvelrnaipnlIsittir iii(iient.IirddsyOeea DecItip brridge. LI.K., 1994), p. 32 3. i/t/c U'mtedtrn tia Aeitsie AcNaountrin CfceVaitc sire1OAdFrinrstrnfrtded b)O I C .vlrgash Feveln- 22. Ala in Brta ud, "Ovesiew'." in Tle Hirniartand Atsitaospheric Admtos trsratinrr ini cuoopera- 7oititu'it Stut/y i ()DA, Li sOTUt, I 995r, p. 64. Face of the LUrhat Environmeltnrtt. r'i ie-nt t with she CJ S. Fish arid WilcIdlife Scesvicc. .56. Mlctrt tsiihtart FuEsvironmesnna1 I irrprervernrctr itugs of the Seconid Anntunal World Batik C' ntt Wasisn gtnirr D).C., 1991 ). pp. I - I . Pri-gra ni, "Tire Envirronmrental Iprofifs Icof ferettce' til Envtr'rrt nenltel1tt Stustarina/ile 4 I. O p. itt. 31I. TabIle 22.6s. pp. a3s4-3is. Ia k.ir ri 1990)." d raft psaper (Tire Woi ris] Dev'elopmtent, Isniail Serageldinr, M-ichael A. Crihein, aird K.C. Sisa ra nrak rishniarit, eds - 42. Oip. cit. I, pp. 1 14-I I 7, 14 3-I 50. Ii.aik. Waishinrgtnti, D).(., 19'51ti, p. 12. iThe World Bank, Washington, D.C., S,ep- 4.1. Wiliranm H. Frey arid Alders Speav,rc It,Thie 57* ( ip. c it. 3 1, p. 17 1 teouser 1 9-2 1, 1994). p. 234. Revisval of Metropolitan POrpLa111iro (rowsthi §8. LINS. Coitigress, Office oifTecititology Assess- 23. flIp. cit. .3, p. 162. siri rIse Uii ted States: ATir Assessmernt tif Firt]k- tiiilter nOTA., F,irirgv rut Devenlo pring Cairn- 24. Op. cit. 1, p. H 3. ~ ~~~~~ings frtm tintie I 990 Cen'sits." P'/ri/.Uitiiitt .titd trie, IOTA. Warshingitor, 1).C.. 1 991), p). I I . 24. LIP. cit. 1, p. II ~~~~~~~~~~~~ fi~evelotpmenr t Rceview . Vol. 1 I8, Nit. I i9 MO..~~ p. 16. 25. Data froin thec 1992 National Resou1rces InT- (iNlarcb 1 9 9 2, p. 1 35. senitory', U.S. Depa rriirenr o f AgricL1tiisre Stitl 610. DitUgias F. Barnes eci al.. "U.rbari Energy Trai,rmnttrn, Povserry. and tire Firs rirorirriern: Werrild Resouirces 1 996-97 77 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources Undersraniding thloeo h r: iH'ue ormrtunce Review' if"Pi/aird: MXinii (Iopt,r cu eision Parper. dfraft (The World [Biaik, hind Errergy iii D r,elOpiiig Ciountiries," dra ft (OIEC D, Paris, Oacr/er 1 994), p. 89. WVa diiigiori. D .C.. I1994), p. 7i. piper (The World K.ink, Washnigton. D.C.., 83i. lerzy Biorkiewi,ez it 5., "Etiviroirinerotal Pro- I1O3. Joior P. Bi ker e-t ,t., "KBitltigicrii Et fccts it 19941, p. I i. file of Karutwice,'' draft p.iper (The Wirrid Cha nges in surifrace Wilier Ac id- Base C:hicii ,- 6 1. Richa rd H. Hoicis e. --Edit0ries Introiduct ion: Ban IIk W a shirgi TI t)II, [ ) .C 2. , 199 1), P. IO). try, N APAIi Report I ;," irl Natiiiiai Acid LlJriaii Errergs arid the Ensvironmrernr iti Af- 86. Op. cit. 84. Pirei.ipit:rrtiri Assessimeiti Pringrrrin I NAPiAII, I c.,- Priey-c Prircy, VOLI 2 1, Nii.5 (May 87. Up. it. 8-5. p. I 1 - idi/ia Ve ,iii. n2 ( NaItAP , W irsl crrrird T.c, 62. ( p/. c it. 3 1, p. 6 2 1 me8 ni a lr Sni ii, aidota S.cir/gy ute Fei iiiy IR t 9911), p. I 3 129. 6 f3nrsef [irlln, EergyE m rnii ii- ledge, Lond(on, I 9913), p. 66.10.PrEvn, , Aifk:umL mng sI- iges iii tire Lirbair Sector." tirlirir Manage- ~~~~~dListry Expanids," A, td Nieiis. No. 2 (Apr-il rieirii Perugrirtitme Paper Nor. 2 (Tire World 1 p 4 995/). P. IO. Kink Washirngtonr, D3(1.. April l 991(. p. I - 90 'iik-shru F. Lee. "UrbliririiWaer Supply tird 11)3. Erivironrrrenrtal infiirirariiin Center. Fli'rvn's 64. U/n. cr1t. 3.11, p. 62 . Sariiinrni In Developi rig Counitries," iii Met- Dem)l~~id FUr,,t lTOlN i n? in'rmimitii'iti hit- 6.5. lp. it. 3 ;, p. 6 2 1. ru~~~~Tp ,i/fair Wattt' Li;i Cr itt//r ts Ini Asia atnd pirt fit Chinai. (Ens'fv iiiriuerti ili nfi rirrtio 65. Isp. it. 1;, p. 621. ~~~~~~~~~the Paci/ic ..1trIes E. Nickurn and K. Wfl (Cleiter, Torkm i ti. rch 1 994). p. 55. 66. 1/. cit. 55', pp. 29-130. hiarn Easier. eds. (Wesreiew Piress. BoLulder, 16 i-oa eerh(Mn l ebnigi, 67 Up. (itt. 33, p. 62 I . Coloirido, I 994), p. .1. 1 06. N ea Pir I eserc (i ii Ubnc m Airit/ttit,, / 611. lyirri Pi.rilkhr aid Vibhh otu i Shlkla,i,"l rf 9 1. Niriphysfi,al lisses, unih .is illegal coirite-c- PI' ut/riirn Narim iral Ac.idemiy iress, W;ish- zaitioiri, Eniergy Use arid (ireirihtiiisC Lffecrs tiotis ie irriltiirctitimiiii irerecrs, ciii ilso ic- igoi A. 91,p 9 iti Ecnmu nc iir Develriprienr: RcsriIrs (irain a clii ir tirr . large share i f pub)lic watieir hisse. 0 bingdi. DC. 9/,P (TirOss-Narrfiii,l Studys-I Ii)CYl 1gC07. h2/lrfogasdr.csmO PyiclGega ers Gl;ob/a/ Enr,ifri esentlopnige(.isir 92VarD ngi,PiOsLeu / felGig 105. David .-Rie idAftrr(frrii.A1 tric,, ~ nrrint/G/rig' V .phi'. LIn)imeesity r ifm.ricliesrer, Mancehester '1 D/riRo er car d Ai,itr'/.mr Gil/rmtirtr /tsi, 5. No 2 11I)995). p p. 8 8-89L. UI.K., (1995 (persmiral crmrr niii ciiarniiti. urenpSt Letrit a ir? fPn,l/t/i Atirt ir /i r,r,'i-: 0 6)9. Rilphr TOireie, " Fiiidriiigs and Pioliee Implfca- 93-. Ismarl Seraigelditi. "Wiurer SLupply. Sanifra- iit/( lnsrvtrTrtirir fir Earsteern Asfa tint tre tiiiis fruin the Lie/tnt I O, Rediictiiiii Prri- tfioii, -rnd Eniviroinmenital SLisr,riiabflitv: The Wr'str'r Par/lic Wo'rrld Widei Fiiinr toe Nil- jcci'f FIelrrt her iiian iual Corunceil fort Local Finaincinig CihalleiTge.' a kevriute aiddress tit tiire Inrernratfional, C lard, SWItLerlarid. Ntin Enrefironinierir.l niritaliVes, Tiironito, January The Melnrisrerrail Conference (iTi Dritikirig 1 99Th 1P. I1)0. 19 9 3), p. 7. Water and Einierriitinenral Sariraririn: liiiple- 70. f/rid. iiieiit rig Agenrd.r 21 (The World Knit k, Wa sb~ 1l09. Waltecr W. Heck, "Assessnieri rut inrop 'O. Jbid, niciitiiig Ageiid.i 2 1 (The World B:ink, Wash ~ ~~~~~Loisses feint Afr Pollutanirs in the tlirieid 71 )/. i. 6 9. firgtrri, D.C.., Niaibh 1994). p. 6.Stes"iArPohtn'Td wFOcl 94. NatiOnA Rcs,arh COL1111:11Si re," ir ir lit/rit iisjui/ irrWaterst 72 Op. cit. 60O, P.. 9 altiiaIRsa i oiic .Crtnt?W r atnd Grips, laritrs.l. NLicKenur1 nirlL Nit 7 )p. , it. 60~~~~~ p. 8 7. ~ ~ ~ )ua/its Pr itterrii,r: Sltae arid Lorca/ Strafe- h.i tier T. El- Ashen', eds. / YCrlc I. [iiivrsiry I. Cl/i.ill. 61) p. 87.gil's iNnfiriri Acarleire Press W,rslrnigtutti Pircss New Haiven, Connrrectficur, I 9149/.p 24 B. Brrwrtcnrder, S.SR. Prasad. arid N '.V.\i. D.C... 1986/. pp. 48-49. (( Lliinui. "D[yr ia tie o t FLi`iWhsOtd Ptk5ii iCS IIIt1 95. A rider Pr t orierw ski, "A Taste ( if Salt," I Ii). I.S. L onfgre,ss OIIfice ott Technoi ii gy Assess-, dia," Wtrr/d Dr'r''/iprrrr'trt Vol). 16, Nit. 10 IUNG Reports. Vii). 18. Nit. 4 lOerobler inceur (IOTA), "Lir/rrba ircrn Ozn nid x'h ((u-in 119881, P. 1 218. Fur greatier derail tin this 1 990). p). I10. Air Act: Pin/bternis ud Ptropots.rds hit stride, see ,rsr Woie/i Resririres lirsttLrite III c,l:tILro:itr wtiteiiirdNttii e' 96. Cbiina Nationirl Enrvrtirriientral Perirectriri C haligu,'' staf paiper ICITA. Wa,shfigtttt, eionircirt Prorgeairiiiitie miid rite UnTiterd NafoTIrS Ageitce (NEPAl, Report lzibit/e Stafte , ifb tDr'C., April 1988, Pp.- 45i-47. DIlese iri/si ti Per rgr.iinine, Wiry/r R'smrctiers EFur '..eittnrst fit C/rite I 994 (NE PA, Beijing, I I I - Jrohit IL. iirues, E-rvs Ht'a/tl': /ts Asst'ssrmc'nt 1994-95 I Usfoird Liii) versi ry Press, New 1995 r, P. 6. aun?Stautis ((AK I iirei.T it ira,1 OI. 1sit, I.-K.. iotr k. 1 9 94(, p. 93. 97 . Rtr.iigdej Srivredliarta, "Wirer C/se Grin- I99.3l, p. 42. 25 . it.60 p. 9 1. flicrs ini Karrgkok MeitrorpLiliran Region, Thai'i 112. Wi/finm Ni. Ciresl;iandri Edwin Doni.irls:ucii, U/i. 6(1, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~Lid,rrd" ini Meteopol/tuita Whater LUst' Grit/flits "Decne) tic d DiN Imckiil i Tree, turd1 I-rLrests 76. Jorset Leitinirain. "Urfsanizatirrr and Eniviront- f ir,ta anid the Pac i/ic, fairies E. Nickurni A ( hloltI Overview." Friresre P,iper Nit. Ieinc fIrl Silrb-Sairl,nii Atirie: Air inpuLt iii rite inid K. Wi/hlitii Easter, eds. iWesrview Press. 1 2(1 /F id ani) Agrietilttruri 0rgamiiiarrrn OI PO,tr- LI NCEli LI-ri-bn Axis,"N err it Pa per i The Bouildlee, Coloi/ra do, 19941. P1. I .37. teUie)N i rs rtr.I94,p World KBriirk, Wash inrgtonr D. XC:., Fe/te TrY 98. Ibid 1. thIp Unite. Na)tiopp. R5 7-594. p 6I 1995r. p. 16. 13 p i.IOSp.5759 77. ( p. fti. 6i1, p. 80. 99. (Np. c it. I. pp. 87. 5'9. 1.L ite . tii rv u irrPirmiirt 78~. Tnrience C.. Berisel. "Rteal/ Wroitlucl Pert- 1)10. Cirter Briaidoni anrd Rarie,sh Rarian kurtm, dteW nnH, tht raii . ut rri d ricrt n toir Uirba Miiarekers: Pirribleni r aid "ossd riEniromer./Srirge fire A4ir Pri//rtfiit fir Mr-e,5,tritir's r/ lb"t WiOrh/i Opportuities n tlle ebu Pr,ince, hilip-Asi, -," Woirld Brirk. 1)iseiissioni Pnaper Nit. Blacjkwrel) Pubit shersbr, Usxfton)rd . I 992 I. )p Prir aii t ill. tire Cesira ltr iminec, Phi pnr 224 (The Witrid Barrik. WV ,hni hIgtoii, D.C ., p. 122. (t .ire," No./i I.in! 94,4tt p. rIO. ,/5 te,' 199.1 , p. 140. I I -1. Doiig ( .itliii, cit., Clntimatte I Lnge Pr Ii/ir N~Jesse Cf. Rfbi i, I''F rse-un v oicy anil Ch.rr 1).KiEenritnics TeChitinrl N atmirrl I'rird Regiriri Intr/itutek WoT irnt/ln D.C'_/te (lii 995, :lrira ciii) PrrodiLrtrrrru iTi Stiregi1," Ert"I'eg POI/CIrsIEiiriis P Cihln i llr ntrtraLl PIirniir iiong l Gru Irittre W.stigtri 11 95,/p Vrol. 2-1, N-it.i (Nit' 99/i p. i 59isti,PtmngKrri,.in Nrit.l9l) SIt. tIn. it. 6(1. p. ~~~~~~~~~~ Eimirir nterirntf Prrotectionr Agency. .init ihi- I 1 6. lirrerg-ie irnincr.itl Purr-I ii Clinmrii Clihrige SU. Up. if. 6 0, P. 9 9. ~ ~~~riese Aetdierr rrf CGerological hrrtorniatiorri, liirC'( , "(PC: Synthesis Repiret" fitly 29. 8/1. 11/1). it. 9,P. 56 1. "Niajsr Envrironmrreintal Perth/ruts iii China," l99.i drili) (Worrld Mitetiorotitgrenl O%ngrri 82. up. c it. 79(bftest' Eniro'nrms ntir .ndr Dr't-e/ra/prnr'rt. .':rm i/LIit)rrd N, t iris ErviCri iincTur Pert- 8 1. 1 )p. it. ~3), p. 8. Voul. 4, Nit. 4 (Wintrer 1993-19941, p. 28. grammnue, ( erct.i I19951, p. 29. 84. Ol)g.r ii ,is,r i n for Eciolim ft Co-I)peer,io 1012. Eu isrOn Sbhill ee a!., "-V,ulu trg the FErrirtII ic II F-. lIiterria iiirial Eniergy Agency, W re/rf Fpittrts' triid Des cltipirreri iCEC:I)) C rriuIP oii Eiivi- lrinpnrts of Envirtiironentanl Problenis: Asinn I iriIr-k. 1995) Ueg.rri.rrr n etruri rrrruirtt,rt Preirtoriminnric, Errtier,rrmr'tta/ Pie- Cities,"- hr/tan NIii,rn,geirenit Programr Dis- CXr-Cpt'ratiium Andi I )CVer1s0r1rerit, Pnreis, 78 Woir/d Resouirces 1 996-9.7 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources I 18. A sif Faiz n .d Stlrh id Gi taian, "Nicotoria- I 37. RLitger Rosenbherg el at., "-Marine Eurrophi- Pu/loition Biul/c'tn, Viol. 211, N-. 7 989), riont tUirba nizaition, aid Air Pull ittit n," dis- ca riolt (a se Stuidies in Swedeni,' A cnlic., pp. 297, ;O1--3t32. CLIssion paper I Ihe World B.ink, Vol. 1 9, No. 3 (1I990), p. 107. 164. Op. ,ict. 5 2, p. 5-I19. Washinigton, D.C.. I 994). p. 19. I 3 8. Scott W. NiXOTis, "Mla rite Eiturophicarloll: A I 65. Thoni.t (,rig.ilunts aiid l,imes Opa luch, I19). tip/. -tt. I16. pp. .35-36. 6rowing Imnernait ona IPIrobletm." Am/ino. "Ma ngin:ig Cc tat,tlii ared Matri ne Sed i- I 20. tlitiited Natiotis Etiviroiiitnettt Priigra i tin Vol. 1L), No. 3 (I1 990). p. / . ineits. Macrtnc' Pu/n v I cro her I 989), p. (LIJNEP), Eict'trccnmnifct/ Data Repicrt I 39. Op. it. 13 3. 32 /99 /-94/ tENEP, Nairobhi, Kentya. (994). p. 140. Op. cc/. 137, pp. 102-107. I h6. U.S. Agenicy focr lotertnatiicn.al L)evelicptnent .329. ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~14 I . Malti K.thrui, ti/rich Hiocrtnar ni, and Ose (U.S. AID) ".The Imrnpac citf U rbcaniza ttttt itt 121 . tip. cit. 5 3, p. 126,. R ttd, "Satellite Detect ioni of Itncreatsed Cvs- Nactutiral Resotttrces: Tetotiutn. Mtori cci. 122. Op. c it. IO 1. p. 34. tttcb,tcreri, BItlotms int the Baltic Sea: NatL w.vst rkttipg Jp.Tpe (1JS. All), W:i shiopt tn, 123. David Nitsitanot, Edttcci ttdo GaistIl.t s, .tntd ralI Fluoctuca tiott t r Ectosvsretn (.hantge?,--I).C.. Nix .Iy1 992), P. 1- I. C r.tig Haley, "Effects f Gin tamtc itated SeLili- A4ntic/lii Vol. 2 3, No. 8 (I1 994). p. 469). 167. IbAc!, p. 3- 3. inetits oun Viability, Lettgrh, DNA. and Prit- 142. Sctttt W. Nixon, "Coastil Mirine Etirrtcphi- 168. Stepheti Olseti and LynTite Hile. "Cicists: the rein Ciotcent oif I .crv.cl Stirf Snielt. cattioni: A Defitntticmn, Suicial Causes, antd Fit- Ethtical Dimeneitsic," Pe:p/c'anc/ i/cc' P/ancit, Hvpii..testis pretciistis "' Mac i,cc' F,ccircit- ritre Concerns,- Ophi/e/ic: /nccri'rtciiini, V,l (.3, Nit. I (I 1994), pp). 29- ;1 mnctta/ R esearicb, Vol). 3 7 ( 1 994). pp. 1-2. /ourntal cc/ M.rteti Bto/cigv, Vo l. 4 I I NMarch 169. Op. it. I130, pp. 74-37 124. Susanncie S.t iii, Nit h,i med F.c oil. .cndc Robert I 995). p. 2 14. 1 7(1. Siepheti Olseti. "Will Intiegrated (o.tctsta.l H tiggert, "Effects cf 1.tlbt r.i tiory Exppstcire icc 143. 0/i. ccit. 1 38. M arnei r iaiisB tsaintbe h Sed inteitis (Conta mi na ted %vith ItP'oiycyclic 144. Op. cit. I130, pp. 23-26. Couistit ieticv Pint tbleit," I tccci atci (ja tsa/ Arouttiat ic Hvdr-oc,trbt it ton t Ice Heittcc tes 145. Op. cit. 53, p. 60. A,iatagemitcI'tt V,ii. 2 1 1199-3. pp. 20 1-225. of the Amnericant Oyster I .r.,ot rvi i I iri gtinic.c.- Mariceiti Ei vcrcinctcti R1esa'crc/c, Vol. 146. Op. cit. 130. pp. 203-214. I 7 I . The Wotrld B.iniki Tib' N. rnm/il k (cifi/d'- 3.5 II1 993), P. 1 3 I . 147. j11hni Briscrie, "When the CcIp Is Hall FutIll /tne's fur /cttcgsr,tted Co astalc Zoittc Ai:to.ccgcc- I 2.5. World Wildlife ftun tiilWWH F)cnil The Cotnser- I mpros ioi Water cnd Stnitaiiitio Services in Pet(h ol ak ahnrn .. vaioin Foucnda tutn, Gfictitiga cihe SiourieC: the Developing, World," Encc'r ...i,centi VolI. I 993. 1t pp I - I U. Steaic'gc's furRec/cci;tg Alctcii c~c/ sn,i35. Nit. 4 11993 ). p. IS5. 1 72. Op. c it. 13)). pp. 74-87. Waste iWXWF, Washciigtonit D.C., 1 99 1 1 p. 6. 148. Carl Bartitne, "Water QLtaliryV and U'rhariza- 1 73. Op. cit. 168. 126. Op. ,cit. I 20, p. 336. tiiiii ini La ti i Amter Li," Watcr /,Ic'rncaii ,mca/. I 74. Chesatpeatke B.c Proigr.t n, F/cc ittc,' rit/bc I 27. tIP. c it. I 25. Vol. I 5 ( 1990), p. 3. Chesacpeacke /iy,c 19 9i (J1. S. Encvirnmii ientalI 128. U.S. Congress, Office if Techcnolocgy Assess. l4 9(ip.ci. 47,p.2. PtttiuttAccy .sitrtt 1. Titetir, Ficcin.5 A ntceri,t's 3Tr,b"/ W/hat Nexvt 1.5)). Op. it. 93, P. 9 I 995).h sp.ik i. in InoiaITlSrie fccr Mciiiii,ipal/ Sc ldi Wastctf (UI.S. Goivern- 1 5 I . ()p. cit. 130, pp. 12, 61-62. 17. C hes,tpeake Regi Pr t gr.t/Iunh A CitizServic, ntent Pri noiitg Ol1ice. \',i shintgi tn, D).GC.. I152. Op. cit. I (0, pp. 2 3-26. (ii tile" I hesa pea he R egioniail In fi rinticiii v 1 989), p. 226. 1 53. Op. cit. 53., p. 60. Service, Riclintioitd, Virgitni.atitti/tred parnt- 129. Niicha el MlenvEec D. [eborirah Chapmatnt i, .1nd I 54. Op. cit. 5, p. II16. pltlet- Rictclttr Hel mer, cds., Gb/u/lc /rcchwit 'cer Qubit/t: A F-irst A,sc'ssmii'nt (Lliitited Na tiots I 55. Op. cit. I 02, p. IO)3. 176. Timoc t hy Henniessey', "Gotvern,tice .t id Eisiv roniicent Priogr.tinin ie anil \World Hea llth 1 .56. Dacndto J. Atinton, T/cirstiv Cities: Urb/ani Eicci- .enis: lThye Nia~co nag hteit u s tpttc rula Fitvs Organ itzaticon, GeTItVY,l, 19891, p. 42. rwinientecs anci Water Supply cIt Latini Amter- 1.30. NaioticI eseircl (itittcil, Cttttittitee ~ ca Ilitternarional IDeveloipmetnt Rese.irc li (.istat1 SIcct.gttc'itt, Voul. 22 (I 994), p. Wastewater Mania.gemetie for Co,cst:cl Urbani Fletrre, Ottawna, 1 993). p. 7 I . I2 Arets, MAca(igitg \X'asteictvtir In :sta/ Ger- 157. Op. ct. IJ110. pp. 1 77, 3 46. 17 ii t.15 bcc, Arec'is ) Ntitonl .I.Ac.idiettiy Plress. Wi sh- 158. Enitc(rotnmtentatl Defense Fctnd ) ED F) ii col' 8 p c. 4 psI9 itigrtti. D.C., 1993), pp. I T5, 26 I . l.t oratiiOtt Sit h the World Wildlife Fciiiid 1 79. K. Price et it/., "N tirrietir Enrichnient oti 1 31. Ic!,pp. 1 77-179. (WWFp Hout' Wet Is ic Wec'/andr: Th.e liyi- Chesapecake B,cy cud Its litipicr tic the Hai/- 1 32. Op. ci. 130, pp. 177_179. p.ccta of the propiisei/ Rev'isioins to ti/c Fed- tat oif Striped Biss: A5 Speculative Hyptcthe- cral WYei/andcs Manulcacc IEDF/ 'IWAVP. sis," Tr,tntsctti,i:ic ci/tcc' A4intit ic.ntitPs/cc'eies 13.3. Suisaninte Bad len etalc., "E flecis tof Eiltrrophtica - Washi ngrton, [D.C., I1992), p. 74. Society.l Vii). 1 14 (I198 5), pp. 971, 1 00-105i. tioiti lin Betiltltic C ommiunities IticIilditig Fish: Swedish West Coitis," Ambit/,, Vol. 19. Nit. 159. Rotbert Adleir, "1Re.tIIthoiriznig the Cleati 180. Oh). itt. 134. pp. 22-27. 3 / 1990p, pp. I I - 122. Water Act: Ltikiing nit Taingible Values," 18 1. Op. cit. 1 74, pp. I16-12. 134. Charles Officer ct .1/.. 'C hesipeaike Bay An- WVctee Rc'siources Bu//c'tii. VoI. 30. Nit. i182. 0/p. cit. 1-4 pp. 20-2 1, 1 1-42. oxia: Origitii. Deselopipoeiii, .ind Sigitiifi- 11 994), P. 802. 183. K.crl Blan ketnship, -Bluie (.rah 'lirvec' Raises cance," Sciecli' V:o). 22 1 (I 984), pp. 26-27. 1 6)). Thiomcacs O'Ct iiiiio r, Mucsse'/ W.ctch: Rc'ccnt )Lilestiotis A hitit Stitch's Hle,diri," Bay' /miir- 135.(c. I Mticeria it ed. " lisi IveiiOvyeitTrends iii Ciaasta/ Encviriiic, nt'iiic Qctalciv ct,\'tI .Nt I(iac I95.p 135. Gill Mackiernall, L-d., "Dissolved NaOtiietiiiin ncetnic . indNo.1IittMs rhhnuc9Adtcii.iii the ClteSaIpeake Bay: Prccesses .iitd Effects," sirNationa Ocesnictgtti nd. At.,oIp992i, p. 26.i 184. Opi. cit 7 6, pp. 12 1-I 38 Niarv land Sec Grant tcPitbhIica t ion Ni. UN1-i -rto,W sigo,DC,19i p 6 8 p 4 p 4 9 St..-TS-87-t(3 (University oti M riryatid, Col- 1 6 1 .Stinsuke Tanabile et at., "Persistent Orp.rioc- 15 p i ,p.1-9 lege Park. Marvl/nd, 98)p.1. 14.chlorines tonj:parnese (oitisal Waters: All In- 186. Op. cci. 1-76, pp. 123-1 38. irtispective Sotnmnry troin a Par Eist I 8-. Olp. c(It. 1 76, p. 1 3 1. I 36. Thtiitlas R. F-isher .itic Rohcbrt I). IDoiyle, Develtiped Na titit," AMariine Pu//hctioni Bit//c'- 1.58. Gleit Etipsner, LU.S. En vi rouicitental P rotecti cii "Nultrient ( Vc/tug cItl Chesipeake B.iy.'- it tot. Voi). 20. No. 7 i 1 989), pp. 344-35 1. ASgency, GCiesipeake B.ty Progpranm Office, D3issolcved O-svyeni tIc i/cc C/b'sapeaki' Ba 12 p i.S.p.565':aoi,MIyau,Arl19 proa Peii. essesciti! F/fic'cts.(,, Ia 1. \M,kkiernitan. 6.0c i.5.p..65.Aiapii.N r/ i),5pi/I95 es i. ed. (M.rv'l.nid Sc' .i ruit (iollege, oCt/legs' 1613. D,ivid Phillips itid SiliTiSiike T,in.be,cititiic,iii( Putrk, Nia rylantd, I 987) 4-5 "A)cIa ticI Pt illcitiITIt in the F.ir E.asn," Milritie I189. 1)/. ,cit. I 74. pp. I - 391) Woar/cl Resoutrc-es 1996-97 79 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources I9t). Stjre i\l.r) l,tvh I, ()li liticofili Ii, (nvr i, 198. .). it. 174, pp. I(1-Ii. 21L1 1. Dti Idt1hilltp',. Vi.ttc Nri.tl. iul I l rg:ilt Ftit.l/,I .4/ 1t imliiit.is /ct AlarvLf.oiis Tribit I W ). Ni. IliZALt1) (idlluln, Ll.S. N.atit.iIl Nitrillt chloriies in the (.it:itial Watcr c( Hmig ti %11 ritg.Lii's: int11I .Itil c Ftii.I/int I/ cis Fisluici S'eprice, N:ittnm l OCLt1iiL aitl Ac- hmilg, ' acnitn I't,iiiicit I nl,ll \ ,1. 2(0. /i,I Rc'Is ,IIn ' t' u alu (SIltm. ci It-imllctii Ad. iikrisr tr int C1 1-liectpetk Ke N' 7 1 989);, it 12h. Nitr.el andl A i lls, I 99.S.. pp. I I-}^ 1 i. Omtie, Aoin.tip,lis.SlirM 1 .Litd. \I.1 rL1 1) 9 1 22. 1 (p. - i. 201. ( L1'Jpr L~.% PnxlrleK,? >gr.)m Of)^iLe, .41w.... . ............... liel"1.r1.11 .. . ... iel.l.l4lQllitt.-)O I p. ()/ I... i-i.().1 ;li 6lf. IL, (I .b-ls iLeEk lit; Nt eiii (;I/rls: .4 .Nv- 1)-0. () ). .it. I S. 214. Briat Nltirti c ItpairtlallLltet [iLccltgN ;midtl tii.c ;,/ Tti/ iidaity .i.itr ,ats ins !/iT Itt>' 21() lBrian Mlcriol hi ii i' f r1lll I (i tmihl VWI Lhitiiliver,irv. I IIL ll(nivtrsits ) lcn2g Kcnll., ,,w JI( flB,.l.S. .hikin'n. m,ni.il.1 leietz dr [ Hwilg M
  • tl Ana,n41ganm'i in til Asi.i-l'Pa,ilfi lit- (9:. 1. Istpll Rae lltt i. llu. 2_ ( I 2 1 a';,. 201 , r. U2. tLitit:iI NI.irtiii t-iieKel l.tt it1 l tititl It1Tt e.- 4t-.ai;t;ii: .1 N\''-. it: /.gis s littr 2 (p. - 1 21. p. . 1. tt.tdIi'tl. t . ipmi. 1 ' 2 I(4 H li I cttgr:Ll (tit P ir i AkiBi.tpclis. SlarilitIi-1 20 (. M. N) Lp I.t.l r2(t).1' w.t.. S ( ). 91)941. r i. (8. 207. >. Irr. ~(;c1 Thi*cii., Ltt SeigritA' V./ 218S ()p /it. 214. (94. (litiea.ke lrit ....,Pnitgr,iii. ILziititititii(.ilSl nu.. . ....Ilt 1 >.lliiiltii., Vt,z.i, ,l. 28. N~t 4 ' uift. t a1. /. 214. Pi/II(t,tI. : AI e.suiii (l/ (ut Pitti tSS (i , lt i 94L 2 ')')41 . r . 22( 1. 2. ti 2(4 euKe. 1-.1) P Oiigr.iimi i(1 , ) iht:.ipu tlis Start- 2()0. ( ) . 21 It . 'Iii ;t 2'21 . (pp.. t 211. pp. hI-H . '*Ac B . P. 2i1. 2i . )/i1, . ii. p.84. 22. (()p. t 2 it . 1(1'1 2(4-ppi. Lid 9 95) p. 0/o. !W).. 1p i 1 1' pS 84. 2 J.i.1 .p.241) pft. ti). l'~l, (1.8. 2 1(1 10). it. 2i(l/ pp. I.;- 14. 22. (if. cit. 214. 1 9n f t.i I 74 pp. 22-2i. I 9-( 1 1 7I4- 1'1' 'P I - '2. 80 Worl(l Resouratcs 1996.-97 4. Urban Transportation T e lie rapid urbanization occurringacross muchi 1,000 residenits) compared with that in ialnV deseloped of the globe means not only that more people cities (where owvnershiip averages aboLit 50() per 1,(00 than ever before wvill he living and vvorking riesidenits) ;2;. Fven so, 30() to 400 m( orec vehicles are being in cities but also that miorc people anid more added to the streets of Bangkok eveivy dav \Y'ill rapidly goods will be making miore trips in urban growing cities suIc as Surabava, Indonesia, and Manila, areas, often over longer distancts. Ho[w cities-espe- Philippines. follow in Bangkok's footsteps, or will rhcy dially the rapidly growing cities of the developilng be able to implemienlit sound transportation policies to world-m1eet this burgeoning demand for Urban travel avoid rhe problemns of gri(dlock and pollution A4? has implications for the environment, the economic The high costs associated with uirb ranisporra rion efficiencv, and the livabilitv of these areas. are inOt inevitable. Indeed, considerable opportuLity ex- Cities have traditionally responded to travel demand ists to desigin more efficienit tranisportation systems and, by expanding the transportation supplX. In much of the in the process, creare more lisable cities. A critical stelp dcveloped world, that hals Meant building milore roads for developcd and developing coniltries alike is to mlove to acconiiniodatc an ever-growing -iniber of vehicles, toward manlagilig urban travel demand rathet than silil- therclby creatinig a niew urban fori: the sprawling mie- ply increasing theI sLIJplV-in particuilar, bV redciniig or tropolis. Motor vehicles offer ULindeniable advantages averting overreliance on the privarely oWIned car. sucih as speed and conivenlcice; indeed, dLiriig the carly In cities in the developing world, the grcatest trans- stages of development, motor vehicles are vital to eco- portation challeinge is to improve the mobility of urban iolioic growthli . I However, the costs of increasinig de- residenits and the efficiency of transportation systemiis. pendenice on cars in the woorlds cities are becoming all In many of thcse cities, motor vehicle oiwnership is still too apparent. These iIcIlide expenisive roiad bUilding and loW and land use patterns are still evolvinig rapidly. miainteiinance; clogged, conlgested streets that unideriniiie These cities have the optioii of avoidilig the mistakes econloirlic productivity; high levels of energy consuiiip- made il the developed world and deSigiilig lllgUrban tra us- tion, with its attenldanit economic and environnienital portation systemis that facilirate Walking, bicycling, aniid costs; worseiing air and nlOiSe pollution: traffic acci- public transportation. However, doing so5 Will not be denits; and social inceqLlities that arise whiciie t poor fiid easy. To alter the Currenlt path toward motorization transportation services increasigly uLina fforda Hle. could be as politicailly difficnilt in develop1ing coilitries These problems are evident to varving degrees in as it is in the ilore developed world. Neverthelcss, given cities across the globe and threaten to becomile pra-ticIu- the dr-aniatic growth of the \world's niotor vehicle fleet, larly acuIte in the developing vworld, where urban popu- especiallv in developing couinitries and coLintrics in trai- lations are grow-ing rapidly and denanid for miotor sition, the case for preca iltioia rv action to Iiiiiicar USe vehicles is expected to skyrocket. Bangkok, Thailand, in cities is strong 5,. for examiiple, is already plagued with ilotoriouislv high In the developed world, mniiiy cities are already heav- levels of air polltioll and congestion, eveni though mlotoi ily dependenlt on cars and haive a fixed urban formi that \ehiicle owilnershlipl per capita is low , 72 vehicles for ever y wvould be diffiCtIIt and expecnsive to alterI For these cities, \`orld Rc'soiirc'cs 199I -97 81 Urban Transportation the challenge is to improve existing transportation sys- zation, increaslig population, and smaller households), to tems and maiage urbai growth more effectively, in part economic factors (higher inconies and declining car by increasing the efficiency of existing road networks prices), to social factor-s (increased Ieisure time and the and providing attractive alternatives to the car. Improv- status associated with vehicle ownership), to political ing the efficiency and cleanliniess of existing vehicles can factors (powerful lobbies and governmiients that view the also help reduce fuel consumlilption and air pollution autonmobile industry as an Important generator of eco- nomllic growth) 9). URBAN TRANSPORTATION TRENDS lMost of tile world's vehicles are n1ow conceintrated in the wealthier regions of the world. In 1 993, memiher The transportation-related problems of imianiv of today's countitries of the Organisation for Ecolonoic Co-Opera- cities stem from a numilber of interrelated factors. Grow- non and Developnt (OECD) had 70 percent of the ing urban populations and increasinig houIselhold iii- worilds automolbiles (ioU (ri. At the ligh enid of the comes have led to a rise in car owniership, which inI tuirn countries is the United States, wlhere 58 percenit of has created a greater propensity for travel and a demand households own two or more cars and 20 percenit own for more roads. Increasing btusiniess and ind istrial activ- three or more 1'. (Car ownershiip rates are higlhest there, ity has sent more service vehicles onto city streets and at 561 per 1,000 residenits in 1993; the average for has prodticed more freight traffic. The dispersed form of OECD couinitries, exclidinig the United States, is 366 manv cities has also resulted in a demand for more roads, cars per 1,000 residents (i . (See FigLure 4. 1.) In all which translates into longer journeys, miore congestion, OECD countries, car ownerslhip continues to rise stead- and vet more fuel consumption and pollution (1). I and there is little sign, as Was onCe expected of "market saturation (14). Growth in Motor Vehicle Ownership In the developing world, car ownerslhip rates are far lower-ranginig in 1 993 from an average of about 68 cars The number of motor vehicles worldwide could grow per 1,000 residents in Latin America and the Caribbean from 580 million in 1990 to 816 million (excluding to 29 cars per I 000 resideints in Last Asia and the Pacific, motorized two- and three-wheel vehicles) by 2010, ac- to about 14 cars per 1 ,0()( residents in Africa i i). Yet, it cording to recent estimates c) Ix). The forces driving this is in the developling couIntries and the transition econiomiiies level of growth raige from demographic factors (urbani- (16! that the greatest increases in the nunmler of mnotor vehicles are expected (17. (See Figure Figure 4.1 Passenger Cars per 1,000 Population by 4.2.) (Growtlh r-ates will be particuila;rly Region and in Selected Countries, 1993 high. in East Asia and the Pacific isc. Most of the growthi in motor velli- cle fleets in the developinig world will Africa 14.2 be concentrated in urban areas. Pri- East Asia & the Pacifica Fl] 28.9 mary cities draw thelargestconcentra- tioll of velicles; in Iran, the Republic South Asial 3.1 of Korea, Kenya, MCXICO, an1d Thai- Central & Eastern Europe 7 71.5 land, about S() percent of the country's Middle East 1 44.6 a Utoinobiles arc in thlc capital city I (2o). Santiago, Chile, had nearly 90 Latin America & Caribbean - 67.9 aLItomIoIbiles per 1,000 residenits in China 1.48 1 99 1, almost 70 percent higher than United Staties g-!,;. M ;|561 the national average (21.) United States 2. ~~ . . ~'Y: 561 In ml'uch of Asia, miost of the OECDb \ e. 4 366 growth in the velliclc fleet results 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 fr-oin increases in thie ililibers of ii1o- (number of cars per 1,000 population) rorized two-whieel and three-wheel vehicles. SuIch vehicles are miore af- Source: American Automobile Manufacturers' Association (AAMA), World Motor Vehicle Data. 1995 Edition (AAMA, Detroit, 1995), pp. 16-18. fordable than cars for largc segmiients Notes: of the population and often serve as a. Excluding China and Japan. b. Excluding the United States. OECD is the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and a steppiiig-sto ie to cLar owlership In Development. Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and 82 World( Resousr ces 1996-97 Urban Transportation Taiwan, for instanice, two anid three whielers itiake up Mllore than 50 per-cenit of all motor vehicles i22. The Figure 4.2 World Motor Vehicle number of two- and three-wheel vehicles is expected to Ownership, 1970-2010 grow most rapi'dlv in China and India and in othter (millions) detiselv populated, low-iniconim countries. In India, for 900- examiple, motorcvcle owinershilp is increasinig by 17 800 percent annually 700 600- '.>.,, Transportation Choices and Income 500 Incoelie levels greatlv influenlce which transportation 001 n1ode peopIl use and the number of trips thev make. 200 Walking is the primary means of transpor-tationi inl Nairobi, Kenya, for cxample, because of the relatively o high cost of public rransportarion. Only the highiest 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 inconiie groups, roughly the top 0 rperceilt, use pyrivatelv v Developed countries a ownied cars in that city 124:. * Developing countries and Eastern Europe In geiieral, as incomes rise, tlere is a marked increase Source: Asif Faiz and Surhid P. Gautam, "Motorization, Urbanization, and Air Pollution." discussion paper (The World Bank, Washington, In vehicle ownership :i) For those who cail afford the D.C., September 1994), p.8. uplfronit costs of Ibuying tiem, cars providle a fast, con- Note: a. Eastern Europe includes the former Eastern bloc countries velijeilt, and relatively Inexplensive mode of travel, However, incr-easedi aLutoimobile ownershi p leads to ini- creased travel. In London, a household without a car ablle residenits to make 30 to 60 percent of all trips by makes abour three trips per day, whereas a househlold walking and cycling ,;m The dispersed urban form of withi a car makes more than five with tile two additional Australian and U.S. cities, by contrast, encourages reli- trips being entirely ne9w trips or trips replaciiig those ance on the cat. Even witilin the United States, a greater formierly miade by foot or bicycle. Trips by Public traiis- shart of work trips are made by cars in sprawling cities portation drop accordilngly 2. such as Ph(oenix and HouSton1 than in deniser cities such IncreaLsed wealth also means more car travel in the as New York and Sanl Francisco ( n. (See Table 4. 1.) form of both new trips, primiarily social and leisure, aid An increasing numiiiber- of cities worldwide seem to be longer trips 2h1. In some CouLntries, tile inuilier of trips is develop ing at a scale that increases reliance on the privately growiiig faster thaln the lmiiiiber of c ars. In the United owied automobile. Dispersioni is taking place in manv States, for example, between 1983 andc 990, the nulilber differeilit tpes of cities, from dense, centralized European of cars increased by 14 per- ceint, while the nuinbei- of vehi-cle trips grew by 25 per- Table 4.1 Urban Density and Transportation Patterns, cent and the nuImILIber of v- Selected U.S. Cities, 1990 hicle miles traveled grew by Percent of Journeys to Work by 40 percent (2s x) These Means of Transporta treinds have implicatioiis for Density Average Number the developing countries as C (number of people of Cars per Drive Car Public tl1e developil1g coul1tries as City per hectare) Household Alone Pool Transportation well, especially those experi- New York 92 0.6 24.0 8.5 53.4 enciilg rappid ecoiionoic San Francisco 60 1.1 38.5 11.5 33.5 growth. Chicago 47 1.0 46.3 14.8 29.7 Boston 46 0.9 40.1 10.5 31.5 Los Angeles 29 1.5 65.2 15.4 10.5 Urban Form Portland. Oregon 14 1.4 65.0 12.9 11.0 Houston 12 1.5 71.7 15.5 6.5 The form of a citv greatly Phoenix 9 1.6 73.7 15.1 3.3 inflLu ences-and is iinfllu- Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Country and City Data Book: 1994 (U.S. Government Printing Office, eimced byw-travel patterns. Washington, D.C., 1994). pp. 650-837. Notes: The dense urban cores of a. Includes workers age 16 and over. in any Lu ro pea n a nl dii f a pa - b. Includes bus or trolley bus, streetcar or trolley car, subway or elevated train, railroad, ferryboat, or taxicab. nese cities, for cxailiple, nl- Voldd Resoiirccs 1996-97 83 Urban Transportation chailige is oCCurrinig at a slightly slower pace I-l. le same is trrLe for some large, niddlC-IIiCOiltC ctircs of the developiing world, sulclh as Sao Paulo, Brazil S]). l)eceu1rr;alizatIOni of people and activities reSLlts iII two con_trdictory effel cts: cor-ll vhich loow occur fromn sub- Ir1 t S.uburb, are sln Iorteetd, buIt iMost of rltCin are t Mad bV riv ately owned car- rather tlhl in Public transportation _Misr mtnrasit and I c a li ss stCils wrcc developed to fa- cilitare suburb-tn -city, rather rhaln subulrh-to-subui lrb coi0- inLriiig. AS a r-esuiIt, subl-ball Urban sprawl. Heavy reliance on private cars andlow-density urban form have created sprawling rimdwivis alrc of te nas coii- cities. especially in the United States and Australia. Here. an aenal view of Perth. Australia. tgo.Sted ;1.1 vt1;11|a] ro;dwvs.ls oIIes such as NIaildric, Paris, anil Zuricl, to rapitlly As cities contillUi ro btcomiie dLispersel, the cost of indulstriallZilig Capitals suIcIh as Seotil Republic of Ko- tildiing and0t operatilng public triansportation svstemiis is rea, anl BuLenos Aires, Argentina, to those experiencing becoming prohibitivc ['Urti critt orc, the tdispersetl resi- rampanit uirbaii growth, sucLh as Bombay-, Intlia . C( ars tientiilI pattcrn makes public transportationl systeims less alrc nlOt thc solc C uilSe Ot Urban expanslio-factors suctil conveniieit foir the alverage coiiiiiitmrCr (4m. Io New 'York, as piipuaniotn groiwth aid land mal rkets allso play a tiespire 10 years of i ovcstiieilt, ptihI ic tra iisit rider-sh ip role-but caIrs do make cxpasiunon feasible c i dec1 ellefi fron 4.8 Xn illion per cla;y in I 981) to 4.3 mill ion Iln thel mior-c levelopel regions of thte world, trh per day iin 1992 )41. historical cenitral biLsiICss tlistrict, oiice the primary in muILCh of the dleveloping world, tiplann1il0leci aiid destinaition of coiliiiititer-s ancl easily' serviced by pubhlic uicoortlinatctl lanti dcevelopmiuenir has lecc ro rapitd ex- trai-sportration, is being rendleired obsolete by cha nginig paiision of the u rani periphery. Pooiier residenirs are maliilti faCtrnuiIng practices, , 4,I. Whereas tradlitional 1 ma1o- oftrcii isolated in outli int, areas wvithioit access to affortl- facrtirinig depetietl on ecinra-lizetl work places aiicl abIe anti ConIvenlielt pLiblic traiislnro-tatioil i41. tranisportatioii schcimes, adtivainced rtechnology has rten- tleretd iiocieru intiustrv miore flexible. As a resllr, jobo oupportiiiities have shilftrl to the suburirbs. IMPACTS OF URBAN TRANSPORTATION D)ispersed Urbaii laud developuie nt pattcrns have TRENDS beeln p)articuLlarly mani fest ill North America, wlecre laud is abundtincit, rhe transportation costs for iiichviditll- These tirbanii tra nsportation trciilIs are exacting signitfi- als are hiw, and the ecoii0imv has become dominma tetl hb caiit costs in cities in both the tleVe(lpecl anti the service andt technology-hasetd iiiduistries sLich as sott- tdevelopiniig worlc. ()Oe is si iiply the dlircct fiiianciaI warc dcvelopimenilt and enterrainimiienr. In tht LInited cost of provicinig aid maintainiiug the tranusportation States, by 198) onlI 9 percent of thie mietropolitain infrastricrLtire. hiivestling in rthc transportation infra- PoU larnon workeLd in the ceintral citr andl only 3 percent striLctu rt is essent ia for economic growth, I ncreasing of subu rba nires comiititrc ldloivntrowin ;s In aiddini(mi, prdLIcLitiVirV aintl (ual i ry of life 4;i. Fspecially- ill the traivel has become relatively inexpensivecomipared wviti poorest develOpinlg couiitrics, where the lceigth of laniid, SO hOiSCehioIcS hIa C alii lilceitiSve rO bui liower- pnav'et roadway per Oiie illloioi residents is 25 tiiiies priced houlsing at thre Urba n perliphierv evein though Iss thlilan that iIn veIVlopCe cd CoUlitriCs, ilmprovilig the living thele ret]iiies iiulc miore travlel I . SitoilaLr Pat- tranosportation iniifrastrLuctI.C is a key factor in providi- ermils Can be fotlod in miany ti i FL prean citiCs. Lit the iiig acccss to jobs and tablishiig I raI and urii 84 W'or Rc/ orc (s - s 1J9')9.-')7 Urban Transportation trade links 44,. However, inefficienit operations an td inadequiate maintenance are translatinig into lar ge fi- lanclial expenditntres ithout the expeedc benefits. In r suIb-Salial-ran Aftrica, for example, roads vaIltLied at al- - _ 11hOSt Si. 11Ioiin ha se erodLed beCaUSe of a IlIck of 111maitelal.nce i Transportarion's environmicntal and social costs, MS althougl perhapils less q;lnatifhable, are no less illIpor- ranir, becanise rhey degrade quality ot life and tindcr- 4 Illine urban prodnLCtivirv. 1hese impacts inClude ig , r congestion, energy coiOSti mptiol, local and global air poll UiruOm, noiSe IpoIllutiOn, traffic acee;cidets, antSd so- cial inenitii s.cs ; Congestion Congestioni is perha ps the most visible maillifestatioii of - - the failtires ini urban transportation planning. It tindler- minles the central purpose of the aitornobile: readi ic- y access to people, goods, and services. (Clog 'Ced cirt * streets exact a major toll oii ccoinomilc prodLuCtivity anti - - _ 2 exacerbate air 111nd noiSe polltitiol. In many' citics iI apan. India, China, and Iidoniesia , peaik period (I-rsh hOLIr) speeds in itry centers cousis- tentl diccli nethroughout the I 95()s ththe pLoint that rt da' traffic creeps along at less rhani 1( kilomiictel-s per hour 14. rlaps rhe niost nlotoriolis eNxaiilpIc is Bang- - kok, whel-c peak period traffic speeds iti the city ceniter ' - declined by aii average of 2 kilomicters per hou r per year 4 _ in tile second halIt of the I 98)s. As a resiIlt, anavlerage - . ( call in anigkok is estimated to spenid the cquivalent of Gridlock. In citles of both the developed and the developing 44 - world. average traffic speeds have declined dramatically since days per year sttick iii traffic r~ the 1970s and 1980s. In Bangkok, above, an average car is esth- In deve )ped cotIn tries, congestioon afflicts large a in1 mated to spend tfe equivalent of 44 days per year stuck in traffic small cities alike. A study of cities in OECD) cointries fotinthar in virtual y every' city, Speeds in the Cceira-Ll Energy Consumption and Air Plollution buisiniess distr-ict have decl iied rlLl maritcak.I Since 1970) 414s. In the central blSilness district of cities as diverseta Transportation tetliireshuge amountsotnergy ( ashallv MNa nchiester, Uniii ted Kingdom; )iOla, itrlalyv LIt- 21) per'cinr of 1ll energy prt dtCtice is uIseL fol- traislportl- sniiom isia, lapan; andl Troiidhleini, Norway mioriing tion. ()f this, between 610 and 710 perceilt goCs toward peak period speeds were 21) kilomieters prel 11ouir or less iioVinig peopI,I anl rtIe rest toward moving freight (s i2. in 1 99 0 (4). In OFC L) countries, transportation uISes an1 cvcn larger C otigestioni is frcquently the restilt of an iIstSiffiCieiit shlrc: abotur t I pcr-ent of all enCIegy tise in I 99 I 01i. rotad network, aind thuis evenl a relatively few vehicles Transportation is heavily oil doiuiiated; ahour half of the Can CaIuse intenise gridilock i,. Yert, expzanding tIle road worlds oil is ct nstinied in the transrtation sctor C netw,ork is ;rarely an adequnate soltitioii. In iallny citics Energy consui mptnion in rhe transpi ortarion sector is in the developing wold-,t suich imlprovecnlits are beyond expected ro growv in botIl the deIvelopCde d atnd the dCvel- a city s fi nancial I resouil-ces. Ill addition, road conlstiu- opCing worl SS. FronI 9-r I 992, xvi rldwide energy tionl reqUires vacant lanldl: in very' dense cities sticlh as tise in the transportation Sector grw oni aiverage 7 BCangkok and Slhanghai, China, azdlitional roiad coil- perccit per vea; fastrCl than IildtistrV or other cncigxy end strlLtioll onvotild riequirc clestroi ilg cxistiilg buildings usesctors iwt i-). Tis energy conilptiottircotitiites anid/or displacing iniformlal settlements. M\lore iilpor- to iothi local and global air polltitioll and prcsents an tanilt, aniV iicrea se in roimd capacity' rends ro lbe qti-cklv ecollomiic bIrdlen, especially in Ciitinltries tllat i1)lo0rt eL11- sWvmrped 1b) new travel. erlgV resor-ces. (See Chapter 12 , "-ner-g a;n1d Materials.") ,r/d R cstourocc(s 19)9(1-_)7 85 Urban Transportation Indeed, motor vehicles produce more air pollution troduced in miiost Latin Americiiii counltries, Malaysia, than anv other single human activitv .ss. Nearlv 50 Singapore, Taiwan, and the Republic of Korea, al- percenlt of global carbon monioxide, hydrocarbon, and though in miost cities of the developling world, ambient nitrogen oxide emissions fromli fossil fuel coLmbustion lead lcvels still greatly exceed the health standard of I come from gasoline- and diesel-powered enginies 'i41. In microgram per cublic mieter c In ( air, for examiiple, city centers, especially on highl' congested streets, traf- aiblient lead levels of 1 . microgramls per cubic I eter fic can be responsible for as mucII as 90 to 95 percent of are con illotI &,, f,(,. lead levels tendL to be especialIV higi the ambient carbon monioxide levels, S( to 90 percenit or along roads witih heavv traffic densitv .r'si. the nitrogen oxides anld hydrocarbons, and a large portioll The impacts of nmotor vehicle emiissionis extentd far of the particulates, posing a significanitr threat to humnan beYond thlC local area. The transportatioln sector is the health and natuiral resouirces oti. (See Table 4.2.) (See Im(ost rapidly growilng source of' grecnlihoLse gas emis- Chapter 2, "Urban Environment lalind Humani Health," sions-rhat iS emisions of clica Is that hali,: the and Chapter 3, "Urban Impacts on Natuirall Reso urces. ) pottlpotential to contribute to global warining i( These In the cities of the developed world, car emissions i r r n pose the greatest threat to air qualtlt. In the Ulited ide carholl nzocorofluorocarbons( ahouts States in 1993, transportation sources were responsible oXI for 77 percent of carbon monoxide emiisiolis, 4.5 per- percetnt of carbon dioxide e nlilsslois fromi fossil fue tise ,~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~c me , rCoitfOIl the traoSp)Ortaltion sector Ti.1 ()F.CIL) counl- cent of nitrogen oxides, 36 percent of volatile organlic e f o nsfortatbou rctt ofCDe couse compounds, and 22 percenlt of pirticulates h .In the tries ai-r rcspoI sl p European Uniol, pollution control measures have leen gls emilssloils attrired to ransportation 72. [low- initiated over the past 20 years to reduce nitrogen ever, the share of C1t1issioIIs froml developlng countries dioxide levels, bLt these measures hiave been offset by is expeted to rise U1 the future because of the growing increases in the numbers of vehicles on the roadc il l sizes of their innoroi- vehicle flcets and their use of less the United Kingdoni, for exa;mple, aver-age contceitraitionis efficient fuel-hliriling techin)ologiCs 7 i of nitrogen dioxide increased bv 35 percent froim 1986 to 1991, mainlv as the result of increased eimissionis by miotor Noise Pollution vehicle traffic 63.- Traffic noise-fronm the c nsrair drone of passing cars In the developing world, automotive air ptolltition is amitditrLucksrotolesoulnl(iofscreechilnigtires, blaring horns, mostly a problem in large cities witi high levels of traffic, radios, atd car alarmis-is extensive iii urhaii areas. such as Mexico City, Bangkok, and Lagos, Nigeria. In other cities, power plants, factories, Table 4.2 Contribution of Motor Vehicles to Urban Air and other stationary sources Pollutant Levels in Selected Cities, 1980s and 1990s still cstititute the greatest Percent Attributable to Motor Vehicles threat to air quality. However, Suspended even in some smaller urban Carbon Hydro- Nitrogen Sulfur Particulate centers such as Peshawiar, Paki- City Year Monoxide carbons Oxides Dioxide Matter Athens 1990 100 79a 76 8 130 stan, and Kathmandu, Nepal, Beijing 1989 39 75 46 X X air pollitioni from motor vehi- Bombay 1992 X X 52 5 24 cles is becominiig an increasing Budapest 1987 81 75 57 12 X Cochin, India 1993 70 95 77 X X problenm (64). Colombo, Sri Lanka 1992 100 100 82 94 88 Motor vehicles are also a Delhi 1987 90 85 59 13 37 significant factor in lead emis- Lagos, Nigeria"d 1988 91 20 62 27 69 Los Angeles 1990 98 62 84 68 lie sions. An estimated 80 to 90 Mexico City 1990 97 53 75 22 35 percent of lead in amiienlt air Santiago 1993 95 69 85 14 11 is derived from the cornbus- Sao Paulo 1990 94 89 92 64 39 tion of leaded gasoline. Recog- Sources: 1. Asif Faiz, Kumares Sinha, and Surhid P. Gautam, Air Pollution (rom Motor Vehicles: Characteristics. nizing the hiealth threat, iitost Trends, and Impacts, A World Bank Report (mimeo), The World Bank, Washington, D.C.. 1995. developed cou ntries haive re- 2. South Coast Air Quality Management District, Appendix It-B: Air Quality Trends, 1976-1993 (South Coast Air Ouality Management Distrct, Los Angeles, 1994), p.7. duced the lead coittent of gaso- Notes: a. Applies to road transport only; values listed under hydrocarbons represent volatile organic com- line over the past decade. pounds.b. Includessmoke.c. Percentsharesapplytoalltransportationmodes.d.Doesnotinclude biomass. e. Directly emitted particulates less than 10 microns (PMI 0). X = not available. Unleaded gas8oine has been i- 86 Wtorld1 Ressoulrces ')')-')- Urban Transportation Noise pollutionl can damage huLimani hearing and affect cation, recreationi, and shopping are often located in psvchological well-being, as well as decrease property wealthier areas in the citv center. In Santiago, Chile, the values (7is An estim;ated 100 millionl people in OECD poorest residents tend to live on the urban periphery. coulitries are exposed to traffic noise in excess of 65 The majilority of their trips are over long distances, and dB(A) (higher than the 55dB(A) conisidered acceptable) thev' must travel bv relatively inconvenient modes, either s(6. Althouglh data for developing coulti-ies are scarce, by public transportation or on foot For those in the data collected a long heavilv traiveled roads in Bombay, richest sections of the city, the ma joritv of trips are over India, indiciate soun(d levels of 65 to 85 dB(A) (-17 shorter distances and are made by privately owned automobile (X-l. In Sao Paulo, poor people can spend 2 Traffic Accidents hours or more traveling between home and work (88). Similar disparities exist in manv Asian and African cities. In 1993, an estimated 885,000 people died in traffic Members of poorer houselholds also tend to spend a accidents -s. The mzaj(oritv of these deaths were in the larger percentage of their inconme on travel than do developing world, and traffic accident deaths are a lead- members of wealthier houiseholds (s89. In household ing cause of death amionig people in economically active budgets, the cost of the breadwinner's trip to work is age grouIps (-9X. In India, for example, roadway death usuially the top priority, w*hich sometimes means that rates (road deaths per 1,000 vehicles) are 1 8 times trips for schoolinig or health services must be sacrificed higher than those in Japan, amounltinig to 60,000 fatali- ;4U). In Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, manv residents cannot ties per year ,s(i). In genieral, urban traffic and pedestrian afford bus fares, and even a bicycle costs, on average, accidenlts formi a higher proportioni of accidenits in devel- about four times the monthly minimnum wage (9i). Thus, oping countries than in developed countries , SI. access to affordable transportation services can greatlv Each year in the European ULnioni, 55,000 people are improve the welfare of mans' poor families. killed, 1 .7 million are ini ured, and 150,000 )are perma- nently disabled ias a result of traffic accidents (821. In the former Fast Germaniv after the openinig of the Berlin MOVING FORWARD: KEY STRATEGIES Wall, the suddeni Increase In automobile use is cited as a primary factor in the doubling of traffic fatalities AND TOOLS betweeni 1989 and 1991 ,s 1 Faced with rising transportation demand and growing Social Inequities negative impacts, urban areas require new approaches to addressing their transportation needs. Cities cannot The dispersed patterns of manyv of today's cities, made continue to expand their uirban transportation systems possible by the availability of motor vehicles, contribute forever. Although some expansioni is necessary, the eco- to social inequities as well-chieflv, limited access to nomic, social, and environmental costs of doing so are jobs by the urban poor as well as proportionatelv higher prohibitive. Instead, cities need to reexamine urban travel costs. These problems exist in cities in both the transportation demand and devise new strategies that developed and the developing world, althougih the provide maximum access at a minimum total cost. causes and symiptomiis are somewhat differeit. A numiiber of policy tools are available to reduce In the United States, suburban flight has left the urban excessive travel demand and create more sustainable poor concenitrated in city centers far from jobs, stores, transportation systems, from road pricing to increasing and entertainimiienit services that have relocated to the the efficiencv of existing systems, to expanding public periphery as well. lJnable to afford cars, many poorer transit. Most of these tools will have a limited impact if dwellers in the city center must rely on public transpor- they are used in isolation. Instead, improving urban tation that rarely adequatelV serves the suburbs. This has transportationi systems will require a combination of played an important role in limitilig job and incoine policies that reinforce each other and help to avoid opporttiunities (-4). In Detroit, for example, about 40 adverse side effects Y2m percenit ot the cenitral-city population does not have a car, yet most of the new jolbs in the regioni are in outing M a T suburbs 8i, I ~~~Managing Travel Demand suburbs s' 18I0Sr. In cities withi large segimienits of low-incomiie groups Lcz,id Use in squatter settlemenits at the periphery of the urbani area, similar forms of isolation and inaccessibility exist Perhaps the greatest opportunity to reduce the negative because opporttilties for employ'ment, advanced edu- impacts of current transportation systems is to influence World Rcsources 1996-97 87 Urban Transportation land developnieilt patterns. An integrated land use and Brazil, is a notabl le examiiple. By chaiinielinlg i than transpor-tation strategy cani increiase the accessibility of growth along pubi ictransit routes, the city h as managed johs, shops, and other facilitics witlhout increasing the to reduce privately owvned car use, despite halving the Ineedc to trivel by car. seconid highest per capita car owncrslilp rate in Birazil Many urbatn planini'ig models have proposed ways (one car for evcry three people). On a typiclal workday. to reduce rel ariceon the autOm1o(bile. Soime pointto the Ilmore thaii 70 percenit of all comili-Liters (I . 3 mill ion compact city as the ideal, where high denisities facilitate people) travel byv bus. As a result, Curitiba's gasollinc Use walking or bicycling an(ld buses or subways are cost- per capita is 25 percenit lower than that of eight comipa- effective alternatives. The mixed land Use m odel, where rabl)e Brazilian cities, and the city has niie of Brazil's homzes, jo bs, and stores are clustered together, can re- lowest rates of am bient air poll tion i iC. I)ortland, duCe car trips and address the problem of deserted Oregon, is using an integrated transportation and land centra-ll business districts at night. Other m)odels presenit use strategy in an attempt to heaid off the probIenis of the ideal formi as many siliall, self-sufficielnt uLrban cen- sprawl aiid inner-city deeaiy typical of many UJ.S. cities. ters linked ly a public transportationi systemii. Gre-en- (See Box 4.2.) The iniportance of linking transportartion belts, greeiiways, and urball g rowthi boulidaries-large and land Use is discussed ill detalil in Chapter 5, "Urlia tracts of land on1 which urban development is prohil- P'riorities for Actioi. ited-are heralded ias effective mieanis of protectilng ftal-Ilaild alnd preventilng urban sprawl (9 ;) 194i iii. Liii- Fill-Cost Pricing fortunately, these measures are neitller easy to imple- One of the mai1jor factors contributing to urban traiis- nment nor guaraniteed to succeed. portatioii probleis is that people do not pay for the full Neverthleless, evidenlce liniking urban formi and trans- costs of their tra vel. Motorists rarely pray enough taxes portaitioi demand is Co11ipellilIg. Various studies suggest to sLIpport the investmencits necdCd to conistrict and that in cities with rclatively hi igh resideitial deiisities and repailr roads. Nor do car or gasol ine prices reflect less a balance of jobs anid housing, people travel less, make tangible Costs such as the negative heialthi effects of shorter trips, and walk and bicycle more often. In the autoniotive air pollutioMI or plroduCtivity losses incurred United Kingdom. for examiiple, national survey data Iv tra ffic delays. show that travel varies accordinig to deiisity. Travel These costs are substantial. At a national level in the demiiaiid quickly rises as deisity falls helow 15 people United Stares, valious studies suggesttlat iilotor velicle per hectare and falls sharply as density exceeds 50 use iiiiposes on society estiniated external costs of imore pcople per hecta re 9)W. However, evidence is not suffli- than $300 hillion mI(',) 'H(4; (Iu. Inll urban areas, where cient to recommiienid an optimal density or settlemenit negative iiiipacts are concentrated, the cost per velicle pxattern. (oniparative studies are generally limi ted by distaiice traveled is probably higher. Althlouglh Much has data constraints anid Coiifouiidiiig factors sucIh as fuel lbeen writteii in recenlt ear-s about estimating the ullpaid prices, levels of autoniobile ownverslip, and Cultural Costs of travel, estilmaiites of the fLill costs vary siginifi- Values (7)h. cantity are slI jeCt to much dispuLte, and1 sloio Id be Fu rtlrermore, textbook solutioils rarelv tramislate iiito coisidered oiiIv rougi a pptoxiliations reill-life successes. Loiidoii amid Seoul, fainouls for their Moving toward rccoverinig these costs wouild help to greenblelts, are facing ieCw tranospor-tatioli challeniges as reduce uiineconioilical travel arid wo mliI spread trips urban dlevclopimienit cxtenids heyond those boLindaries across longer periods of the day. These improvciiiemits and workers comllIllmIte eveii longer distaices to dowIn- Coi LI lead to a reductioii in coligestio1, aln increase in towln jobs i-5' '1W. ii Delhi, India, mlixed land rises and the use of ptublic tralisit, and, pierhaps in the lobg i-tii, Iiigli popiilatiol deLisities are thc niori, vet the city is miore efficienit land ise patternlS (1)K.;. Ill 01-D 1) COIII- faced witi congcstiomi, air prollutioiL, and limilted tramis- tries, raisinig the costs of car travel mayy be a miore portatiori options for its poor peoplc. (See Box 4. 1 ) effective way to reduce car rise and its rcliated probilciis Efforts to manipula re urblan form1 are furthier corn pli- than iiimproviiig public traniisportatioii service or lowCr- catet by iSSLIeS of land ownership and nimaket forces. iig fares (17). Additionally. aii integrated stra-tegy reqcuires coor(dinia- Although it is 1iuilikely thart drivers will eve- pay the tion between thre transportation and land rise seCtols full Costs of traispol-ttltioil byIV car, several policy tools across ai entire lietiiopolitaii region-something tlit is calil be used to at least recover sonIe of thcse costs, iiot easily aachieved i 'in i . ramigimig froiii road pricing to gasolime taxes, to increiased Still, cities that have ianaiaged to integrate transpor- fees for parking. These caii lie kev eleimeniits in a strategy tatioii and land use are reapilig the benefits. Curitiha, for maniaging travel denalld. 88 Worhl Rcsources 199ni-9- Urban Transportation Road Pricing. Ro ad1 pricinig entails charging dlrivers Road pricing can have unintenled impacts, however; directly for useig roacs throLgh a varietv of techliiques, For instance, it runls the risk of encouraging tr;avel oni SUC11 ilS the use Of tolls, areai licenisiig selielies, and roads on wlich a fee is riot requircd, increasing coliges- electronic road priciig. To he most effective, a road tion there and precipitating lurbari growth in new SL1b- pricing sclheine shoLird covet- all i m portaiit roads urban areas. Road pricing mlust be examined for its throuighotit an urban area, and the charge should vary equity iriipacrs as well. By raising the pricc of travel, according to demald, with higlher pr-ices clhalrged during peak period priCing n1ay Squeeze poorer drivers off the peak periods, as is the case for elecrric uriilities or road wlhile allowring thiose who ciian afford ir ro drive telephoneservice. The goal is toeIeourrage peopleto use on a miore efficieint road system.i In Sari Francisco, rhe alterriate nuiodes of transportatn rio ir tv drive duitring Baiv Bridge Congestrion Pricing pilor proiect pro rosed off-peak periods, a wav to overconlic this problem by rrsilg existillg Designfiig surCi a svstrri, however; is corInplicated hrw-irorie targetirig riechanisnls (i1 rhis case, all adniiiistratively, technically arid politically. In addi- electric urtilirt programii rtiat offers rebates to the poor) tiolln, road pricing will not smicceed if cities do nor offer ro provide discoLIltrs fol- prorer drivers ir ½ Alterria- artractive alternative transportation oIptions 1iS) Ac- tively, the funds generated could be used to reduce corlrliiglv, despire the dellIonstrated ad vantages of roadl r;r nsir farres arid inmprove trarisir service in low-incomie pricing, few cities have iripleiented sulch schieimes, areas. most practical applicartions have been a rtype of area Taxes and Pollutioni Fees. In addition to roadl pric- pricing, iI whlich drivers nursrt paV to eilter a specific ing, otlier variable transpolrtatiol cliarges tol -cover thle are l. Perhaps the iiiOst well-kniown of these is Singa- frill costs of tranisportatioln haive be en suggested. In pore's area licenisiig sclieriie, whicl seeks to reduce practice, there is already aln array of taxes on nriotor traffic into the city cemiter- by clhargilng low-occLparICV vehlicles in riiost countries, ranging frorii purchase taxes vehlicles a fee when they enter the area. Tor enter the on new vehicles to furel taxes. (overnnieits have loIng restricted a rea, a cilr riilst display a special wlindow ursed furel taxes as a mearis of ra1isinig reven1LIC for road sticker, for which a fee is also charged. Since its iiiceptiorl b1r .iding and mainteriarice. Recently, however, srlrle in 1975, the plain has both redLrced conigestioIn and Colilritrieshalvelbeguniitocorrsidertixlxatioril asi a im sto stimulited tlhe urse of pLrul iC transportation, at riiodest redurce vehicle ulse, corserve energy, and reduce carblon cost. The cirt is replacing the cuirenit system witl an dioxide eriissions I 14r. Hunga r, fort instanic, iritro- electronic scherie. (Camereas niILriited (in overhead gate- duced an erivironiriieital tax on fuel in 1992 as well as wvays w'ill aLtoriaticallv dduiLct entry fecs frorii stored a roadl rilianeriarce fee r i ii valure ccards r1rnu1lred on vehicle dashboards. The fee will Furel taxes can be an Impor ant policv trool in efforts be determiiined by both location and tiie of day rim)o. to chanrige travel behaviors. The direct i iipaCt of furel fii OLCD coLuntries, road pricing is being c(iisidered prices on the level arid pattern of tranisportationi de- seriolislv, atrhoughl in maost places it is still only in the rniaid hais been vividly illustr-aited( over the past 20 y'ears testing phase. A smart" card, which autoriiatically by the effects of increases in \orld oil prices on the iriposes a charge wvhen a velicle is stalled in triaffic, is overall volihulie of translport, in the seailrch for iniiproved being tried il Cambrillge, United K ingdomn, to reduce efficiencies in the use (of traditiorra I fuel SOlrrces, aild on1 conigestio(r (I I),. In the Norrwegiarn cities of Oslo, Bergen, the development (of alteriiativ e fuiel technolorgies (ir s. and TrOIideirCii, electron ic tol-collecrtilig Systems (ill- ThIi ig'il CoStOf frcl iC Ja paiild FLr rope has led perople itiallv desigined to raise reveniue for new roIad Corlstruc- in those COLtritries to drive Iess arId to drive niiore fLel- rionl) riay hax e the added benefir of redircirig tra ffic in efficielrtcairs than theircounrterparts in rhe ULrited States the city ceiter ( i r . I 17,. Reducing fuel surbSidies anid increasing fuel taxes In rthe developing world, the widesplread intrloduc- courild helpl irrliprove vehicle efficieicies inI developirig tion of elecrrli-ol rroad pricing niay n0ot be feasibHe COliuntrieS as well (I S. b ecCause of both the nip-front costs of the techlnology IPollutioni fees, whiicl i increase with the amoiirrt of and the poteiitial diffiCurlty of enforcenmeit. Yet, rorad pOHIl ioln prIoduiced by a vehicle, orr vehicle-rni'les-of- pricrnig can lIe cost effective-partiCUlarly in middle- travel (NNIT) fees also can be used tro recover Srorie of illcrlre ciries of the developilig world, where miotor the rrLre Costs of car transportationm. Such fees ca ii be velicle lrse is inicr-easiig rapidly-becaurse ir cari offset collected at aminuiIl vehicle i is"pectiolls and canr be or delay costly expianisiron of the ro(ad system. Grovern- based o0n odomieter re adings Research suLggests that iielnt officials in Santiago (Cl hile, are planriring tro im- a V MT fee of (0.03 pere kiloriieter imiposed in Sotirlt- pleriierit a road pricing scIllee I2 crri Caaliforni a could redtrce automorile trips arid World Resources 1 '96-07 89 Urban Transportation Box 4.1 The Indian Transportation Paradigm Conventional urbani transportation ment programs. Average speeds during phants, stray cattle, bullock-carts, rick- planning, as defined in the developed peak periods range from 10 to 15 kilo- shaws, and handcarts (9). In fact, cars do world, has heen applied to Indian cities meters per hour in central areas and not even constitute the malority of the such as Delhi for more than 35 years. from 25 to 40 kilometers per hour on city's 2,097,000 vehicles i10); motor Delhi's Master Plan includes numerous arterial streets 17). Delhi's traffic fatali- scooters and motorcycles account for "district centers" that provide residen- ties in 1993 were more than double nearly 70 percenit of registered vehicles. tial, shopping, commercial, and recrea- those of all other major Indian cities Anothier 4 percent are locally designed tional facilities (1t By some measures, combined (5). three-wheel scooter rickshaws; the rest the Master Plan has succeeded: Delhi What accounts for this mismatch be- are taxis, public buses, and trucks (I I I has high population densities and tween the Master Plan and the realitv The city's estimated 1,500,000 two- mixed land use patterns, resulting in of growing transportation problems? and three-wheel vehicles are heavy con- short trips, many of which are made by Much of it can be traced to attempting tributors to local pollition (12) (I 3x) As a walking, nonmotorized vehicles, or pub- to apply solutions for cities in the devel- class, these vehicles emit higher levels of lic transportation. Private car owner- oped world to a citv in a developing hydrocarbons than cars, trucks, or ship is low (2' (3) (4) (St. In that regard, country, with its very different vehicle buses. Three-wheel scooter rickshaws Delhi would seem to be a textbook ex- mix and socioeconomic conditions, also emit significant amounts of carbon ample of integrated land use and trans- monoxide 114). Because thev are a low- portation planning. DELHI'S VEHICLE MIX cost alternative to the citv's overcrowded Even so, air pollution, congestion, and Traditional urban transportation models public transporration services, the traffic fatalities are terrible and con- are designed to handle a homogeneous number of two- and three-wheel vehicles tinue to worsen. The World Health Or- mix of passenger cars, trucks, and buses on I)elhi streets continues to grow. Since ganization has classified Delhi as one of all moving at the same speed, but in the I 980s, sales of such vehicles have in- the 10 most polluted cities in the world Delhi, cars, trucks, and buses must com- creased by nearlv 20 percent per year Il). i6). Coingestion ill Delhi seems to be pete for space with two- and three-wheel Variations in vehicle size, rate of accel- worsening, despite local road improve- motorized vehicles as well as camels, ele- eration, and speed mean that often the best way to advance through the road Competing needs. In network is to dart lateraliv from lane to Delhi and other Indian _ _ - lane to optimize the available space. cities, motor scooters. *6- The suddel braking and change of di- animal-drawn carts,. rection that are required in this type of and pedestrians com-- . ";= ,- and pedestrians corn- '~~~~ -~ 4 9,~~ nra- traffic reduce overall vehicle speeds, in- pete with cars and 'I'' ¼ crease the chance of accidents, and ad- buses for roadspace, versely affect fuel consumption and leading to worsening emsiotaes1, congestion and traffic Becaulse there is no formal segregation fatalities. - of vehicles in Delhi and no enforcement - I,y _ of speed limits, nonmotorized vehicles 0'! M lgh|_ 5 -;I -- such as bicycles and carts tend to segre- gate themselves naturally onto the curb lanes on two- and three-lane roads. However, there is still a considerable safety risk (17). Pedestrians, bicyclists, and motorcyclists make up more than 80 percent of Delhi's road fatalities (x). One third of the pedestrian fatalities in- volve Delhi's buses, which are vastly overcrowded; many deaths occur when passengers forced to ride on running boards or hanging onto the outside of _ the vehicles are thrown off or struck: ' many passengers are also struck when Choarding or leaving buses. 9 DELHI'S SOCIOECONOMIC MIX U) M Nany of Delhi's transportation-related m problems have arisen because planners 90 World Resources 1 996-9) 7 Urban Transportation failed to provide for the wide range of to address the urbiani traffic mix and so- Analy sis ,/ A-Ietropolita,n (eities ill India socioeconiomic levels and especially the cioeconontic paternis characteristic of (TERI, New Delhli. India, M.ay 1993), p. 4(0. exrent of poverty within the city, cities such as Delhi. The challenge for 5 i,il., p. 46. Few people in l)elhi can afford the Delhi and similar cities is to accomm-o- 6. World Health Organization iiid Ulnited Na- cost of private motorized transporta- date this complexity rather than to trv riolis Einvironment Programme, Urbain Air tion, even for the jourliey to work. In- to minimize it or wish it away. P'r,tliltm, i Aiiil M/iycities oft/' Wlomll (Black- stead thev most rely on public Given DelIhi's socioeconomic miix well 'ublishers, Oxford, lI.K., 1992), pp. transportation. Even the slightest in- muChi of the population will he unable 99- 1)6. crease in the cost of puhlic transporta- to afford cars or even public transporta- 7. Op' cit. 4. pr 6. tion cain he a hardship. A recenit survev tion for sonic time to come. Mean- . "Berter Traftic Policing Urged," Indiall Vx- indicated thar nearly 61) perceir of the re- while, bicycles anti pedestrians press. Delhi. Indi. (Fehrii.irv 26. 19941. spond(leoits fouLid rhe minimum Cost of Con1tinue to share the roads with cars, National Institiite of Urbaii Affairs (NIUA). coMiUtilIg to work on public rranspor- wh'lere thev i 'pede traffia nnd are enx- Urban Fil iroinnenratl Mips: Delhi, B ii,- on~~~~~~~~~~ thy imectafi n ree-by Vadoilara. Ahnii',a{.had I(NIUIA, New tation (less thani $0.06 per trip) to he un- lpose(d to a high risk of accidents. Re- Delhbi Inda., 1994). p. 1.44. acceptable IGlon o2(n. A ride on public lquests to provide separate facilities for transportation-even at rhe lowest mii- nonmotorized transport are typicaillv rei Isu' S iid Prortetisn pe pnted mumil farrc-an conisu5me 20 to 30 percent met with the argument that scarce re- i the 74th Annual Meeting of tIe Tritspor- of a family's income for the lowvest incomie SOuIrces cannot be wasted for a mode i.tioni Research Board, Natioiial Acldenlm groups. A large percentage of low-iflon e that is going to disappear in the future. ol Scieies. Washingtn., D.C., lanuary people travel long distances and spend 30 However, if [)elhi and similar cities 1 995, Table 2. to 60 minuites on one-way travel (2Il. were to consider facilities for nonmo- II. op. cit. 4, p. 8. In responise to hoth the cost of trans- torized transport as an integral part of 12. Op. c-t. 4, p. 28. porrarion within rite city and the long a prograi to eniance road capacity, 13. op. ,it. 4, Tible 4.38. p. 78. working hours, many of Delhi's poor then the investment could be justified. 14. Indi.aii Institite of Petroleiiim ( I1P), sit' ',i ihave i1o choice but to establsil un- Not onilv are lanes designed for bicycle ibi Art Report oni Vebhile Enrissiwins lIP, autilorize(d settlenients in substandaid traffic less expensive to build than road- I)ehradUill, iidia, 1985i. housing on public land near their places ways, but they also will divert pedestri- 5. op. cit. 4. P i30. of employment. ti 1991, an estimated ans and slow-nioving vehicles from the 16 F.M.A. Ka rim, G wi inri, miiid A. Kinda, 1.3 million people resided ii these roadway, increasing the efficiency of Siniulation of Hetrerogeiieous Traffic jbtiggi-lbopri settlements 122). car and bus transport. Srream," drift research reporrt, Worl(d In the mid-1 970s, governllmenit offi- By accomnnodatinig the needs of all of Health Orgmiiizatioii Collahoratung Cenrer cials ma(le a conscious effort to relocate its citizens-including the poorest lor littury Prevenioiiii aid (Coiirrol (Indiii the jbuggi-jbopprt settlements to thu ones-for safe and affordable trans- Institute of Techitology, Delhi, Iindial, p. Io. outer areas of the city wvshere new devel- port, cities such as Delhi can create an 17. ldesh Ihi, Studies of Hererogeneous Trif- opnients had beenl planined. Because few equitable and environmetitally friendlv fic Flows for Pl3ntiing FaI'lities iI)epart- jobs are available on the urban periphery; transportation sysren. ment of Civil Enginieering, Indian InstiLi te however, residents in thcse areas now -oeetam Ttreari of TechnlolUgy Delhi, India, I99i) must coml11ute lonIg distalnces across the IG . Delhi Traffic PhIice. Firsi liforiii. nai i Re- cito in search of emplovment (l31 port: June 1993-Julv 1994 (Delhi Police Manv of Delhi's poor work in the so- Geetain Ttwari is a visiting fellowZ at the Departmllent, Delhli, India, 1994i. c -,lled infor ,iial secto,- ,s street vendors Tata Eiiergy aiid Resotirces Institute, 19. Central Road Research Institute (CRRII, c aled infoeral sector as street vendors Tata Energy ando Resources Instittte, lability Leveles ln Transport Problems of or a1S operators of pavemnent shoprs arid Arlingtout. Virginia. and is a menietber ot \ Vari-s PopiL,in,,, Griups (CRRI, New car or motor scooter repair shops the faciltv of tbe lIterdiscipliiiary 4p- Delhi, India. 1 98). p. 32. alotig roadways. (;overinient officials plied Systemns Research Programme at 20. Based on the exchainge rate Oll lDeceniber 7, call these services "encroachinents" the tcdialn Itstitifte of Techlnlogy, 1995. and comiiplain that they reduce road ca- Delh1i. 21 1 )p. It 1,up. pacityv Howevet; they are art integral 2 ita Shariii "Delli Profile: Transport and part of the Lrbati latidscape. providing a References and Notes Enviriineni, Rese,rh Piper NO x (The variery ol services at low cost and at lo- TRiriaes Research Foiind ruin o. c utti, (hi- catiotis where demand for these services I I )ell Devtrlopiniein ALilioriiy. A-lstir PAttin ies a seprcFdlinet A992M p. 3. is high. As a result, they cotirinue to mul- hr Delhi: lPiespciti 21)) ri 200 tkas Minar. Delhii, Iindiai. Agut I ~p.1- 3 p i.1,The51,p 8 tiplv along the arterial roads of the city,. 11,1d.i p.. 6-. t FINDINC NEW SOLUTIONS p3 op i (-it 1 r 8 4 Tat.i Finergy ,ind Resoi-urer I iisitslLre The tratisportatiotn platinitig tools ofi (TERI), Impact o/ Roil Trirsporfati'ii Svs- the developed world are not adequate ci,, ,iio Eieirgy aiIl Eitt ririinment: An World Resoitr-cts 1996i-97 91 Urban Transportation Box 4.2 Setting Limits Pays Off in Portland, Oregon IPortland, Oregon, is often considered were established to encoorage high resi- governnent has developed the Region one of the most livable and best- dential densities along transit corridors 2040 project to study how future met- planned cities in the United States f i. iE4 (is. At the same rime, the city im- ropolitan growrh can he accommo- During the 1960s and 1970s, however, proved the existing bus system and is dated without further extending the Portland faced problems similar to planning to offer bus service within orhan boundaries if i. those of manv other urban areas in the walking distance of all neighborhoods (6). Despite these efforts, travel in the United States. Urban sprawl was lead- Partly as a result of these measures, P'ortland region will still be mainly by ing to extensive suburban develop- the number of jobs in downtown Port- car, with its associated impacts il) ment, while the downtown area wvas land has increased bv 30,000 since the Nevertheless, by encouraging high- plagued with decaving buildings, va- I 970s, with only a scant increase in densirv development along transit canr lots, and social problems. Heavy traffic; in addition, 40 percent of com- routes and by limiting urban sprawvl, car use was increasing levels of conges- muters to the downtown area use pub- Portland is showing that at least some tiots, noise, and air pollution '2). Yet, lic transporration m. The numher of reductions in car use are possible. Portland has largely managed to re- days per year on which carbon monox- verse these trends throughl integrated ide levels violated federal health stand- References and Notes land use and transportation planning. ards has dropped from 100 to zero (8). . Kevin Ka.isowski, "Portland's llrban Growth A key component of Portland's suc- The metropolitan population is con- BoUndary." The Urban Ecologist, Spring cess was a statewide land use law estab- tinuing to expand at 3.6 percent per 1994 (Urbaili Ecology, Oakland, California, lishing urban growth boundaries year, and future growth threatens to on- 1994i, p. 1. around metropolitan areas. With onily dermine these advances (9. To guard 2. OrgaiisaliioiT for Economic Co-Operation a finite supply of land available for ur- against that possibility, both citv resi- and Developinenit (OECD) and the Euro- ban expansion, Portland was forced to dents and the government are explor- pan Conference of Miisters of Transport find ways to encourage development ing alternative urban development i ECMTM Urban Trai -el an/d Ssastaiiable De- within the urban boundary limits . options. In response to public opposi- tlopmteit O0ECD aind FCNST, Paris, To encourage revitalization of rhe tion to a planned bypass freeway, One , . a 17. dosvntosvn area, a segment of down- Thousand Friends of Oregon initiated p. town roadwav was replaced with an ur- a program known as Making the Land 4. JLdith Corbett, -Porrland's Livable Downi- I 1'- ' I I I W l T {E 1 1tl ll ~~~~~~~~~~Fronm Auro(-D)ependence to Pedestrin ban park, a limit was placed on the Use-Transportation-Air Quality Con- own: endene ToPtrian ,, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ak ,, adoae clusteringl pre.dll in " l.Surfalce Transportastion allowable number of downtown park- nection, which advocates clustring Pilic-v Pritie,I Resource Guide (Surface ing spaces, and road construction pro- mixed use communities around re- Traiisportarion Policv Project, WXashingtrol, jects were scrapped in favor of new gional rail stations to reduce reliance D[C., 1992', p. 2. transit lines. Then, zoninig regulations on automobiles (IL Portland's regional 5. OP. cit. 2. Livable city. Portland -. Op. cit. 4, p. 1. has made the down- 7 Op L It 2 town area more 8. Keith A. Barthoiliiiew. A Tale of Tlo Cit- friendly to pedestrians ies (Oiie Thousaiid Friends of Oregoii, Port- through the develop- land, 1993), p. 4. ment of an urban park 9. U.S. Buireaui of the Census, Statistical Ab- aorda "fare free" transit stra )if the United Stites 199w. 113th edi- mnalt The light rail tion UI.S. Gioverniiienit Printing Office. metro system con- W _ashingroiis,l).(.. 1993), p. 39. nects the downtown IC. Op. cit. 2. with neighboring H I . Mletro Counicil, Metro 204)) riro,ul' Co,n- suburbs. te cpt M(Nietro Coiluci i. Portla nd, Oregion, De- suburhs -o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ cernber 1994). 12. Op. cit. 2, p. 218. autinliotive air pollution lIv an estimiated I I pierceiit taxes fiay heconie less effective in rcduCiLIg travel de- and conld iinctrease pu,hlic tranisit riderslilp {; 1i'. nialid as cars hecomiie niore fuel efficjenit. However, the ObIjectionis to liighier taxes and fees are 111.1mleroLs. ma jor harrier to iiplementatioll is political oIppiosition. One concetril is that thev Wvould htirt low-iiicoiiie fanmi- People tentd to view thecse measures simply as additionial lies, who already spend proportionately Ifnorc of thlir un.vWelComeoC taxcs. Overconjiig this ha-rrier will reqLuire inCoile on transportatiol. In aiddition, taxes cdo not eduicating the pullic aihout the full cosrs of their Currelit influecice when a carl is used, so thle maxv havc little travel decisiols, as well as albout how the new revenuCs effect Oli conigestioI. Somlel anlalysts suggest that fuel will he uSeLd to improve the urban trtlnsportation systenll. 92 World Re'souiLrces 1996-97 Urban Transportation Parking Controls. Raising the price of parkinig in Improving the Transportation Supply certain areas can also deter the use of privatelv owned cars. If high parking costs raise the price of coniniuting F[veni though m1echilanismlis such as road pr-icing m1ay be to work, for example, workers will be more inclilned to able to reduce travel demand, there is still a considerable look for cleaper alter-niatives, either in the forrnof public need to expand the transportationi infrastructure in transportationi or carpooling. many rapidly growing urbanii regions, particularly in the This is especially true in the United States, where developing world. In many' urban areas, rhe transporta- parking has traditi onally bieen heavil' subsidized. In tion infrastruCture-including roads, sidewalks, cross- downtowwn Los Angeles, for examiiple, emplover-paid walks, and railways-is seriously dcficient. l'oor road parking increases drive-alone commlilluting by a' esti- surfaces lead to safety hazards coiigesrioll and prenia- mnated 44 percent. It also increases the total distance tLire vehicle aging, as well as increased fuel ConIsuLm1p- traveled as well as fuel ConsuL1mptiol by' 3 percentt per niol, pPolltiolln, and miniiitenanice costs. emnployee i 'n If instead, emiplovers were to offer work- The challenge, however, is to expanid and improve ers a comlimnuter stipend that could be used oii any travel the tralnsportation supplV in sucLh a way trhati the auto- alterniative in lieu of free or reduced-cost piarkilig, one mobile is only one part of the tralsportation systemll study foulid that drive-ailone CO111111Ltilig would decrease rather thani the focts. Tools for discouraging the over- by an estimated 20 percent and vehicle distance traveled rclianice on privately ownecd cars will n ot work unless WLould decrease by 17 percent (1211. people are given fast and effiicint tranisportarionl alter- Higher parking prices, hoowever, cal have the ullill- natives-whether bus, light rail, subway, walking, or tended effects of increasing illegal parking or increasing cycling. Indeed, travel patter-ns in a city miirror thit city's the length of trips (e.g., the additional tlime spenit looking col Inlitilnieit to providing roads, parking, and transit for parking places), thereby worsening conigestioni. Park- service i ). ing controls are most effective wvheln they are used as part of a more co-mprehensive programn aind wlhen Table 4.3 Capacity, Cost, and Emissions of Various strict enforcemenit is possible 1122'. Transportation Modes Traffic Bans Total Cost per Total Emissions per Persons per Passenger Passenger Instead of pricinig signals, many cit- Mode of Transport" Hour per Lane Kilometerb (US$) Kilometerc (grams) ies have tried to use outright traffic Walking 1,800 Negligible 0 bans to nianage travel demandic. Bicycle 1,500 X 0 Motorcycle 1,100 x 27497 Bans In the fornm of licenise number Car 500-800 0.12-0.24 18.965 restrictions have been tried in Ath- Bus ens, Mexico Citv, and Sanitiago Is a Mixed traffic 10,000-15,000 0.02-0.05 1.02 Bus-only lane 15,000-20,000 0.02-0.05 0.89 means of redLIcilg the number oF Separate busway 30,000 0.05-0.08 X cars in the city and thereby reducimlg Light rail transit, congestioni and air pollut i 2 (|.;. surface exclusive 20,000-36,000 0.10-0.15 Although these bIans have been sonic- Coas .13876 whhat effective, niany households Fuel oil 0.6261 boLight a second car or switched li- Rapid rail transit cense plates to nmeet their- mobility Surface (coal) 50,000 0.10-0.15 4.9651 needs. In Athenis, the number o`f Elevated (gas) 70,000 0.12-0.20 0.2307 households wx'itli two cars i icreased, Underground (fuel oil) 70.000 0.15-0.25 0.7102 Sources: ani1d motorists who were iot a Ilowed 1. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), Transportation Strategies for Human to enter the citV ceniter drove around Settlements in Developing Countries (Habitat, Nairobi. Kenya. 1984), p. 25. 2. The World Bank, Urban Transport (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1986), p. 53. tlle c I tv to gt-t to thei- tc|rlestiilil a til o ll 3. Asif Faiz et at, "Automotive Air Pollution: Issues and Options for Developing Countries," Working thereby' increasinig the length of Paper No. 492 (The World Bank. Washington. D.C., August1990). Table 20. p. 43. thei r trips xvlile also increasing Notes: a. Assumes high-occupancy rates and efficient operation. cmissioils 1241. ii audditioii, the ca.rs b. Includes capital costs, vehicle operating costs, and interest. b1oughlt for use On off-days are ofteni c. Includes carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides. sulfur oxides. aldehydes. and suspended particulates. cheap. second-lhan1d vehicles, wlhichi d. Includes two-stroke engines only. tend to be mo.0r-e pol luting 12i). X=not available. W,'or-/14 R'sfnirc's I 9)96-97 93 Urban Transportation Public Transit Expansion In Canada, the citv of Ottawa, Ontalio, is developilig For cities in need of expanding their transportation an extensive l usWay system rathier than a subwav sys- supply, developing a mass transit systemi, withi its effec- teni because of its comparatively low cost and flexibility tive use of space and lower per-passenger pollution iI serving low- to mediLil-deisity urban areas. In ad- levels, should he a priorirv optiol. (See Table 4.3.) Fr-omil ditioni to excILIsive bus lanes, the city is coinsiderilig a buses that provide flexible and low-cost tr-aiisportationi to buIs tunilel in part of the city center an d will promote subwayvs, cities have a wide arrav of choices. The optioirs the luSe of alternative fiels, iicldidig compressed nati.- best suited to a particular city depenid oni a num.1111ber Of rial gas anid electricity, to help alleviate rclated eIrrissiMis factors. including urban form, density, and wealth. problenis. The system has beel desigied so that it could Butses. Ini most cities, efficient bus svstems can be both be conVerted to rail transit if warranted ii affordable and effective. Buses Can carry as maiiv as so Rail Transit. Well-planned and Well-ulsed light rail passengers durinig thle peak period (anid tranis can carry systens can nove morc people than can bluses. light rail even more), yet they take uLp thle space of nio more thian systes also consume less energy than buses and, depend- tw(o privately owned cars 12Th. Indeed, buses are the ing on the power souIce, emit fewer pollutants i I ;ro. Light transportation choice of a nimajolitv of citv dwellers in rail systems such as trains and trolles, although slower developing countries, especiallv the urbani poor: In than heavy rail systems can carr' 6,000 people per hour 1980.anest ted 600 million tripsperdaywere being iin mixed traffic and Ly' to 36,000 people peI hour with miade in buses in cities inl thle dSeveloping world; tha lt five- or six-car trains, exclusive rights-of-way, andi grade- figure will doulble bIv the vear 2000 i12s'. separated intersections i Im Light rail system.s havecertain drawbacks, including systemi idilex.)lt ndepisv Yet, despite its vital role, bLIs service in many places I xibility and expensive falls far short of demindl; systems are often severelv track isnbeoteniangce ii crs sloever inatihe dilscitiesof Asia, overstretched, uncomfortable, and unreliable. potential g r is b g a p.lssenge increasinigly turn to; other modes of transpor- beRapid rail transir, Such as su bwa ys, often appear to passeng (erspe-al sicoc iead*ar rtft n be the ideal solution to clogged city streets. Tlesc rail rationi (especially ais incomes rise anid cars becom-e an option) or are forced to walk long distances. Buses also systems promise high mobility can be built ud a able urbanI land, and, beca use theyv emiit relatively few tend to be noisy and polluting. Regular maintenance can lutan are an envirnmeta lltrctivelterra hlelp imlprovetheir safety andreduce emissions. In some tive. Yet, costructioin and operating costs care lithuge and cities, buses have been retrofitted with engines that run often prove to be excessively bUrdenslomlC on City buLdt- on compressed natural gas !i 2 ). gets 4ror exa e, a dedted underOn rail As long as buses run on the samiie conigested streets as I F svstem cost S40( million per kilomneter in Santiago, (Chile, other vehicles, thev will never he an attractive alterna- k7 - $~~~~~~~~~~~~~64 miillion In Osaka japan,an Slt $1 17 mIl I 1n ( :ar ca s, tive for those who can afford a car. An effective way to e increase bus rider-ship is to give huses prioritv in traffic. Tuni,unisia, crison 2 million per kilometer 14i - ~~~~Tuinis, TLunisiLa cost on1v S29 nuiiilloi Ix kiloec 4! A dediciitedl hus laile (iiSSLininig higli-occtipancv raites A dedcatedbus lne (asumig hig-occuancy ates Cities Should resist the temptation to puirSue flashly and efficient operation) can move twice as. manv people adaned thology solu iton herower-cos ap- advanced tecxhnolo-v Solutionis wheii lower-cost ap- per hour as buses operating in mixed traffic anid 40 tilles 1 . as many people per hoLlr as cars , I i By givling bhuses proaches such as buses imilght be adequate. A phased as may peole pr hou as ars i;mn. y giing bses pproach-first idenltifyinig traniisPort Corridors well III priority' over car traffic, more people will turn to buses adacofcity growth nd their upgringsrvice acdvaiice of city gr-owthl anid thtni Upgr-adinIg services as a fast and efficlent alternative (I )ii. Manv European fb ri an ft-oiii dedIcatedl huLswa,vs to light rall andic finallv rncr- cities, includiig Zurich and Helsnlki, Finlaid, have de- haps, to a SubWay system-imay be the best way to signed systems that give priority to buLses alld trolleys at ensure the development of ccon liiill and fina ucia II intersections I121.si sound tr-anis't SVStelnIS ( 142 ,, Iln Abidjan, Cote d'lvoire, a system combininig exclu- sive bus lanes with a high-speed bLuIs nietwor-k has eni- Improv'iiig Existing Public Transit Senrices joryed considerable sticcess. It not oiily cut bus trip times in half and relieved congestion, but also enabled rhe Opportunities also exist to improve and upgrade existing goveriinmenlt to postponie planinied infrastructure invest- public transit systems. One option is to privatize and ments of US$120 million between 1 98 I and 1984 (I 3 1. deregUlate bus services. Competitionm among privite bIus One of the mosr effective bus systems is in Curitiba, companies can improve hus services aird reduce costs. In Brazil, wher-e the integrationi of gLuided land develop- Colombo, Sri Lanka, for examiple, deregiulation alloWeCd menit and a public transportation network created coni- small b1Ius owiners to couipete withi the public blus company, ditionis that natLirallv promote bus use (1341. substartially improviig service coverigc and quality '14;). 94 World Resoirc-es 1996-97 Urban Transportation At the same time, a completely deregulated and and encouraged, bicycles and walking can provide ac- competitive public transport market can have pitfalls. cess to shopping, schools, and work. For cities plagued Private companies may concentrate services in areas by serious traffic congestion arid air pollution, nonmo- with high densities and high-income neighborhoods, torized transport can be an importanit alternative to leavinig the poor on the urban periphery without ade- relying on private vehicles and can serve as a link in an quate services (144). In Santiago, Chile, the comiiplete integrated pLiblic transportation systen. (See Box 4.3.) deregulationi of the bLus systemii in the 1980s resulted in Bicycling arid walking are often the oily nieans of large numbers of poorly niaintained buses clogging the transportation available to the poor in many urban main streets, contributing to pollution and enclaigering areas-particularly in Asia. Indeed, more than half of riders. To correct these problems, the city reccitly the world's 80() million bicvcles are estimated to be in adopted a comprehensive schienie of auctioning down- Asia, with more than 300 million in China alone i town routes. Companies muLst be able to coniply with However, many cities have imposed constraints oni non- emissions, safety, frequency, and cost requirements before motorized nodes of travel, particularly cycle rickshaws, thev can be granted rights to varioLus routes. By promoting claiming that they cause congestion or unfairly exploit competition in the market in this way, buses are cleaner, huIman labor i n. In other cities, lack of access to credit fares are lower, and service is more unihfornm I 14l. inhibits the greater use of nonmotorized vehicles. Many Informal transit services that cater especially to the people are unable to save enough money to buy a bicycle needs of the poor, sucIh as the jeepnevs in Manila or the I i21. Yet, if their use is encouraged, nonniotorized vehi- kabui-kabus in Lagos, Nigeria, are an important part of cles can provide the mobilitv needed to improve the transportation svstemis in developing country cities. In ecoiionoic welfare of the poor. In additioln, they can Ankara. Turkey, dolmnus minibuses have been operating boost public transportation services by serving as a link for 40 years, providinig about 29 percent of transport betweeni outlying settlements arid public transit routes. trips. These vehicles, which operate without timetables, It is coniniioni to see thousands of bicvcles parked outside provide more frequent services than municipal buses. train stops in cities in India and China (i I). Their small size allows them to manleUver more easily In China, 50 to 80 percent of urban trips are bv on narrow, winding streets (14). In Africa, siilar infor- bicvcle. The governmient has activelv promoted hicvcle mal transit services fill a critical need for the urban poor comiimuting by offering subsidies t(; those bicycling to (147). However, these informial services are often pollut- work. It has also accelerated bicycle production and has ing and tend to conitribtite to congestion. They also allocated extensive urban street space to bicycle traffic reflect the failure of public transportation to meet the i i4). In Havana, CLuba, an ambitious governmileit pro- needs of city residents. IntegratinIg these services into the gram to encourage bicycle use prompted hy the couni- formal transportation network and improving the try's petroleum crisis has helped to reduce car traffic by safety arid efficiency of the vehicles could improve trans- 35 percent and bIs traffic by 50 percent. One of every portation options for the poor. three trips in the city is made bv bicycle. In addition to Improvemenits in public transportation services may sLIbsidies and bike lane constructionl, the city has re- also attract new users. In many Western European cities, duced car speeds on the most heavilv traveled roads to including Paris, Zurich, and Hanover, Germanly, inte- improve safety conditionis I il. Other importanit steps gration of fares and services across transit niodes (e.g., in making bicvcles an attractive alternative include sepa- bus to rail) has made public transportation use easy arid rated road space so that nonniotorized vehicles do not competitive with the a utomobile in ternis of travel time have to compete withi and disrupt traffic and regular aiid comfort 1148,. Although improvemenlts to public mainitenanice of bike and pedestrian routes. transportation systems bring in more passengers, they In developed couLntries, far fewer people depend on tend to have onlv a limited effect on the rise of privately Ibicvcles and walkinig as their primary mode of transpor- owned cars, and thus on congestion and emissionis, even tation. In the United States and Australia, for example, if transit travel is increased substantially. The majority oilv 5 percent of all trips involve cycliig or walking of new public transportation users tend to be former I i,. For these niodes of tranisportatioi to becomeillmore pedestrians, cyclists, or car passelngelrs ( 149). widely used, cities will have to promote them by improv- ing safetv conditions for bicyclists and pedestrians, pro- Makinig Cities F'riendb to Pedestrians and viding b icycle parking, aiid creating links with public Noniznotorized Vehicles transportation. Denmark anld the Netherlands have In the automobile age, nonimiotorized transportation is perhaips done the Imlost to proiiiote bicycle use, although often given short shrift. However, if properly promoted local cultuUre and flat landscapes have played important Wuorbl Resources 1996 -97 95 Urban Transportation Box 4.3 Nonmotorized Transportation: What's To Become of Bicycles and Pedestrians? My work has brought me into contact years governments have neglected all mote an integrated, environmentally with a number of local governments in- other forms of transportation in favor sustainable urban transportation sys- terested in forming a new and integrated of an automobile-oriented infrastruc- tem with a clearlV defined place for vision of urban development-one that ture. This is true even in developing nonmotorized vehicles. Transferring focuses on improving general accessibil- countries, where rates of car ownership the real cost of driving to car users in- ity in the urban sector and that includes have been low, stead of continuLing to subsidize car nonmotorized transportation as an es- This is not to say that nonmororized ownership is an important concept to sential component of a sustainablle transportation is an easy remedy for conisidcer. In addition, instead of con- transportation agenda. Lately, I have the urban transportation stalemate. We tinuing to expand road networks to come to the conclusion that it is very in- have to be realistic about the bicycle in meet the spiraling demand, cities need effective to try to convince cities to invest the context of today's increasingly to find ways to reduce existing as well in nonmtotorized transportation pro- global and westernized urban land- as future travel demand. grams in the context of a broader urban scapes. There are obvious limitations: Let's stop preaching to one another transportation reforin. Ir is clear that bicycles are an effective alternative to about technology modes, fuel efficiency; merelv building hike paths and pedes- cars and public transport only for dis- and other subsidiary issues. More in- trian w alkways will not solve any city's tances up to about 6 or 7 kilometers ii). portant than technology is the visioni! transportation problemis. Unless cities In cities in developing countries, the -Ricardo Neties recognize that nonmotorized vehicles pattern that is often seen is one in and pedestrians need to be a vital part of which residents abandon nonmotorized an integrated urban transportation sys- vehicles as soon as motorbikes or cars Ricardo Neves is the president of the tem, the value of this option is lost, become economically feasible-as evi- Institute Of Tfechnology for the Citizen Sao Paulo, Brazil, with its 15 million denced in China, India, and Indonesia in Rio delaneiro, Braz..il. metropolitan area residents and 4.5 mil- (2). One wonders wvhether this will also lion privatelv owned cars, recentlv an- happen in Cuba, where more than I References and Notes nounced plans to construct 300 million bicvcles were imported from R Organ d fotes kilometers of bike paths and lanes. Al- China in 1990 to combat a host of ()rganisiriovl for EcontmnEic Co-O)peration , . . . .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~nd Developinetir tOF.('D and1 rhe Eulro- thoughl this is an ambitious program, transportation problems (3 ii4). peain Coniference of Ni linisters ot Trainspo rt there have been few attempts to coordi- The Netherlands is often used as an (ECMT), Urbani Travel nd. Sustainable nr- nate these efforts with those of other example of a country where walking veiopmens (OE(DOand ECMT, Paris. city departments. For example, a mas- and bicycling are well integrated into 1995). P. 86. sive road construction program is being daily life, and rightfully so. Bicycles, 2. Peter Mlidgley, "'Urhan Transport in Asia: conducted concurrently, and officials in hIowever, have been a part of Dutch cul- An Operaiional Agendai for ile I 990s," the city's traffic engineering division ture for more than a century, and evein World Bi.nk Technical Paper No. 224 (the contend that thev need every single cen- with the government's intense support, World Bank, Washington, D.(.., 19941, pp. timeter of road space for automobiles. bicycle use has been decreasing while 14- l l Thev even adnmit that, if it were possi- moror vehicle use has rapidly beeni in- 3. H. Valdes, NNIT: The Situation In Cu1b.a," ble ro do so, thev would steal sidewalk creasing is) in Proeeeindss o/ tbe lentena6m io,l S1.elii,7r on Sustainable Tratupertttionit.Strategies space for motorized traffic as well. Transportation policv is more than a anid Deu:eloptmewi. Report if the Earth Sumii- I sometimes wonder whether the cur- discussion about the effectiveness of ii it G lFri, Rio de Liro, Biail, iii it 1Elohal l Forumn, R io d1v Ja mei ri n, Bra; zil, rent interest in nonmotorized transpor- various transportation modes. Planners 1992). tation is really only wishful thinking on cani agree thar a sustainable city should 4. Manuel AlepLuz, "Bicycles Overtake Btus the part of cnvironinenitally miinded city be hicycle and pedestrian friendly, but Travel in Havana," The Uirbanz Age, Vol. 2, officials. Basically, nonmotorized trans- the central question is how are cities to No. I lFa 111 99 3). p. Ih. portation suffers front the fact that or- move from the present situationi to an 5. Ministry of Transport. I'ublic Works adi ban developnment and transportation urbain transportation vision that in- WiV;er Ntlanagerneit, Se,wnl/ .toriceturi Plait policies have heretofore catered to the cludes nonmiotorized vehicles /or fiTira/fi and Transport (Nlinistry Iof needs of motorized vehicles. Alnost Cities need to begin to develop pro- Transport, Public Works and Water Mani- without exception, over the past 40 grams that will curtail car use and pro- ageinent. The Hague, the Netherlands, 199 1). roles in Mainta ininig tlhe popu1.1arit- of rhe bciccle in stLtinM)s and b us and train stops, and additiom al saI1 furv those Countries. Despitc ail-eady highl levels of bicycle measaUres (Ivi-. Extensive bicycle lpaths have also bcen use, the DutcCl national transportation plan alimls to introduiced in several. cities in Canadai and AuIstralia increase rhe almlounllt of Cycling by 30 percenlt by 'O10 lIS'. In Seattle, all 1 ,250 buses in the mnetroipolitan by providing new hicycle routes, parkintg at railway transirsystemi are now eq nipped withbicbycey racks i(i 9. 96 Work! RcEsomnrce's I )96-9. Urban Transportation Reducing Vehicle Pollution ___ ___ , Ar the saute timle that ities- try to disCoura ge ca r Useand shilft the travel loid to ioi alternatives. tllc\ can lso take a nlumber of sreps tO _' improve air quality ly re- dL[C11'1' VCInII ,C eliliSsMiolis 1.. te2 - .S1- \ -, Tliis ca n beachieved bv clea-L ing ItIp thc fuels that vehicles b lril, piloiiiOti ug thlC (lesige* and market penetration of nlew vehllieltecl uolgies,gi 'ii itilprlovilig the performa iie s of the existinig vehicle fleert Cleaneler Fzels - Alternative fuels, ilcludhiliw ht Alternate routes. Co'tlua ''ma,s Iiis( ityu ,L,K ,:,'', 11 II,, )I 1io .' Ii,f 1 ' '.. 1f( it Id cof I coilipressed na 1ttiral l g iq- O'r a 7 sp't f(n - 1 IO- ,s( d)('Y.'. i- S ''7'U''1 *).(1' 'ii)! /V.11' hP'', ' jIf ,b, 'S' '-0 V liv uLi. perr0 lcL1li gas, ani1d ethal- 30 lrice,tl! hiV 21010 nol, are receivinig iiicreased attentionl as potentiall pOIIlutiol redutcers ;ih1). C((ii- Neu, Vehicle Tecbhnologies piressed natural gas, already being used in countries such as Callada, Italy. and New Zealand, is ail ab ildanlt fuel 0p p ort1ilities also exist to improve the efficnc and aild canbe partculari\ usefulill ~ ~cleanliness of illoitor vehicles. Onie promnisinlg alterna- reoucinl} emi'sios ' yeiv is the adoptioil o)f ii(otor vehilcles that rut) tin particulates ihi In Brazil, an aniibitiouIs governmeleit electricity powered by fuel cells, hydrogen, or soiile ilitiltive in support of ethanol reduced the share of combination thereof. 'Zero emissoin vellcles, while gasolille used f'or trailsportation ftroimi 56 perceint in I9 7 1t i ')'- :( B i 93 hlavinlg no effect on congestioln, Couldd greiatly i improve - o - F'ei~tIL iil I ''~ is2.. , 9() percent air quality, improvinig heaIltIl aiid the quality of urban otf all new cars ran oin alcohol Is;). As a result of this *liaiige III tlle fuel ili;ix eileit-gy efficiciicv inl rlict ranspor- Z"e1l 2 lhtg s)ic*tssadtultishleletl to replalce public buscs with electric miodels, the wide- tarioni sector grew signiielflcaiiv bretweeni 193 1 andtl te ration sector grew) s|(5ignifican'ltly Iletween I 971 aitgt ;tIle scale aidoprioni of electric velilcles reiilalils Lilcertaiil. In illd-1 980s ios-u [ihi,. Recently, alcohol shortages andi] California, an ambitious manildate reqJuiring that 2 per- poor road adcar Maliniteci e llaVC bCguln ro threatenl celt (If all cars sold in the state in 199 8 be eiission free the potetilial benefitis oIf tIle program i h) wOas recetntilv ameilided duc to political pressure and A lilgll priority for developinlg couiltries is to reduce the lead conlteilt ii ngasoline. Bcsidles beilng a di rect leil 1 th relervatio l e cu rre pter to rban impacts threar, lead In gasolilne preentts the use of caralytic I on NatUral Resources.") In the developing world, the coilvei'tei-s o11 gas-burninlg enigiiies; caralvtic coiivertecls iveers ong-riigeige atltcovt Iligl costs of these technologies miake It unlikelv that help limit vehicle ciliissiotis of hydrocarbons, carbon wt n 's rsdeiits wvell he able to affordl thlieii for i-niny i doiloxide, a iitrolgeil Oxides ( esto resi The costs of eliminatinlg lead fromil gasoline and of elil i nati ig older velicles Iiive viiade it difficult for Vehicle linspectioni antd Mainitenan1ce lower-nlcome countries ro swlitch to unleaded gasolinle. In Bangkok, lowever, the governienit 1las supported the Older vehicles account for a disproportionate share of introduoctioli of Linleaded gasoline throIigll a LiX sUtl- air 11011tiOll. A badly maiailnitled older vehicle cani emnit sidy By t,Ixil g Unileaded fuel less than leaded fuel, the 100 rimties the pollutanuts of a plroperly mnlaintaintied mlod- governimienit nmade it cost-effective for local refineries to erii %ehicle i-i. In Los Angeles one stuLy estiliiated that produce ulileaded gasolile. In Janulary 1996, use of pre-19717 calrs, which acCouLntcd for only 13 percenlt of ulileaded gasolilte became mialndatory I Ih>Sm the total vehicle nilles traveled, were responsible for () World ResouOlrccs 19 9'6-97 97 Urban Transportation of old and inefficient vehicles. In 13udapest, Hungary, the city governmenit will exchange public transportatiol passes for Trabants and Wartburgs. two brands of automobiles that are highly polluting hut widely used in the city because of their low cost. For each Trabant, the city awards foLir year-long passes; for eachi Wart- biurg, six year-long passes are issued. In addition, the prograin will buy these cairs tor a price higher than the _ going market rate if the monev is iused as part of a down pay-ment on a new, imore efficient vehicle. So far, an estimated 2,000 Trahants and \Vartburgs have been o taken off the streets of Budapest I 17'I. Two-wvheel vehicles pose an eveni greater air pollu- Healthy commues Inortes S(illped with bicyle W;smckt0 IC 'nl PoHltlhnd. oregosi, citiesuha wSttle. Washsgon i tion challenge, especially in Asia. Two wheelers are Portland. Ore nu, buses areequipped web bcyclentacbletfor a n'ority of rs al atCIae crease the distance that comn7uters can cover bv loit/i bicycie responsible a na o res iralle particulates in anc ptib/ic transit. the air of manyv Asian cities (179). Given the sheer number of two-wheel vehicles in Asian cities, imnposilig percent of total hydrocarbon emissionis i -)2. Effective strict emissioils stanldards is difficult. However, emis- inspection and mainteniance programs can reduice emis- sions reductionis are possible at modest cost by switch- sions from old vehicles and ensure thar new vehicles ingn froim two-stroke to four-stroke engines or by remain in good condition. According to U.S. data, a installing catalytic converters. In molst cases, the in- well-run inspection and mnaintenance program cani re- itial increased cost is offset hb iniprovemeurs in fuel duice the carbon monioxide and hlidrocarlbon eni]issionis ecomominv ISM. of an individuial vehicle by tip to 25 percenit - 1 Such programs are especially critical in developing c ountries and counitries in tranisitioni, because immuch of Putting It All Together the vehicle fleet is composed of older and generally Imlore Fach citV faces its owni imix of transportation problems, polluting cars. In Jakarta, Indonesia, for example, two and e I I o I o Iies andcl ech CtV wvll reLqLIre 'ts owvn combination of pohrl'c thirds of the privately owned cars are 5 years old or- to address theii. Heavily car-dependent cities, such as older 174. those in the United States, face significant challenges. However, inspection andi maintenaiicc prograrns face Extensive land tise changes, however desirable, are diffi- financial, administrative, political, and enforcemiient c.ilt to imzplemiienit. Given the extent of the existing barriers. Beyond that, the results of suchi prograins can transportation infrastructure-and the expenise implicit be mixed. California recently found that only a bout .50 in expaniding it ftirther-thiese cities must focus on maxi- percent of the repairs arising fromii inspections were mizing the access thilat their current systemiis provide anld effective in reducinig emissions iISi on improving the efficiencv and cleanliness of existing Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, India, the Philippines, vehicle fleets I is i. Still, these strategies need not preclude Chile, and Mexico have all implementedl at least rLidi- longer-terin goals of increasing densities in ciries. mentary inspection and maintenance programs i1-6. Cities in less developed regiolis of the world, whlere Quezon Citry Philippines, began an Auto Anti-Simoke- urban form is not strongly focused on the automobile, Belching Campaign in 1993. After a 6-mouth "benign have perhaps the greatest opportullitV to ensure that phase" that educated the public about the health haz- futtirC developiment patterns effectively manage the de- ards of air pollution and the need to reduce auto emis- mand for transportation. For these cities, the key issue sions, the programi movedI into its "malevolent phase." is anticipairilng the growing dernand for access and ad- Two teams ranidomly tested about 200 vehicles on citv dressing it biefore an irreversible comilimitimient is nmade streets each day. The owners of vehicles that failed the to an unsustainable lifestvle antI urban form (IS2). Yet, test (about 65 percent) were fiiied, had their licenses ant] they also have the fewest financial, techinical, anId insti- registrations taken awav and were given 24 hotirs to tutional resources. Historically, measures to address the have their velicles fixed. More thiaii 95 percent of environnmental impacts of the transportation sector vehicles passed the secon(d test (1-77. are not intrroduced until well after the impacts have Another effectivc mechianiisilm that can be used to become acute. For exainple, Banegkok, Londond i and reduce vehicle emissions is to accelerate the disposal Tokyo did not begini to address automllobile emissions 98 World Resourc es 19 1)-97 Urban Transportation unitilI residents perceived that the a IrpolI lution situation transportation providers (e.g., taxi commissions, public was dire I8i transport aissociations, automobile Clubs, and freight Perhaps thie greatest single barrier to effectively- solv- carriers). ing transportation probilems, regardless of city, size and The proper instituItional structures will depend on the locaitioni, is the fact that the responisibility for urban specifIc poItia an is Itioacnexofam r- tranporatio sytem resdeswithman diferet eti- politan region. However, without clear lines of author- ties. Tpclyonintttoisrsosbefrarqa- ity and strong coordination, any, attempts to Improve it lllgemienit, ano(ther is in chiarge of traffic urbhan transportation system-s will inevitably fall short. mnanagementt anid enforcemenit, a third m-anages public transportation, and a fourth m-anaiges the infrastruICture. T- scbperws rtt__b_brsope_Zgaso Th.isfrag entaion an b fLirher oinpiciied b thethe International Institute for Enzergy Conservationi, existenlce of several municipal anid political structures as Washington, D.C. well as the presence of various politically infiLuential _______________________ References and Notes I . Zitiar-A ftha 111zi and j' rs C:. _.ra rimo,-"Triue,- Netcr rla ids. New Zea laind, Norewi) Port LI- wient, The World Bank - Nairobi, Kenya. purr- Related Air P II liarri Sitraitegies: SWhSat L~ii I, pa in, Sweden, Siwiteerlnaid, Trirkev [y he 19941, p. 4. Lessons for De% eloping C .lliitries?.- disc ijs- I iurird Kiiigdorn~ .11d the I Jutted Stires. 21. Secrerarin, Ijec-itiria de ia Coimisioit de Plaini- ioipa per iTThe W'orId Banik. Wash i igtl ii, Mi es .o he1aine a niereiiher ITI Nt.i) 1 994. fl~iciLItM de In versleones en Inifraestr rituri de D.C., Seprenirihr I 994), p. I(,. Atl ti i'ciissii1 ii f OF( I) d.ita. priiT Ict, 1994 Trait piirte (SECTRA), Enucrs/a Origen 2. Philip) Sr vcg ,I ai., AssersmintitIfeasp i- dlCSi"L 11i rIIIdiCl iti IIJ f Irs NtXCI. Destinroh- Vhiti's del Grari Sanittagoi: 199I fi'ii (,, mi-tit In .Ai,ia ai Is 1F-./fic-rssii Fit- I I . Ameiirrcan Aiiitmiiibile Nlariiilficriircrr' ASso (SFCTRA. Sarittitgo, Chile. 1991)l , Table 7, vi'fl I;s,, IThc Erivir,minireiri. adrt,!caffi, cirioir .A ASiA). W',r/d Vre Vhide i'P. 20). rlgistil-lt: C *~v Study I lBaitgkok. l/lt Data. l9'if I'tdI,ir I AAMA, Detroir, 1 9951, 22. up. cit. 7. p. 4. /,iiid 1lict-rn.tirin,il Irisritrir,- for [-irrg (Cii- pp. 16-I1S. 2 3 Priter Mlidgley, UJrbhair Trrnrspurt iii Asia: Air ,el *r Lii Ut, Wa'hinrgriiii, D .( .. -I992). P. 23. 1 2 0 i. C. i, p. 15. 1 )/rerattira! Agenda fuir the I 99fls, World Vli,.1. I 4. it. I I. [Bnill Tec,hinicl Paper No. 224 (The Woirld 4. Paunli Bater cii!.. Tire C Imlt.liite of South- a4 D1. 9. p. 3. Ba.nk< Wachintigii, D).C., 1 994), p. I i. rist Asi.iC Rapidi kiiillriS.Irilii: Irriald I nll I 1 j.II 24 JiI,. itI. 20. p. 2. prir. jik,irta, Siirairyavan,rd \Maitilain an2S )p t 6 .6 liirern.itiori.i P1ersprctie... '. p.iper prceneirdi 1 TAir reriiu 'tranitsiron econoiiinies' lacks a tiit- 205 ()P/. cii. 6 . P 6'. .1i the Asian Stuidie-s Associ.itioni ot Auiiritilaa11. 1,0IirMniil1, but is irsed here iii iulirdelll the 2t.C/i -.S.pi. Biennial Colilercirce (994, Viivisririuniiei, %iicLSr stires of the tfirmier So% re Uniionr _27. ( )P. ai. 5. P. 9~. Srtit, and Siiciet) ini Asia: Tire I egicy ofi the I A ruinei ii.i Azerh,i.in., ti ile Repuibliic oi Be- 2h. LiS. L)eparnuttent uf Transpr rtatron, Federal If ss1tiiijt h (riurtiry, ho-ted It) the As a Re- l.r rli, teC R1epuilic lit Esriinii. thie Repril'lie: Highwary .Admiimitisr ion, The 199(0 Nationi- Seair-ll C.eiitre. \lurdiich Uliivcrirsit -1'ei-i-rh of (leorpi, ihe Repuiblicuot Kaz.rkhisr.mi, tIre ii ide P'rsonzal Trapispiortatmini Suirrey: .Srcnrr- Westerin Airsti.il. , AustralIia, ltily I ;-16, Kyrgyz RepirbIlc, the Re. pultlie ot LatI TIa ICth inrary' '4 Travel Trendis (Office oif Hig'hwaiy I '94, P. 2 I. Repiillic it Litlri.iii1.i, rlhu Repirlilic of Mil1- Iiloriii.rIiii Marnagemeneit, Washingtoni, 5.Orgirtisatonir trir E.clnoiiiic Coi-upcratiiit dun., tlte Rilssi.ii Federaitlion, the Reptilii DA_.. 19921, p. 6. iit T,rfikisr,ili. rhe Reptinlrlic of Tirrknietimisrri, .iid D)rselipinuein (O. DEL [ d ntl rIe FliirllLIear Uki,iiiu, otud the Rrpuihlic oif L_]7lsekist.n) 29) U.S. [Departitenrt- of Trinsportation, Federal In herriuc c. ,f .M irisrers iih Tea iii,l in i i liii minrries If Central huroirpe I AI h. . h 5w.r Admin itstrut ion, 7/a,' / 990 Na/inut- [EC NMT, I rbii-~~ C ciiic! .Ind!.Suraini,bnl' DI .e gir i Ii tilvi Icersoiial Tcansportattoni Survey: Trav'e/ ui/elnpiiit (tjE( I) ittd F( NIT. [Liri, I~ iM) PoLnd .R 11.111 id the 51(vk RePI'l,I. Be/an ir issia's In /bc 1 99Os (C)ffice of High- lit. .. .c . 1c ~~~~was Informnation Maniagemetnt, Wasbingtoin, 6. Tue \XAii ci Ba uk. klehari nrt (1 hr ~~17. >',iinic kirliilkoillij. Ait..-( mlnz ve'l /idtin/li D.(:. 19921, P. 1 1. Wo'irld B1r.ik NW.rshiuigirur, D.C., I 9Y56i, u-h,I-/ng (niuntrins. DiSc tission Paper Ni. 7 II Mlichiel Reploigle, "Norr-.liireiried Vehicles P. Vili nreriituiaimi,iil Fuinaice ( olrplir.iiilii The Ini Asi.ii Curies." Wo'irld Barnk Technical Pa- 7. Asi t ji,i and .iic urh id Gautini- i, Ni ortIi-17.i- Wiorld B.ink, W:rsihinigtioii. D.( .. I 99., p 4. pei Nii. 162, Asia Tccii ical D epartrment Se- illlii, hjrit,rriiyatririn. t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ies (The World B.rik. Washin1gt0Tn. D.C., CiiVn,iUrl i 2atio tan Air Pillnutionr.'' dli' I l.lth I .ssiiui). I)irectiir, D)RI/Nic,r.nc-Hlul, 19921, p. xi. cm npaper TIre Woirld Bitnk, WIsh- lilticillTt, 1 994 Ipcr-rlii.il covliitlniiiiciti1iii), LIs iiigtl i, DA. .. I1994;, p IS. citedlii II . I iiii.111, " Aiiri Pri.. itctl c l LIi ici the 31 L15. Hure,rmi ot tIre Census, 1 niyiir)and. Cuti S. M1,1jel 1' Wal \l iiii,r VehIicle PollulitioniRie ii Vital Sixuts I 99i: The Trind/s TfLrt Data Bal..k: 19114 IlS. CGovernictlri lPrinirtng 5. )cieiiell Ai' Whi,re i (Iritical Issuc' tire Art- ' C,pn iir Furtiire Wnirldwsaichi is,ti- Office, Washluiigtir, D.C., I 9941. pp. Decellipuing Cmliitric',," diiSIiisili piper [tiite, Wash'ington, D.C -. I995i: P. 85 6 ii)-X 37. (The World Baiik. Washiunuinult D).C .. 1 I94i. 1)/. 7i., p. 732. up. lit. 5, (1. 2 9. P. 2I I M~~~~~~~~~~~~5. F. Grit wrug., S. O thirri , ruud I. Niall nile. 33. 1)i -t ~p. 42. 9 P i . I . "NiiihiAc w ii PIl ii tile U rb.rn NMo~hilIi 34 Unit ed Stares i U.S.1I Congress, Office o f Tech- It). Flie OE )FCD iiieinbi- counritries ire Aliustr,li,u aiid Nonr-Molori/l-Iru TruiuSport,' ini PrurelC,- tnology A-sesslireir IOTAI, Saving Energy tIn Aus,triai, Belgtirii.i C aunadi, IDenitttrk. Furi- ini,(' 4 Ifs' ' V-I' Seii.ii..r Ii Urbanr Sill/Il- U.. S. TraIisplItat/ln: Summria-ry, OTA-ETI- lan,uii Frainrce, Gcrnsrrity., .cecr. Icelanr d, Ire- its' oil N i- A-I 'nr rizd C ranis/i-ri ut1 iSIli IOTA. Washinrgtonr, D.C.. 19941, p. 6. tutud, Iti) rapan. Liiseiiilouirg, NIr5lcll, the .SiilI-.Sih.rr.i A/u u,. (AlrrcLi Techiuucil I)eparet- 35. lhs. Worldl Resourtces 1996-97 99 Urban Transportation ___ _________ 36. Arithotty. Downs- Stuc k In Traffic-: C pirpzr 61. UiN. EnrtironrinenttIi Protcetiir Agenc,y (LI.S. 0l.irige." TrairSportitti-rr. VOL. 21, No. I With Peak-HI-our Triffic Cr rwifest ir n (The EPA). Natioinal Air Quar.litv and Fmrissir ns I 9) .IS r ir rigs, liit sictittiori, Wa slitngton, D.C.. Trendits Rep' ret, 1 99 iUt*S* EI'A, \Wash ing- 8. 5 re .Ai,I,i ~ iSfiI(sAf- atid rthe Litncoiln InsMtitteof Lind Policy. rrrn, D.C., 1994j, pp. 2. 6, 46, 521. Emip/ursmr'n Rates tint Ir,miciisi f lInner- Cambridge. MazssachLtsorrs, 1 992t, P. 11)I. 62. Comitissisrn if the Etiripeuit t .omniiurtitts. Cit y Rcsi.r'ttsn? i E.irtlh IsI.rrd IrisrtitteC, S;in 37. Ct)/i. et. 5. p. 42. The State of the utv'trriniiiwt It thc Fure- Fritilct ,-er. IDfecmIi 'r I 99 I). P. 9. 38. Littited Natiitios UL.N.). Populatioin Girirth pcan Crinmuntitv: Overircewi' VorI. , ((omi 83~. Op. ,it. .1 I pp. 1) 759 (, 4. .ind Prri icis ilmii lea-Citics: Sin Piutri missioni if tue Eroeriit (.orliitiiiuniitics. 8tr. Robert Fi. NI;is,t eci., / lt nit Iii r., i Feiitple UL.N., New N irk, .199 I., p. Io. Brirsseis. Bfeigiittii. 1 992). p. L)isrtr'rs,Iir,ci.IIri I9i5 .4 39. Peter Hall, -Car Ct :ries Be Sitterinr,rhi0?,- iii 63. U.K. l)eparrttmenit or rlite Fits irroin l it. The S7 1)i, 21, pp. 25 C'3 Thei' Humiian Faircoi the Urban nvii rerit- LIK Fitviriinrrint (UI.K. D)ep.irtroi.ei in irsl r"itor, VIii .edititr ifthi, se, nutdAnlimal Ettim irrinteir, Lorilsii. 1 99)11.i. 88. Lini Thtrrmiiri, 'EFIte 1 rtiispirt,uitirn Sys- gs ,/ u~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~tnts ofi I .rtiii Ariivrtc,it Cities: Hirw Titer Worl,ii B,tnk Cr nfer'iiti orn Fill tri onirrI'- 6Ž4. op ii. 7, pp. 20-21 I . . I girt Bot, tee et e, the Needs ol tue Ioorr ir. lti/K .Siistai,airlr Dev'elrpmentii I sn izi Ser- 65. AsifI F.izi, K ttrn.ires Stirh,t .mr id Stirrh id GII- iii ri HitCti img thr Manaemnit,ir tr.t ri Alcitrni tgelditi Michael C irien. and K.C. t "rt'Ate POulittiOIrr Ch,teir.LCteIStic 11rrd IO .tii, rtiriii'isiiI.t Siv,iartiakrtsritn ,tt dis. (The Worirld Banik. Tretnds,"- dlISCLIssi1ri pape tl AiT a Worti B.trk. A cini,ic. LI.rtitotI N:itiiri ( .siitre' Iris Re- \Washitngtorn, tIC.. Septenmber 19-21, 1 994). Washinigrtoni D.(.. 1 994), P.23S. DLiiriI clirrpriettII UNCRD)) ReseCirLit p.i4. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~66. Aliii.rie fii End Chilidhoord Le:rd Prisirtimig Report Seire, Nrr. I W MtN RI), N.igrivi,jit- 41). Mairk [)err, . Beyond EffiCITI Cf." Atlantic .iid F.iiirtinMniit.1l [DenIIse Fuiiid, The part., 19'94i. p. 4 1. AlrrithIv. Viii. 275. Nit. I tj.riiuarv 19945). G,rlobal /)imntti.rtii if/ I.iaj Prrs'lnrii ; Ar it r. i. 4 P. Y0. Initial Airatrsis (Alliancc ito Erni Chtildhoodrt Gi. ian Thoi-riroi, -itp~iriring tl)irrii Firisporie 41. I/rid., P. 9 1. Leaid Porisoninig, Waishinrgtonrr iD.C., 1 994 . Loirs he IPirc.' in tf I'1 RCi lirtu " liJIteCil 42. J.nitt is . Bernsteiti.' "Lridni Use (Iorrsidee.r- p. Ž6. Nttim irr Emrrirniiii t ontrisiritio fur I [n Lionrs iii Urbani Enrvironmenrtal Mlnan:ge- 67. UtS. Agicic Fors Ittiiciamtioniai Dcreilsprmenit Ariner:ic, :rsldi ( rrlcC rise.rrm S:nirt;rigrr Chile. nreiiti, tiUrvirt Mantagemnent Perogeramtte )LU.S.AI[D), "Ciirp.irittg Ftsrrtirirnnir,iil April 19931), P. 14)). I)iscirsstoiit Paper Nio. 1 2 (The Woreld Batiik. Healtiti Risks (it Cairs, Egevpt: Voul. L". deift 91. T. RnsImirgiii ,iidi i. Niurit., I ).rr cs S.i- Warshinigtonr, D.C., 1994t, p. 26. piper )1U.S.AID, Wishintigon, DIC., 1 994). itr ciiiun ti ri lrrli ic 43. The Woirlud Hartk, Worlrd Dirveltopmentf Re- P. III1. Nonr-Nlrrtrir:ed Ti.iirpirit.- Pit Inin poet I 9ii4: In/rast ruiitet'for ee lo)t tpmetnt 6S. t )/. cit. 66. iif ti, .SSA4TI' Seminrtar r ni LUrbani 41 hi/itv )Oxfirdi Ullriveisirs Press, New York. 191)4), 69. htitergrirerirrttnttt.I'Pitel on S :h at, mut Nrni-A\Irrtiizet 3 Iran,refor .Siii-.Siibi- P. 1-4. Chainge, IPCC syinthtsis Ri/prir. Iiiiy 29. aniAl ma/ii (AfricaI Ii.eikilc;l Dl)eprrtiiiit. 44. Ibid.. p. 2 6. l 945, deaft (Wonridi Motentroingic:ii O)rgiiiii Tue \Wmild Bmirk, N:roierli Kelivri. I994), 4 5. (p. c it. 4 ; p. 27. zmitini/tcinited Nationis Envrironmienti Pro p. 4. 46. )p. ca. 23, p. 16. ~ ~~~graninire. tjnevi:i. I1998), p. 2'i. 92 (I/i. it. .5, pp. 13- 14. 46. 1 )(r. cit. 23, p. 16. ~~~~~7(0. t/. .Itt. 7. p,. I19. 93 'etoep Nesiti.it, lPIici LOi li[fIICTIecc LUrbani 47. (ii. if. 2)3, p. 1 6. 7 1. tip. itt. 69) Trari iv Dert.rtidi," p.i per presenIted to ctire Or- 48. (f/. ,it. .5. P. 8ia72.Op it 2,p )6g.mtisitiori toe FCriiiiiiriicI ii. t;sop itirrr xid 49. SIp. itt. 5. .18 tp t.52, p.S266. D(c cli 'pitte iit [1 Ft 1) If Proe,c ( nroip i it I Ir- 50. Op. cit. 4, p. IO. ~ ~~~73. tOp. cit. .52, p. 266. Irn Tre,iel rit is.ii.ilndcninstri 5)1. Cl/i. cit. 4. p. I C ~~~~~~~74. ( p. c it. 7. p. I 9. (((F I). P.r ri, M.i%rI~ 19 2). pp. I19-27. 5 irid' EV,rrrg Tsrun Realitiesg' foe R Ti Optii- 75. OIp. c ii. 5, p. 66. 94. ()J/i. cii. 5, pps. 8 th-9I. rtins. n uthf/i A,gindia f;r .ALhCintIintin 76. "Tratispsri aid tire Enivirionrenir: FaICTS MinI 9.5. Perer Ncismrii itidci Idle Keitis,reirh, (.it (Koga n Pt ge. Losndolr iii, id Sr. Mairtin's Figurres,` "Uniited/ N'atirins ii Fm ,iiinm't P'I-ri Ii',tir am nirctri/t/' 1/riiti c; Art Initerimi Press, Ne"`w oisk, 1 99.3), p. si . griimmii lmiistnrse' tn,/ I-itcivirIniici Vnil. I~ iiitiil/ .Siiii,t'biiiik It riwser Plrihihsiittg 52. ltiterrrirrna tinl Energy Agency. Woe/lt Enrtigy pr.12)Jttir-)ui 93 ...Cntp.tir,Aiiirst,t [K, i98 )it/nik, 1995 )Org,nirisrioiri for Econoimttic 77. N.ririit;l Itistitirre if Urban Affaiirs i NIJA). p ,912 t:o-Olper.tiriii and Developnireiri, Pairis, Uirbani Liii irtn nr'iit,i Mapsi/: Df,'/n, Borni- 96. Riryt ( oi rimirrissii oii Fir irontiic'irt,l Iri1iLti 1 995St, p. 248. liav, VU oaat,ii. ,Abiitti.bad (NILIA, IDelhi. tor,Ii. rtis/iir ..trir/m tbc I mii nmciitiirt (Her 5.3. tIp. itt. 5. p. 6'. ~~~~~~~~~~1994), p. 2.27. Mlijtesty,sStittrierrm Offtice, I onrjillrrr 91))4), 54 ~~~~~~~~~~~~78. Wirrld Heal(th Olsg:iiiz.itirit iWH(Oi, The p 9 54 f/i. at. 5 2, p. 245. IVore/i Healtt/ Re'port 1 i)9 5: /triclyimg the 97. Willii .rit I'. AI1dr ceri i, Pis I, iS8. Km.roi i loiirir. 55. tIp. cit. 52, pp. 2.52-25.1.1 ;GapŽ i WHO t ) c( evio.r I 995), p. I9. imd Fri . n . NIt ILT le. 'U)rIs,ii Formri, [incrg~. 56. p). cLt. Ž2, p. 24.5. 79 At iii ~ i Ros ad uk ii Mw ,irai, tRevic Andc ihe L.iisn nriiiet: A RIttViLW O 1tIssues 57. tIP. , it. .51. of Worird Bank Fxperien,c iii Ririd Safety.- EriciericeA, r111ti P'ni1tev" drIlr paiper t NIsMis- techirisl i piper ihlilrisrriLtUtCp irid1 Urhbri rep Ij1iVrirrit%. Hrrimiiriir, On)irrirrr Cirtdad, 58. \irh rid es U it ees NItinsrrEnvirITITiiei Itot Pr-Deverlopnieiit lDepa rrnerin, The Wiorlid Bairik,) p.I8 w(rh riTe M idi itetlNiitc( (c tsiEns Dev iin ciltprs- Wish ingtoni, D.(,., Mtarch I 992i, p. 4. 98 /.rit. ~, P. 99 nierit Prsogranmme. W0cr/t Rcosri ei' 8)t. TIre Worlrd Batik, ndti,i Teins/-riie ScOu1r: V9i.. Kstir1rg-Hcs.ri Kniit, "t ;iriite,r d ID)silrrp- 19`'2-9 1 )Otlxlrd Untirersite Press, Ness bLing Termt /ssirc' Reopirt Nir. I.3119221iN (in- iititii Aiis1 DI)etslic,itioiir: Seioil, Kirret,- iii 'trick 19~~~~~'( p. 203. t~~~~ra,tsrictiire Oper:itiriii Divrirrir. t ourttrN 1/ni Humii.miii Cue if t Un' Ce/r ut Fntrrr York, I 992), p. 203. ~ ~~~~~~Dep.rrrniorr 1II Vfi Woriid Burt. \8.nslitri- mciit't, /'-ri' iniiiri i f i/rn% iniiiii Arrri./ 59. S. B. S.ivi lie, "ASitointiorie Oiptionis andtt Air ro 1) .t I 19t5), p. is,. Woi,th/ B.tni t riinftii'cii i I run itirimyn QLIaiirV NLitnagemtett Ini Deveosiping Cortmt- IalvSIsa al 8c q mni ,ialSr- triois," U nitedt Nationirs bin l m iniviitit PIr- X . tIp. Itt. 7q. P. I . ti§ Sifii,ia /iriii,Iirt igei.i1ir. MII iClii t rhl-IeI, 111d Ks. g.iitpnii /indiistevI ant Einire,itrin.i. VOrI. 6 8 2. tIp. cit p.5 52. Sis,ivr.riimrakisihr.m. cc'. MTIre W itld lurk, Ni. 1-2 i.tittiary-junte I199.31, p. 32. 83.1 jh I'iiPther, "Mloddal Shiftr iii Ersternr (c(r- W.ishirigtirr, I ).t ., ~,poie hI.') i-, 191141 61 ()up -If 7'. p. 21). rttits: Tpimispitrtaiitio impli,ct if IPilitic,td p. 247. 100 Worldi Resources 1990-97 Urban Transportation I1On. ti)p. cit. 9 p.I Ic Si i t .oureo Clif itr;; (Fliviroii;; ie al 147 T ilp Bolkide, LIUr.;;; Tr.;nsport iii L.igos.' Ill. Ralph G,ikeiielriiier, "Laind LJseFTr.;iispora- I )veteis Feind, Oaikaind. (.l1ri,,I994}, Tbe Urbano Ag:'. Vol. 2. No. I Fjll 199 U. rio1i Planningir: News PosibisA lrrres for Dievelop- P' 2). P. 7 ing and Dcveloped COLn.i;uires. TrirNpor- 120 Doirtld1 C. Slroip aind Rich.ird W. \Willsorr, 148. 1 )p. cit. 5, Pp. 1)4, lo R). ral;; ))i0.r QU rerlvT I-n To Tr.irwpor mi.ir r FoLirn- -1.;iurirritiig. (h;gesrioin .ird PoIllutionT: 149 Op. cit. i, p. 8 7. il. IriIrr. T1 1. irrrsdo],wrrei, V irgo;;;i , Ap ril I~ ; I he Emiplover-Paid Pairking F onictreeilliTi p. 322. Wo¾rkrii;g Paiper No. 1 20 lLni;rersrrv of Cal; 151p i. 3 .I I1)2. lonris R.irhrrro itch. ' Cmirtirlml: Tirs i ird, Sris- f;rnir.r Tr.i; prrpir.iri;r ICenrer, Berkeley. F ali 15 1. ((p. cit. 101, p. 42. t,r11i,;h,le rrlv111 l)tvrel,Iprr;er;.- to;l Irri;iii';rt lorit;.;, 1 992;, p. r. 152. ()p. , it 311, p. xii;. aniui Urb.oriz,utr;;;: Vil. 4, NIl. 2 lOcri/lber 12 1. lbd P. 21 . 153. op. erit. 311, p. '1_. I 99 ) P. Ill;. 122. 1 ip. cr1. 6, P. I I. ISA4. )p. c it. 10. p. 42. 11)3. 1)o1 'ig~l.i s, Lee, "FriI I IN PFrl L IrIg o.f Trra Ti I121. Mui. I 1irne Brirk and II. C h risri;pher Zegrais, I 5,5. NfIl; irel A lepi;e. "Bicycles I(vert.;ike BLit pomraroni rN4.rir;irr.l Trimirpo;rir.rr i; Svs- Alor'irg Ti;r:.ir; I;rtegralcl Tt.inrpi;rt Plair- TraiVLI rir FLI-I;.ia"' The Ut!;,;; Age. VoII. 2, er/iis F en cre. C'.S. Dep;rt ireir I;1 Tira/p/It- II/rg:E ;'v,F rr;hIrltaui oiltv/ No. I i~ F,; 11 I 993), p. I 6. lrI;I;., M111iilo dge', Nl,1rss,;clrrserr, .\,ir-eh Fui; Asin; litves llinierrrtilrI.rl lsIr'iirt lIltr 156 Op~. cil. 9 Up. 1 . 19 il 1) P I . Ellrrt:g ( o;;serv,;;illo;, Wad;i,h rogIn. D.C., 10)4 LUrired Siaes( F'.S.;) Il//igress. Ollice ill 1 99 P1. p 9. 157. Op. cil. S. pp. 11)9-I I;. TedlimI/l/gy .A,Sess;neTtr . Sriy E egv it 124 rI. i. I. p. I I5S. tiP. iur. 9. p. III) (U11erS rier T m p,rraj.nirir OlfT e \\'.rslrrrIgii;r, 1 25 (/. it. 121. 159. ToddL Lirnmnr . D)ireili(r, Vi,ro; 1, Trar,prsIti G .,erninent Printing Offi,e, W.i,hiiigton, ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~Poh1k) hirsirtirre, Vierimti, Brirsli F .olumirrrr, D)3 .. I p.c 11. 1. I21i. I . ; 91, P)( _.,idi,i: 1 999 iper-IIri.1 LinIn uiiiir iri/rili. IllS. Todd Litrinrin, T;i;nsImi-itali;i; (."Ic .41/aINSIS 1 27. ) P. i/t. /, P. I 9. 160. Olfice III TediiiIil/gv AlIsse,siiv1i rOTAN, iVictor;, Tr.rriplri Pol/io/; 11isiRtt, Iico- 128. 11p. it. 6. P. 20. .Saririg Fncrr,,v In .5 Tt.nIp,;rtll m;: .Sion;- ra. Brrirsh ( Ilrt;a,Car1.d.;. I999i. 129 (1/. iti. 1 21', p. 68. marv IOTA, WavrirngionI D. tC., l 994r, p. I(( (1/_ t.IO;. or 11 PPN 91 -'6f 130 lIp. /if. 6, Talble A-;,, p. .93. 26. I107 o/p. i. i, p). I 9 8. I I1 (4. ;it.9I.~ pp. 13.114. 161 a 111eS J. MacI Kenczie. The Kevs 1i ltk :Car: Fie, It;i anl HIr V;IFIVeIiIli; lv /,re (lie 2 1st 1118. 1 ip. crt. 6, Pp. 8-9. 112 Op. ,if. 9. p. I (7. C( nt/lar (Word Re-lirtieN lnNtiiiute. W.ish- 1011 Iirenrvairroi.,il CIltnsei ion Lo-il Fl/m i//i- I )lp. ori. 6, p. I7 rngiIIi, DF.C.. 1994;, P. 24. iineuir.i lui;ri.irrs vs I LE]I, "I iriirriirg AM/I- il/Ill/iL Llis Thrr;irgli hlrregr-;ed Trxiripor- 134. nlorry R,bihi ir)ichlind JIll/i Hoehir. "A SLit- I162. 0Pn, lit. 92. p. I 12. tItil/ri leririri NIirreirrt tii;r 4i.rr.l;e tIrh,ii I r.ii prsp iitt oiti Systemn: the 163 Op. it. 92. p). 284. Sirigipoere. as tmm ,id iN i. r1 R p bi c of Surface NMetro In Cuiirit.iN, Brac il." Work- tl /.il 2 .II SIllIl/Irt;;,- ,ir.d,r 191191 No 1-9.IFf iirig Pa ie r Ni/. 19 (II pipar lireit rf A gricrl - 169. Aplioh . i 21)p11/ 41) ei;;iiIec)ce Toionto, ( 111.1.1, I 99i) pp. rurl] EIlir/117Irrrs, Nilrcrlgatl St,ite Urniversir;, 16 lo-lI 1 o4 ecn ioeetcei Ill). (i/. / it. 9. P. I I . Fas,t I..irisng. \lichigi.L~ll 1995;, It. I. th.in gasI/line dlepeniding o1; 'shether It IN III I )p. It. i. p. I IXS. 11.9 MolIraillred Nisar a;;d At.i NI. Klrai, "Train- ulsed Ill p/ri I/Itti orI/F Ii;. ini;in-rc withg.s- I 12 PiI.jr P~ezoi;, -Teepe.ije, L1 (trin FlIrNi/dlr,- s/rw,;': Ar; hlnt)Vr,iIitol Iii PUblic TrxirspIrt.i- liuel rILlI LhitllNiTitel tof grit/ ii; eticicrcyk L.i Nrc;;, NINircht 14, 1~99,. Sarii;;ill/ ITE /;;;;,al )hirst-tiire oII Tr.rsplr- UtIile;. P. Friglileers. Walhnigigon. l).( . Jill1) 1992~, 166. Op.er. 9 2, P. 113 . I13.. MIetropoIlutiin Tr.;rrspI;r.rn i;rr oIirnitissi;;n pp. 191.167. MIILhJiel I'. Wris,h. tslmoii Velrrile P1111;;- ( NIT( 1. Br Bridge I JmigeNrioIr PrrLrrIg l136..Asil Fi-irel ai .. "AiItoIriri ive A\ir PoIlItrilo;;: t;rio I oilrlrIl: Ai; Iricre.IisliVr~ F riticil 1ssirt DemttIritritilIii Prr;i;vci r \1T( , ),kl,Iid, Is ies ird Opt/its~ Ilt Developing C ouisi- lIlt D)evel0IIp l/g (IILuriiies,- disc ~ioisiIm C.difi;ririi, I.nnryii. 1991)5. tries," Worksing P.iper No. 492 ililfr.isruc- per (TIre WIrldl Baink. W,islriigti;;i ID1. 1 14. lIp. /it. 9. P. I I ). nirte ilid Urthan D evtlopmnent D)ep.;rtrrent. I1994 . I 15 le.in Air A,non Group, ~~The WIrltd Ba)nk, \Vashiirgion, D.C. Aui- 68. (Op. cit. I12t)/ 94. t1hLe.; AR,w T;,ilip Gril;f In H .it.iiti'ti5tilsAIf g`s; I )910). p. 43. 169. (if;. c If. 1 61, p. 2. a,ick igq Wcst;ri Capiitail 11cit' I nti I 41- (17 (p1/; it. 6, p. 14. 1701. Eleciri, Tr.iripi;rt.iiii; I irlirioi. -( .ilifiir- b,izat/.ithi, .I rohI Kiss, ed. iT.; leTt;;; I 38 (ip. i;t. I 2 1, p. 71 nmi Air Res;;irces B1o,1 rd Priop- ist ni, I Si FoLidiri0drtIt, Birilipest, HILiig.ity. iLiI; 1I9921, 119t. OP. If. 4. pvnd ZEV Ntird,iteN uintil 213111 indrit t Pp. 84-85. 14)). lip, err. 6. p. 3 11. mnsi[ii :r .1 F( .Il/Big 7' Teikhrll;gi IDevelopi II 6. Dry d Tlhrr1rhr, Li,lllIgic.rl1y Sristrrri.rhlv Triteri Pu crh mets;;;,i rtti IF, ditl rfl tri;rr Lie; CII);rirrri inl lie T.r;isp;rt SeIIt.~~141. (if. ,itt. 6. p. 921. lK,irer I .1ILlih.iri, Feiiutlee DiirecnIor, Fkecuric );dt;litrit iind F;iii-rto;;miict. Vl;. I16, N(. (41 (1p. /it. 4.1. p. 98. trotN aind \lembrers. \W.iNhringtiIr, DA. ., lDe- 1-2 Iiri.111iMri-JuryI 199II, P. Il7. 144. joil/i R.bi;iiivitch, Seniri; oIllih-irtnt. eiburie 22, 199i. P. I. I1I. Lee Selhipper ct at.. ..l:;l Prices, AntoniorI- Iliriuect N.utrons Deselo/pflen/ ProgrrIrMMe, 17 1. ( ip. iii. ili, P. i I. Nlile Fuiel F,onIiiriv, rird FuLC list lilt I lind New Y/Irk, 1q995IesIr. cii/ it n -iiri- 172. Op. err. in, p. .31.1 Trreel.,I Pu-errrinjr% I-nichdngN f(turn L,iliilIter. tiolilI. 1 73. ((p. lit. I 16,, P. 6 3. ri/ti-lnal I iIitp.iilIi," di.if; p.1(NeF l_iii%er- 145. StephnRvir IlI, P. Chrristopher Zeur.rs, andii 174 Sujarri Ro,iy;; I/lw//rd AI)ird.il;le aird Fir- ,itv oII F ,rrl;i,r,i. D,;rs C l/fol/ it;.;, 1 994). HeTnr, \I,llbran Rol.is, "TttiN- lIpttitionl Ond viroiri ntiei./l11V SiiLrrld IUthin Frm;ispiirr Niii- P -. 1-urergy iii San; .igi;. F In / It. Tt.ois~~ ~~ ~~~Pit P/Lgeni/en): The F :r ye of Jia art.;. d r.i t p.1per I IX8. TIre WI/tll B.i irk, IS/)it/i [ct Rli/i/i/ wvIt, Vo;l. I. No;. 4 11I994m. p. 2139. presented at thec hirermir.It irl Svimpi-sirirl pw//t I 'i92: I)v;r;// i c// i/ri lIt tl; Fni;irni;- 146 Unirted Nairri.n Ceiirtr lor H-uirmilr Setile- i/n Sustj,iri,ille I thKin Div%cllIpr iirtt tratir- mll/ (Tlire W(irld i nkur. \W sirhrgtiin, D.(.., i/nil/i Ki air,u I, Ptirasr; isiop / Tit,n i';/ i5 ges iii ihe 2sW F enloiry: UlIm;.; Tr.isNIIFrt I 1 PP.1 24-I 25~. .Spa,i fi / I!Urban P:;b;!; Ti/ i/s/itt.. rit Dlilt; ;nrs rthe NlotIlriZedI'/e/r ,. ici Ulnetd N.itrioni I 1i) Nincha.el F,urn;tr/Ir bl, Lf/1re;ti',inid F,liN;ess ilpN/g ( i;li/trtic Ribi-,l it,. Nai/roid . Kerrv,i, Fente lir Regiiiril Devell/pirreTIt, S.;g.11111- ii;1/Il Isisi-0; St;ia;ci;s /1FITrSI,tIiF le f I1991). P. 81 li;a i Ir , frr 4-8, I '194), p. - Wor/ti Resoutrces 1996-97 101 Urban Transportation 175. Michael Walsh. Consiilrant, Virgiinia, Jl11! a nd l(:LEI Sirtt Visim I[ QLie-ill Cuif, Phillip- iv, w(.iikiiig pilier (Universitr ii (r IhIfor- 1995 (personial communicatioiil. piies i El TI. riiTiro, Felbriia ry I99Si, nlii lr;miiipori.iritiTi c nirer. ierk,lIe ( alItiir- 176. Christiipher S. Weaver, Asif FEiz. arindM- Nniv. ii Nia> 19'), p. chaiel Walsh, "Emission Cointrol Measures 178. (Ip. ot. I 76, p. 38. IN. i . ( c. I for In-Lse Vehicles," disCussiLiS i paJper iThe 179. I r h-NI: hir:a.l LI id Chrio'phicr S. Wc,uier, World Bank Washington. D).(C., Sepremii ler A1-h1irv v/ Fiiiissi-?'Si wii/e/ oil bim- 1 Iiiiiiri.1.iii RI i l iiiii i l. li, iiUi Ni-sirs: 19941. pp. 28-30. sirii mtro iti T1 /i r1 3,lie 5 rld Id lik. Nlo r tiz d 1 h Ivirolillit N, : WJs1riTigriiii. D). :., 1 994M) . 1. I-Ani IlIrt-riiiiiriiii1 C.ciiip.iaiii Sruiilr oth 177. internatioiial CoiLincil for Local Envsiroi- diii, -liigk(u. N.ugiy;i.. a.i iiru igl ll(ikik nen ill Initiasives (ICIEI). M.aniuail ii 1The I8(1. IMid.. p. 2. MA-Iom r c i/ t(h S, n ....Sc u,i biir irz'. I/Vi. Oper.atuirald (Guidieltes fur it1 Iiiiptl'iiiil.eit- MXI. - Martiin Wais. 1 e.irmiiiig Ircrn I.- Ainge- 46, No. I N.nco.i I niversity, N.ig-.1. In- tiom of OPLAN Cleain Air Metric Naiiila Its: Tirinspirri, I.Irlmn iinn, and Air QL.l1- I' 1, Octoc icr 1994). p. .8 102 World Resouirces 1996-97 5. Urban Priorities for Action M ) _any of the enviroiinienital problems shared and actions taken by a host of actors, including outlined in the previous0chapters-and nationial govermnents, local governments, nongovern- their impacts on health, ecosystems, niental organlizations (NGOs), communlities, the private and econiomic produictivity- result sector, internationial donors, and otier exterial support from political and econlomiiic factors agencies. FuLture urban environmenital management rather than from the process of urbanizationi itself i,. shol1.d place a high prioritv on strengtheiiing the insti- lntermitrenir or inadequate water supplies, for exalilple, tutionlail capacity of local adminiistrators to develop and are rarely due to true freshwater shortages; more often, mlaintain these partinerships theyv canl he attributed to misguided priorities, inappro- Second, in the face of growiig responsibilities and priate pricing, or poor managemieint. Urban sprawl is liiilited funds, Cities mu1LISt make strategic choices about driven less by the need for more urban land and more which problenis to tackle fi-st. Setting priorities by by zoning regulations, land speculation. aiid political a a * ~~~~~~~~~a,,ess ng thlt scale of Impact and the cost as well as the i nterests. 'e.ase of the sol ution is an importanit component of good Even with strong political will, improving the n- mianagemient. (See Box 5.1.) Here again, local groups agement of urban environinleiital pro(blemis is far froii shiouLld be involved in identifying the key problemns amid easv. Goveriinmenits face a host of factors that hinider ttheir causcs, as well as the capabilities of the coiuLnity their ahbility to respond to Urb)an ctiviroliiiieiital prolh- thei ablit toresondto ubanenvronentl pob- to address the problems di. Urban managers wxill also lems. In the developed aid developling world alike, local need reliable and recenlt data on environmgental londi- government mandates are expanding, adding new tasks tiois Mos t data onr environm ental condit such as Industrial pollution control to the traditional responsibilities of water and sanitation provision. Often comes from a few lare cities-Mexico City Sao Paulo these mandatres halve not been matched w ith appropriate Jaakarra, New York, and Bomnbay-yet these cities rep- control over revenues and budget allocations. In addi- resent only a fraction of the urban areas worldwide tion, many governiiments lack the rechnical knowledge At the same time attention must be given to cost- or the staff to adequately enforce environmental regu- effective techinologies, greater econlomic efficiency, and lations. The relentless pace of Urban growthi in many CiSt recovery (;). Chargilng the full cost of water produc- cities exacerbates these problems, far outstripping the tioin and supply, for insrtance, cani be a powerful incen- capacity of governments to manage and responid to tive for coniservation, just as charging the full Cost of demands for infrastructure and urbaii services, driving can be. (See Chapter 4, 'Urbamn Transporta- Yet the picture is not all bleak. Many ininovative and tion.") In aiddition, improvinv strarcgics rO 1 x sLl)sidizeCd pubhlic ageIcics-Will niot worik in the iinprove coverage. Indeed, the prograills greatest developiig world. The lt1illberof people tiilscivedCisffar ach ievenielit, by s(some cotlits, ma v1 have b eenl tIl;' trii- too great, and city coffers far too snlall, to provide all formliationl iitll tiiik ingthat accompanp;lied it - 5s, residenits with piped water and fluslh toilets ii their Broadly, foLir key lessons emiergedi fromii the DCecIdC: houses. WhIereas SolilC parts of a city, suell as thc urbran first, svsrcilis shouild respoild to local dienialids nlltd core, may be covered byv colnvenltioinal sewerage, other Shold le ailS simlple. sturdy, and linexpensive as possilre; areas, particularly low-iiicnoili setteilleits oii the urlail secolid, the involvvement of th coil illninitv a ild hIiLse- periphery, wNould be T ticlI better served by lower-cost holds-particullarly wionen-iii systein desitgn aind alternatives 1 2. milailteilance is a Crucial collpollellt to a project s sue- Evideilce of the suIccess of low-cost solIitrolis cain rtc cess; tlitrd, govcrni merits need to iiniprove tIle efficiencv fou nd in cities art-u0iid the wi Orld, froi n large-scale pro- and sustai na ilivt of systemn operation and mnailite- granis for pour-fluisll latrines or veiltihated ilproved pit W'orlhi Rcsoiros 1')996-97 105 Urban Priorities for Action Box 5.2 Forging a Combined Approach to Urban Pollution Control Cities have a wide array of tools at some coastal urban waters with poor means of achieving pollution control their disposal to tackle environmental circulation from pollution damage and targets. Economic instriments tend to problems. Regulatory tools, such as le- may be too strict for other better- be underutilized and are particularly gal restrictions on the quantity of pollut- flushed waters, resulting in expensive promising for developing cities that can ants a factory can discharge or overcontrol (3). Giving local govern- least afford high regularory costs (6i. minimum air and water quality stand- ments the authority to set their own en- Pollution taxes, which are levied on ards, have been particularly effective in vironmental standards can have the basis of the quantity of pollutants curbing pollution in the developed positive benefits (4A. In Osaka, Japan, en- released, provide a direct financial disin- world. Their effectiveness relies on vironmental standards for air, water, centive for excessive pollution. They good monitoring and enforcement capa- soil pollution, noise, and vibration are can be especiallv useful where govern- bilities-capabilities that are in their in- in some cases stricter than national ment budgets for environmental pro- fancy in many of the developing nations standards IS). grams are limited-a situation that where urban growth pressures and pol- Economic instruments can also be descre lmoities-because the p lution problems are greatest m (2). powerful tools for modifying behavior, descnbes most cites-because thev pro- Making the regulatory approach more often at less cost than regulatorv instru- vide a revenue source that can be effective and affordable in developing ments. Thus, making use of economic tapped to fund enforcement efforts (7). cities will require a more flexible ap- instruments such as effluent taxes, While pollution taxes are in fairly com- proach in setting such regulations, tak- sewer fees, and tradable discharge or mon use today even in developing coun- ing into account local pollutant loads, emission permits can help cities lessen tries, rhey are often set too low to have the characteristics of nearby water bod- the rigidity and expense of the regula- the desired effect (5) (9). Furthermiore, ies and air basins, and the community's tory, or command-and-control, ap- these instruments rely on strict monitor- water and air quality goals. In manv proach. These market-based strategies ing and enforcement to be effective, just cases, policies are set by national gov- do not specify the use of any particular as traditional regulatory approaches do, ernments and do not reflect local needs. pollution control technology; rather, so they are not a shortcut to pollution For instance, water quality standards they give polliters the flexibility and in- control. In fact, they are more likelv to may not be strict enough to protect centive to find the most cost-efficient work hand-in-hand with traditional latrines to commiiunity groups implementing small-bore that transports liquid wastes in smnall-diameter pipes sewer schemes. Each solution is unique, tailored to local was installed at one third the cost of a conventional conditions and needs, hut most rely on locally manufac- system. The system has been operating successfully for tured hardware (e.g., plumbing, sanitarv sheds, or con- more than 10 vears (I (i. crete caps for pit latrines) and the efforts of communitv Condominial sewers have also proved to be a cost- members to install, maintain, and manage the systems effective alternative, anid versions have been installed in 11). Systems using lower-level standard technologies can low-income neighborhoods in northeast Brazil, Paki- be effective and mucih less expensive, at only one tenth stan, and Yemen i -). Condominial sewers use a radically to one twentieth of the cost of a conventional sewage different layout, with smaller and shallower feeder sew- system. Most of the lowest-cost systenis requLire far less ers running from toilet to toilet through each backyard. water, and once they are installed can be upgraded The wastewater of an entire block discharges into the gradually (14). main trunk line at a single point rather than having to One of the greatest barriers to installing low-cost connect each house to the main trulik. (See Figure 5.2.) alternatives is political opposition to what is considered The Orangi Pilot Project in Karachi, Pakisran, illus- "low technology." In many developing countries, there trates the successes possible with low-cost sanitation s still a tendency oni the part of governments and alternatives. The community adopted a sewage system funding agencies to insist on standards that are higher that filters biosolids into a tank and therefore uses than necessary, sometimes doubling the cost of service smaller pipes and flatter gradients in the streets. The delivery (I5). In Cartagena, Colombia, for example, system cost one tenth of what it would have cost to officials proposed a conventional sewage system even install conventional sewerage. Most of the funds were though a high water table, impermeable soils, and land invested by the commuinity; evenl now the tanks and levels well below the city sewer mains caused pipes to sewers are paid for and managed by groups of house- sink and necessitated pumping wastewater uphill to city holds. The municipality is responsible only for the sewer mains. Once local officials were persuaded that construction and maintenance of the main trunk drains the lower standards of technology were not "illegal," a (15x (19). (See Chapter 6, "City and Community: Toward svstem that uses a septic tank to remove biosolids and Einvironmental Stistainability.") 106 World Resouirces 1996-97 Urban Priorities for Action command-and-control approaches programs seem to have achieved some ment (The World Baink. \Vashingtoit, o1 (I 1. success so far ( 12). D.C., 1992), p. 13. Izlmir, Turkev, provides an example of Few rools available to citvy managers .. Griniiar Eskelatid ond Eininaniiel Jiittetiez, a comlrbined approalch ro pollution con- will work without insritutional ability Ctltitig Pollutiti l eveloptg ( iii- trol using both effluenr standards and to enforce the regulations, or without rries, Fotwee and Developmwent, Vol. 28, an economic instrument-a sewer the staff to collect fees and taxes i *n4i. X* Ci)rer Bra1diNo I rir d Raine9sh Ra i ppki iiry charge. In attempting to address indus- Towaran Environtl Strategy or trial pollution. national effluent stand- References and Notes AsTia, orld Ban k DFsiiiissitota P.tper Nt o ards were adapted to local conditions I . Robert Adler, Rean1rhorizing rhe (lean 224 (The World Bank, Washingtoni. D.( and set out in a miunicipal ordinance. Wonej Aci: Looking to Tangihle V.IlLues," 1993), 6. The 17mir WVater anti Sewerage Autilor- Water Re,oiurc(s Bulletin. Vol. 3(, No,. i 9 (p it 7 (1994), p. 8(13. itv was cliarged with oniotiroring and 1i. Op. LII. 2. pp. 10-26. h ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~ a 2 i s I } ). Beriisreli ii .Ait' r.i ti, e Ap)pro)ac l(tis policing the ordinance, and, through tIm P)Blistto i Cntroil Allrntr Apsu Marnage- I 1. Wkilli.in Tkuohy, Neglecr of Market limen- threats of factOlr cl osLures and timnes, tent, Urban N1lna cenvien atid the Fin)- riVss ii Local Eimiroti ntet r.il Plantin) hg: A has proirtpted a number of larger indus- r(iiiiiieilr, Reporr No. 3 (Thle World Bank, Cise Snitdy iit thie Nationdl Estuary Pro- tries to buili pretreatment facilities for Walltoptn.V , D.C., 1993, pp i-s. grmii, (:Coastal Manaig(ement. Vol. 22 their wastes. The nituticipailitv also as- 3. ()p. cit. 2. 1994), pp. 82-83. sesses a sewer charge based on the vol- 4. Brendi Barrett. hinegrated Environ- 12. Jatt D. Bernstein. ;Alteritative Al- 4. Bred.in arret. "Iitegraed Eniron-proache, to PIilLiition Cotntrol and Waste unie of incdustri al w astes Lliscliarged ntaeit.tl N lariagemietit-Experieiice iii J.a- Mant.igemtentr: Regularorv a it1 Fnd iEccoitni into the sewer svstem. the idea being to p:iin." Journal ,/ F.nt'trionmental InstrUiTitletis," Urhati Malt.igeinttir Pro- motivate indlustries to treat their efflu- Man.utaen,i tt, Vol. 40. No. 1 i jan ary grainine Discussion Paper Nit. 3 (The ents theniselves to the poiitt that they 1994i, p. 20. Woirld Bink, Washitigion. D. ., 199 3), cart be disiharged to surface waters . I),,., p. 21. pp 0-34. rather than dumped into the sewer sys- 6. The World Bin,. Wiorl/d Developmient Re- I ()p *it. 8. P. p5. tem. Although in their infanc, rthese pinrt 19 902: DBechpnitut ,ul tt hen Lc irroui- 14. (p. it. 7. Low-cost svstems are not foolproof, however. Mtost corr-esponidinigly increased williigigess to pa y for a sys- rely oin the active participation of comiinimillitv nieniihers tem and help maintaini it 2 in miaintaininig the pipes. W\ ile this reduces the LtI1itV's In ChinaWuia, an informal settleneint in Guatemala opreratiiig costs, if the coriiLillity anid organizational City;, Guatenala I o. coim tiniits niemilhers asketi thic 1ii1- aspects are ilissling, tIle technology will wtork poorly (2it. nicipal water enterprise to install a single-source water tailik, CVC1 though Such units are typicill' used only involyVing the Conuininity temporarily. The coimniiiliity helieved that this was thc hest solution to its water supplv needs, and each famrily (.onimuiimty ilvt)lvenilent ill water aild salnitatIon proj- 111 ilt its oWIn pipe to the central soLurce. The local ects is key to their success. Not olilly Mliust coolniunities be tanght how to maintainl aid operate systems, they cnniuiiity aissnciatioi receives ti e large bill fromi the - ~~water Cormpany,ailid one resitdent chosell by tile C011illu- alsto ilitst ihe coilsitlted to determine what ty pe of system nity tm nalges the hilling and the collection of fees from best st Sits local coil itions. WAomiel, tile nilajor LiserS Of eac Ilisehoid While the tost of the single-soiirt' a systeml, can pioieVaiLiabfle iidvice abouLt the desigon iciloieild hl h otO tl ilI-oic a ssstems ean pr-ovidle vililialile atSvlte alrolit tile dCsigl] xlwater tank per famililv is more than for fanmilies directly atd nlianagenlent of a water and salitationi systeili. conneced to the cit's water suppiy network it is stili Failure to involve the Colllluillity Can lead to inefficient far iess than what they had been paying for water from systems. Ill Nicaragla, for example, new latriiies were priviate vendors. This ssteni is heinlg replicateti in othler l dil sed by wvnmen bcaus he feet ld esettlements in Guateniala (24). outside. tlelvilg them tile Cistomary privacvy Cl In contrast, when woomen are taught to mainitain lan- Improving Operation and Maintenandce pumps or other-wise allnlage collective water systems, they ofte n p erforml hetter trlail menl hecause they are less National and interilational agencies have placed far too likely to illigrate, more accustowned to voiuLitarV work, mu ch emphasis oil the conisrrtlctioll of new facilities at atid tian he bettertrUstetl to a(lillilister fuliids 2). Iinvolv- the expense of improvinlg operation and iiaititetia nce o1 ing colililiiiil ities has other beilefits as well, such as existing installatiolns ,i, In Mexico City, for example, greater commullllity acceptatice of a new systein and 5)) percent (7 out of 14) of the wastewater plants are Wom-bt Rcsource's I9)9_9 7 107 Urban Priorities for Action Figure 5.2 Conventional Versus Reductionis i'l tliiaccoLiilited-for water can allow in- vestmenits in new works to be deferred or at least Condominial Wastewater Collection reduiced in scope, withi sigiificanit savings. In additiol, Systems by improvinig the systemi of inercr readinig and billing or by detectling anld charginig for illegal coniniections, reve- Conventional System Condominial System nLue can be greatly increased to pay for water treatment I _ I an d distribution as well as operat ioni and maintenance. I I I-or examiple, in Urban areas in Thailand in the 1980s, |i| eachi 1( percenit of ulna1ccounited-for water saved WaS _Iestimated to immediately genieriate an additional $X lii I mllio per yea r fromi the 3.5 imilllion people served mi. I I Cost Recot'ery _ I With better cosr recoVel-r Ltirlities in developilng conLI- I I tries could imipr-ove the qualitv and availability of water, potenltialliy eveI in low-illcollme a reas. Water supply i _ ! I rprojecrs require huge capital investimients, yet cities are faced witlh decreases in funLLs for urban water supply Lpurposes and burgeoning urban PoPln latioIs. In devel- opi ng coUiltries, coIIsL11melrs paly oilV abouLt 35 percenit of the costs of supplyinlg witer, according to a recenit - Main sewer t Backyard toilet analvsis of World Baik-financed projects r vt Recover- - - - Street sewer Plot ing a greater percentage of these costs could provide cty Hlousesewer ma nagers with funds to expanid coverage in nlew areas Source: The World Bank, World Development Report 1992: Develop- or to maintain and improve existing facilities. ment and the Environment (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1992), p. 107. Drinking water, however, IS a basic human neeL 3nd sufficienit water tor good hygiene is a rerequnisite of public health. With these conisiderationis in mind, gov- operated at less thani their designed flow capacity aiid erilments have historicallv subsidized the cost of water. treat only about 7 percent of the cirv's total wastewater Unfortunately, these subsidies rarely reaclh the urban 256 2'- Thegenerallv poor performance ofpLIublic water poor; ilstead, thev most often benefit the better-off and sewage utilities in developling couiltries leaves a in- consuimiiers witlh houLse conllnections. In many caises, the ple room for improvement and is a ma jor factor coti- poor are actuially paying more than their wealthier tributin g to the highi cost of these services i2ŽS. couniterparts for less reliable service. Water from1 veii- Iln mialy cities, about half of the water that is treated dors costs substantially more (and miav be of poorer and distributed at public expcise is not accounlted for. quality) than piped water in the same areas. Indeed, the In Manila, Philipp[ines, for instaice, .58 percent of water poor may pay as much as .30 percent of their incoine for is ulIaccouLited for, as opposed to 8 percenit in Singai- water, wille the well-to-do pay less than 2 percent i pore. For Latin Amilerica as a whole, sucI water losses Evidence exists that poor urban residents wanit and cost between $1 billion and $1.5 bilion in forgone are willing to Pay for on-plot-if nti ln-houIse-water revenue each year (2')). supplies Of reasonable reliability. Unlike some other As muclh as oneI half of the watCr not accouLnted for environimenital amenlities that benefit the public at large, is due to unlrecorded usage or illegal taps. For example, it is the individual househ oldl that receives most of the in Caracas, VenezIela, approximately 30 percent of benefits of piped water. The pr-evailing assumption is water connections are not registered [wm. ReduCing sucih that houscholds are wvilling to pay ahout 3 to 5 percent losses is clheape- than reducing leakages, providcd the of their inconie for access ro clean water, yet actual utility has a sufficient inliliber of rrained staff. Ma or studies reveal that somle are willinig to pa' considerably strategies inctide installing, prom1ptlv serviciig, and more, some less N ;4)) . recalibrating meters; updatinig anid revievWing conIsumIer The I 980s saw a widespread comilillitment to adopt- records to estimate consuimptioni w-hen meiters are nlo- ing imiore cost-recoverv programs, especially amoong do- serviceable; and streamliniing biureauicratic procedures nor organizations. Yet most cities still do not achieve to assist -~~~~~~~~~~~flI ot eovr I l aer SuIPPloprtnsadetit to assist customners to make niewt legal coninectiois. full cost recovery in wiatt 108 WurId RcseoiiceS 1996-97 Urban Priorities for Action concerns remain. There is n(o guarantee, for example, ure will provide metered industries with incenitive to that a financially motivated utility will invest the addi- conserve water 41. In Sao Paulo, Brazil, the imnposition tional funds in low-inicome neighborhoods rather thani of effluent charges induiced reduictionis in Water deilianid high-income suburbs. Furtlierimiore, the debate concerin- betweeni 42 and 62 percentr at three industrial plants r42). ing how miuch to charge and to whom and whethier- A study in Beijbing showed that a combination of water supply tariffs should cover only operation and strategies could reduIce industrial waterconIsumllption by maintenance costs or should also generate resources for about one third, at a cost substantially less than that of fututre investment is far from ovelr investinig in new supplies. The measures included in- creased recycliig of cooling water in nanfaicrturing; Promoting Water Conservation recyclinig of cooling water in power plants; and waste- water recvcling. Slimiiai-lv abouit I 5 lierceiit of domiestic For most cities, extendilig water supply coverage to waerreycing Siila aboutIS n eren conisumption could be saved thirouigh meaiSureS Such as current residents is challenge enotigi. Yet cities arc also improved efficiecy in public facilities, a leakage redic- facing pressures to expand thieir municipal water sutp- tion program, recycling (f cooling water used in air piles; demand for municipal water- could grow by a conditioning and installation (I water-efficient flush factor of five or mnore over the next foiir decades (in oC. Many cities already face criticall water shortages and t(Iilets (4 I high costs of stipplv. The usual response is to increase supplies through Reducing Water Pollution expensive investmenits in niew public infrastructure. Yet Byv reduciln water pollution, cities canl rcap thle doLIble evidence suggests that cities can also maniage the de- bernefit of effectively increasing the Water supply while manid for water by reducilg wasteful Lise (througih lessening the deterioration of the aquatic enivironiiiient. pricing and conservation efforts) and by preventing As the "'pollution shadow" spreads, cities must go pollution. A comprehensive strategy wotild include im- fLurther- afield to find ctlean wlter, wlich significanitlv pr(Iving the operatrionl and(3 maintenanve of wvater- supply1s increases the costs of waitet supply. Shanghai, China, for systems, removing subzsidies and price distor-tionis that inistaice, nioved its water intrakes 40 kilomieters Lip- encourage waste and public edDcaltinii ; Demiand streami at a cost of $300 nilllion beCaLuse of the deglal- management is a particullarly attractive optionI forcities datioi (f river water quality around the city (44 4S* in the developed world, where per capitai water coin- OfallthellItitalts.irbiisewagenay betheworst suniptiotn is manv times thit in the developinig w(Irl(. offender in near-urban ii wterS, Although induStrial poI- Recvcling, especially (f industrial wastewater, is ali- Itants caii be a ii;a jr sltirce In addition, up to ha If other attractive strategy, providinig companies witli a (If the coaminantsoreachin ura aters cI] from cost-effective and reliable soiirce of water aind at the on on rcm,n uct s urbaCrInlff ( CIIllI fii nonpoint sources, suich as Urb;an rLHofft (Controliling same time protectinlg the enivironmiienit cP(M. Lurb an runoff, although difficult, is essential if cities are In Boston, inipendinig costs of supplying water to the t i to mitigalte their iniipacts On neark. water brodies. city led officials to implement a Long Range Water Preventing pIllLtion Ii the first place may be the best Supply Program (LRWSP) to cur down Oii water use. longte-remsoltirion. onie StUI In Santiaigo Chile, foun dL Between 1 988 and 1993, LRWSP reduced the average dailv demand for water from 1.2 million to 0.9 million a bout $78 mill ast water theae nd hea Iri aDLItr $78 1111111011 annultally, tle ecoiioiiilc andt li.;Ath CUbiC m-eters i;)ty The program foctised on detecting andg ..~~~~~~~~~~~~~ b enefits resulrtin froil PAILMton preveiirloii couldt LItS- repairing leaks, metering, retrofitting showerheads and tifv this inlvestmenit (4(.). (Sec Box ; 5.3.) toilets with niore efficient techlinologi'es, protectiiig water sources fromii pollution, and building stipport for Urb S the program among city residents througIl outreach and education. These reductions eliminiated the need to de- In cities of the developling world, only a fraction of velop new supplies-saving huLndcreds of millions of urban sewage is treated, eveii in cities in middle-incomne dollars-and the water system is operating withlin its Counlies. Bluenos Aires, Argentina, for iistLince, treats safe vield for the first timie in 20 years (4M). only 2 percent of its wastewatcr 47,. The costs of In developing countries, several cities have been im- collecrinig and rreating urban sewage-typically, about plemeniting demand managemnent programis. In Mexico $1,500 per householdl for collecrioll and primiary treat- City for instance, the walter utility imiplemiiented a new nienir-are prohibitive for many developing countries rate structure that charges more per Cubic meter as Costs are highier still to mzeet the additional treatment connsumptioni levels increase. It is h1oped that this nicas- req iuir-ements of miost developed couilit-ies 145. \Worlh Resousrces 199/-9 109 Urban Priorities for Action Box 5.3 Costs and Benefits of Water and Air Pollution Controls in Santiago The metropolitan region of Santiago, In response to the cholera outbreak, Bv their nature, however, these imeas- Chile, must cope with significant air Chilean authorities inmposed a series of ures relv on the cooperation of farimers and water pollution problens. But do emergency measures: a han on vegeta- anlld the public, as well as the political the economic costs of pollution merit hles grown with wasrewater irrigation will to conrinue monitoring, enrforce- large investments in pollution controls? and restrictions on selling irrigated vege- ment. and outreach. Already, public A recenr analvsis bv the Worldl Bank tables and fruits outsi(le of Santiago; vigilance and( inspections have lapsed as found significant benefits from invest- stepped-up water quality molitoriing; the thrcat of cholera fades from mumz- meo ts in both water and air pollition chlorination of irrigation wvater in en- ory. Recognizing that the only long- controls i1I nals; a public information cam paign term and guaranteed solution is Sanitation services in Sanriago are about the risks of eating raw vegeta- wastewater treatment, the World Bank bles; and a ban on serving raw' vegeta- conducted a cost-beiefit analvsis to de- vvell developeui-mioSt urban houise- bles nl restauranrs ~termline to what extent investm)ent in holds have access to potable water and bles in restaurants. a These measures helped control thc full wastewater treatment is justified on adlleqted wastewatera g i-but thdeq sal o cholera outbreak and significantly re- rhe basis of public health considerations. collected vvastewater is inadequiate. Ex- duced the incidence of typhoid andL The World Batik studv found that full cept for a smnall pilor planr thait treairs hepatitis. Tvphoid cases, which avcr- wastewater treatment would cost about about 4 percent of the city's wvastewater, aged over 3 , 500 per year fromn 1 98 to S78 miillion annually. However, annual mosr sewage is duinped unltreated into 1990, dropped to under 500 in 199 1; beniefits couild range from onie third to opell watercourses. hepatitis cases diropped to 1,430 cases almost all of the cost of treatm ent, with Contaminated surface water has been in 1992, from more than 4,000 per year the wide range resulting front differetit used to irrigate about 1 30,000 hectares before. Fronm 1985 to 1991, 45 to 70 assumptions about the probability of a of farmiland, including about 7.000 hec- percent of all typhoid cases in Santiago cholera epidemic occurring under cur- tares used to grow vegetables for raw v were attributable to weastewater irriga- remit conditions. These numbers greatrl consumption, resulting in high rates of tion; in 1992 only tvo cases-less than understate the true benefits, because typhoid, hepatitis, and a 1991 outbreak I percent of all cases-were traced to they do not include the health costs of of cholera in Chile. wastewater irrigation. other gastroenteric discases such as Eveni in the United Stires, wherc ma jot itivestimlelits thlt inay be especiiallv imivportant in areas wltere saltwia- in sewers and treatment plants have already been mnade, ter i11tltrtisSIO illtO COa Stal aIuifer-S has becomiC a probI tciii the costs for com7pleting anid rehabilitating the existiltg because of overdrafting of local groulndwatel- supplics infrastrrLcture are calculated at $108 billion, and this 5si, Sm n. does not reflect the full costs of remiovini nutrients froim In Kochlice, Poland, a dutckweed pond is being used the effluent streami 149). In the United Kiingdomi, the cost to treat wastewater fromi 3,000 residents, at a cost far of iiifristtlctrl-e tieeded to mneet the new European lower than that of a new wiastewater treatilienit plant. water quality standards is esritiiated at $60 billion over The duckweed pond processes the wasrewater, resulting the next decade, or about $ 1,)(00 pe) r residenit 'ino. in water qLuality at the otutlet that is higher than Polishi Lower-cost treatiient options are clearly needed. surface water standar ds reqluire. Additionally, the These options should have sonie capabilitv to reniove biomiass produced is halrvested rwice a veaLr and used as nutrienits as well as accomn plishi more trad itional treat- feed for livestock sis. In Caluctral 1ndia, 680,000 e( bic nienit goals. Alternatives ratige froui mtioderui miarine meters of wastewiter is discharged tailly into 12 2,000 outfalls that tratisport sewage into deep waters to the hectares of nearlby wetlainds. The wetlands are used for use of new low--mainitetiance equipiTment suchi as fine fish produCtion, anid the treated water is reCtsed for screetis and special biological filters. New approacihes irrigation. The E. coli counrt of the water etiteritig the to natural treatment sVstells suich as sedillentatioll wetlanuds is about 10) million organisms per milliliter, ponds and artificial wetlainds with nutrient-scrubbirtg whereas the treated dfflueIlt has atl l. (c(/i Coulint of 113 plants are promisilig for cities where sufficietit land is to 1)() per nilliliter I 9i still available (ii) (s ] 54, Iniiovyative technmologies alone will not suffice, how- Another promiilsinig approach involves the reuse of ever. Especially in the developing world, hel-e is a miunicipal wastewater. Biosolids caii be separated outr, critical need to develop the institutioIal CaplaCity to comliposted, and reused as fertilizer, for iisttlice, while plati, finance, and efficienitiv operaite and miaintain coni- the treated effluenit can be useLd to irrigate landscaping ventional wastewater treatmemit sysktnis. For niany cit- or crops or to feed aquaculture ponds. EffluIent can also ies, the volunime of waste is too large, and the purification he used to rechlia-ge grLoundwate-r supplies, all approach capability of wetlands roo sunall, to relv solely on these 110 World Resources 1996-97. Urban Priorities for Action hepatitis and diarrhea, the amenity val- mated that a 1-metric-ton reduction in the benefits of the control strategy ues of improved coastal water quality, PM-10 emissions would yield health would outweigh costs by a factor of 1.7 the impact on fish and shellfish produc- benefits more than 10 times those result- and that investing $50 million to $100 tion, or the value of water-use rights for ing from similar reductions in all other million in pollution controls would he Santiago's treated effluents. Nor does pollutants combined. cost-effective. Because these estimates the study consider the impact of futmre Out of a short list of pollution reduc- are considered conservative, it is likely outbreaks of cholera or typhoid on the tion measures, the World Bank study se- that substantially larger investments growth of fruit exports or on tourism. lected four as part of a control strategy: would also be cost-effective. For exam- Santiago suffers from significant emis- emissions standards for light-duty gaso- ple, the health valiation accotints oniv sions of particulates (e.g., PM-10, or line vehicles; a requirement that new for lost productivitv and treatment particles less than 10 microns in diame- trucks be equipped with diesel engines costs, while the estimate of health ef- ter), sulfur oxides (SO.), nitrogen ox- meeting 1991 U.S. emissions standards; fects considers only acute effects and ides (NO.), volatile organic compounds the use of compressed natural gas for not cumulative and long-term effects. (VOCs), and carbon monoxide (CO). buses in place of diesel engines; and the Vehicles account for about 85 percent conversion of wood-burning industrial of NO. emissions, 69 percent of VOCs, sources to distillate fuel. The studv then References and Notes and 94 percent of CO. Vehicles, indus- developed a dispersion model to simu- 1. Box is based on The World Bank Eniviron- trial boilers, and residential wood-burn- late the strategy's impact on air quality, ment and Urban Developmenit Division. ing all contribute to emissions of particularlv in heavilv populated and Chile-Managing Env'iroinmental Prob- particulates (in addition to street dust, a highly polluted areas The study also lemns: Ecouiom,izc Analysis of Selected Is- sizable component that was not fullv as- used a model to estimate the improve- sties, Report No. 1306 -CH (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994). pp. viii, sessed in the study). Industrial boilers ments in public health resulting from x-xi 39-41, 50-59, 83-8 5, 96-98. account for more than half of SO. emis- the air quality improvements; a valu- sions, with vehicles accounting for an- ation of health benefits in terms of other one fourth. Particulates are by far fewer lost work-davs; and a cost-benefit the most serious pollutant. It is esti- comparison. The study concluded that methods of treatment. In addition, where wastewater cilitate pollutant monitoring as well as the recycling of also contains industrial wastes, new threats emerge industrial wastewater, which reduces industrial water from the bioaccuinulation of heavy metals and other demand and the volume of wastewater discharged. chemicals in fish and crops. Industrial Effluents PRIORITIES FOR ACTION: SOLID WASTE Cities are using a variety of regulatory and economic MANAGEMENT instruments to reduce industrial water pollution. Efflu- ent charge systems, for example, impose fees on induis- The growing volume of waste spawned bv the consump- tion inherent in citv life is a formidable challenge to trial facilities according to the quantity or qualitv of cities in developing and developed countries alike. For pollutants discharged. These svstems are often more low-income cities, the malin solid waste probleiii is how economical than regulatorv mechaniisms to induce firms l tto extend collection services to the poor-often 50 to reduce pollution loads {(o6. The Netherlands has an percent of the population Is without service. Improving effective water pollution charge svstem that provides a e n i * r ~~~~efficiency In these cities is key, because waste manage- strong incentive for industries to) reduce pollution. From ment often accounts for 30 to 50 percent of operational 1969 to 1980, it is estimated that 50 to 70 percenit of budgets, vet collects onlv 50 to 80 percent of the refuse the pollution reductioni in 14 indtistrial sectors was due generated (62) (6I). In middle-income anid high-income to effluent charges (61). cities, collection often reaches 95 to 100 percent of the Where possible, cities should encourage the separa- population, but disposing of ever greater quantities of tion of industrial wastewaters from domestic wastewa- waste emerges as the kev challenge t64) (6). ter streams. Separate treatmenit of industrial wastes-or The traditional approach to solid waste manage- pretreatment before they are discharged to sewers-re- ment-that municipal governments handle all aspects moves heavy metals anid other toxics so that thev do not of collection, transport, and disposal-has been at best contaminate domestic biosolids and wastewater that a mixed success in both developed and developing will be recycled. Separation and pretreatment also fa- countries. The search for more efficient and economical World Resouirces 1 996-97 111 Urban Priorities for Action solid waste collection programs has taken cities in sev- allowing for the production of cheaper goods from eral directions, most notably toward new partnerships recycled materials, and creating mLich-needed jobs (6-). with communities or the private sector and toward new Wastepickers are often highly organized and can types of economic policy instrumenits, such as recycling accounit for a large share of waste collection. In Indone- credits (payment to a recycler), landfill disposal levies sian cities, estimates suggest that wastepickers redtice (taxes at the landfill site designed to reduce the amount total urbani refuse bv one third (6X8. In Bangalore, India, of waste being landfilled), and product charges (a pack- street and dump pickers gather an estimated 500 metric aging tax to discourage overpackaging). tons of post-consumer wastes daily, compared with only 37 metric tons gathered bv municipal workers (691. Informal Waste Collection In addition, many businesses depend on regular sup- In the developing world, the municipal system hanidles plies of waste materials from the wastepickers. In Dar only a minor fraction of the wastes generated in a city. es Salaam, Tanzania, one study found that small-scale In manv cities, especiallv in Asia, more wastes are dealt industries received 50 to 65 percent of their raw mate- with by, a vast netwvork of urbian wastepickers 166. These rials from wastepickers workinig landfill sites (70). The wastepickers provide clear environmental and economic finished products ranged from buckets to kerosene benefits to the city: saving resources throuigh recyclinig cookers. More generally, steel, paper, and glass produc- raw materials, reducing the costs of waste disposal, ers in developing countries are heavily dependent on recycled material inputs. Yet in most cases, wastepicking is driven by abject poverty. Eor many, the only access to many of the resources thev need for housing, clothing, fuel, and _* _ work comes from the waste materials of the more _ -S affluent (71:. Socially ostracized, wastepickers-many of whwom are women and children-usually work in squalid, Linhealthful conditionis for long hours and low returns (7)). With the increasling recognition of the value of infor- mal waste collection to urban functioning, efforts are lnow Linder way in a nuLimher of cities to integrate these activities into the formal urban economy and to mini- mize the health and safety risks of waste collection for those whose livelihood depends on it. Manv of these efforts are driveni by NGOs or communlity-baised or- Iganizations and face the organizational and financial difficulties commoil to voluntary efforts. As a result, few projects have led to citywide programs, and many have 1not survived even on a small scale (73) (74). However, some efforts have shown a measure of success. In Belo Horizonte, Brazil, and Bandung, Indo- _nesia, for example, wastepickers are being organized in,to "unions or "cooperatives" (S! (76) (77(. Coopera- tives can improve the efficiency of collection by pooling finanicial resources (e.g., by using community loans to upgrade collection equipment) and by giving wastepick- ers a greater political voice. Unions can appeal to the municipality to allow them access to recvclables within the citv and the city's dump sites. In a few cities, these _ groups take on social roles as well, lobbying for im- Meager living. At Manila s Srnov Moolntait, a child sorts proved sanitationl facilities and schools. through gatage fof ltens to recycle. For many poor families. In Madras, India, one organization worked witlh wastopcking is an-Portant soirce of income.t blut much needs scavengers to integrate tlhem into the city's door-to-door waste collection service (78 79. Wa stepickers collect 112 World Re'sources 1996-97 Urban Priorities for Action wasres froml households anid either deliver them to city (si). In Kuala Lumpur, the city provides detailed mulnicipal vehicles or deposit themi at transfer polits, gLuidance to bidders, including estimiates of the daily Wvith households paiiiig a fee for this service. In other alount of garbage to he picked up and rhe likely cities, the collectors cani trade the rccvclaibles for extra number of workers needed. The city also makes certaiii incomen, anid the oruanics cani be takell for small-scale that eachi conitractor's offer is sufficient to ensure satis- coinpostlig. II still others, wastepickers have been factory service and a profit for the contractor, but it given picks, gloves, and boots to provide protectionl reserves the right to terminiate conitracts at any time from ctits and exposiure to pathogenls jStl. However, should sert ice be unsatistactorr vs. wasrcpieking remainis a hazardous occupation. Reducing Waste Generation New Partnerships and the Private Sector In developed countries, the volume of municipal waste Opportunities exist to imiiprove the efficienCVy of inLu nici- generated far exceeds that in developing Countries, and pal solid waste collection services. Given the limited the costs of disposal are becoming increasingly burden- financial aind adicniistrarive resol rCes of local govern- some for strapped city' budgets. Mzlany cities are trying melits in developing countries. there is a grear deall of to find liew ways to provide incenltives for residenlrs to specLilationi about whletilhe privatization. whicll hals gen- red uce waste generation and increase recycling. Variable erillv worked well in Northi Amierica aiidl EuLrope, call garbage caii rates or pay-per-bagsystems have been verv bIe adapted to poore r cities si,. Solid waste collectionl effective in reducinig solid waste genierationi at minimal sert ices by the private sector are from )20 to 48 perceent cost to the city. In P'erkasie, Perinnsvyallia, for examiple, less costly thanl public services and cani be a great the introductioni of per-bag fees led to reduIctiols ill thc improvemiienit in terimis of efficienicy and quallity (s). volumni of solid wvaste by morc than .50 perceint; the cost However, privatizatioin should not be consider-ed a of solid waste disposal fell by 30 to 40 percent (8-. panlacea. private comiipaniies m.ayv only be inter-ested in Otther cities are fostering businesses vith inilovativc servicing high-incomIe areas of the city whiere service recyclinig projects. In Berkeley, Califoriail, a company charges ca n be higher and wlher e the vailue of reclaimied calleid Urban Ore conibs the city's trash for prodUcts anid or recycled miaterials is higlher. In addition, WithouIt a materials it can cleall up or repair an d theni sell. In proper regulatory stricttire and comiipetition, private Chicago, anothier coimpani' repairs car tires or reproc- companies mayI not have incenitives to provide the best esses theliml into products ranging froIml snowtvbowcr services or to dispose of wvastes according to environi- blades to conveyor rollers (SN). mental reguilatiolis. Paying more for garbage disposal or intensifying The ideall arrangement may be a mix of public amid recyclling efforts is onlv' a small portion of wivat needs priva re services-that is, contracting OIit the collectioni to be done, however. Reducitig the armount of waste of solid waste insmOmeziizones of thecity' whilee retaining genieralted will require fulidamilenital clianiges in lbow public ser-vice to the remininiiig zonies (SX). This systenii countries value and use IresoUrces 59* cani make city operaitionls iiioire cost-effective while still allowing the city the ability to take over solid w*aste collectioii if a private colitrtlctor fails. In the United PRIORITIES FOR ACTION: AIR POLLUTION States, the cirt of Phoenilx is div decl iiltO zones foi solid waste collection. The city's department of public works For healrh, ciivironimilenital, and economilic reasons, retainis jurisdiction over two zones and coinpetes with strategies to reduec air pollutioii are critical in niani privilte companies for 7_-ye.ar coiiltracts to service the cities of the developed and, especially, the developing other zones. The contract is awarded to the lowest world. Ambient air pollItioll einaiates from three ma- bidder; so far the city has woii about half of the ConI- jor sources-ener-gy g,enerarion, industrv, and transpor- tracts. After a decade of coimpetitive bidding, the citv tation-all iof which teiid to iiicrease with economiic estimated that cost savings amiounted to $11 million, groiwth. Strategies to cope w'ith automiobile-related ailr and cost avoidance ( fromii lower costs of contracts woii pollution, wvliich constitutes the fastest growilig c(illpo- back by the city' amounted to $9 million (I4). nelnt of urban air problems, are discussed. in Chapter 4, Similar arrangements liave also been successful in LI Urban Transportation. developing couLItry cities. Seoul, Republic of Korea; At the most hasic level, addressing urban air prob- K llaa Ipur Malilasil; and Bangkok, 1'1hilaaid, for lems reqUires ali understanding of the air basin in which ex linple. all maintain soImle forili of public solid waste the cit' is situated and the pollutioi sontrces that affect collectionl service whille privatizing soIlme parts of the it. Fortninig or participatiiig in an air basinii management Wmrld Resources I ')"%- 113 Urban Priorities for Action district or other regional regulatorv body is often the and funigi, and the release of gases from conlstruiction best way for cities to develop this uliderstanilding and to materials an d furinishililgs such as rugs and uphiolstery. coordiniate basinwide efforts to conitrol pollution, in- Several strategies are available to address indoor cluding the drafting and enforceielint of ambnient air pollution in higher-inicome settlings. Smokling indoors qualitv standards. (See Chapter 3, "Urban Impacts on and in public places cain be discouraged through public Natural Resoul-ces.") Developing a local air monitoring informationi campaigns alertinIg residents to the dangers capability is essential to both policymiiaking and enforce- of secondhand sinoke. To miiinize combustion prod- ment efforts. In Bombay, for example, citywide air ucts indoors, city enviroiinmenital iianlagers can establish monitoring since 1969 has provided an exteinsive data- programiis to check hiomc heaters and stoves to ensure base that is used to assess both daily air quality and proper ventling andl mainitenanice. Local ordinaiices can regional pollution trends i4111. he enacted to restrict the use of asbestos ilisLilationi and In many cities in the developing world, however, the fireproofling iii new conlstruction. And building codes most critical health threat stems from exposiure to in- can direct attention to the provision of adequ.ate venti- door air pollution. ReduIcing thils thireat requires a dif- latio,l pa rt-ilarlv in new comercial b uildi gs with ferent set of strategies. closed-loop heating and cooling sstems Addressing Indoor Air Pollution Reducing Energy Sector Emissions For many city residents, air polluitioni fronii ildoor Cutting emissions froin the energy sector, particularly smnoke, usually from bioma1ss fuels, poses a greater coal- or oil-fired power planits, is critical to controlling health risk than outdoor air prollution. (See Chapter 2. otdoor dil p011.tioIn ianY urban areas Uifoi-tu- "Urban Einvironiiienr andtl Humllanl Health.") The opti- nately, many of the factors deterniniiing energy sector mal strategy to reduce the exposuIr-e of lower-incomiie pollItionI-suLch as the price of energy, the siting of residents to indoor ailr pollutanits is to facilitite their state-(iwiled powerplants thelevelofinvestillentin new switch from dirt fuLCIs, for example, by providing clean- technologie oralternativeenergysources andthepri- vatization (if local Litilities to imip rove their capitalization burning gas or by establishinig programs to ma;ke kero- a manageent-ar freently determed at a n sene~ ~ ~ ~~~~~L stvsmr fodheHoee o ilypo lnd iiiiinagilglleitr-ilre frequetlyrl (ieteriiiiied] at a nzi- senie stoves miore affordable. Hlowever, for- maniy p(otr tional or state level. Nonetheless, cities often have con- residenits of areas without access to city services, this transition to higher-priced fuels will not be possible for over the energy consumption patternils of city residenits. some time. For this population, the most promlisinig Redlucilg pollution froml coal- aid oil-fired power interim measures are the distributioll of improved cook- can coic via three routes: upgrading the gener- stoves plants te fostering of iiiproved h Lse desgi rheigpla stoves and the fostering (if improved house design with ating efficiencv and pollutioni-conitrol capabilities of the better venitila t](1 betterveilas to desion, aii(i disseilnate cleaner-bUrning plants themliselves so that they enilt fewer pollutants; Programs tom design and disseminate cleanler-butirninilg cleaninig tup fuels, either by cleaning the coal before stoves halve been under wVay for many ylears in countries rburning or by switching to cleaner-burning natural gas; such as China, India, Kenva, and Nepal. However, most or reducing the demand for power through energy stove programis are designed to improve efficieicy, not coniservation. (See Promotilng Einergy Conservation, be- reduce air pollution. Oine of the miost successful urban low.) Attentioni to proper operation and maintemiance stove projects has been the Kenya Ceramic Jiko iiiitia- proceduires is required in any ciase to keep the perform- tive. More than (500,000 stoves have been distributed ance of power planlts frtoni declining over time-an since the mid-I 980s. The stove is a modificationi of the acute proble in iImanV tdevelopinlg countries. traditional stove that carn be built locally froml easily These same strategies of retrofitting with new tech- accessible materials and thalt burns charcoal more effl- miology and cleaning up or switchlilng fueLIs call also be clently ( )u. Despite the program's apparent success, applied at the building or individual household level to penetrationi of this new stove was liimited to middle-class cut eiiergy-relared emissions withliln neighborhoods. Re- neighborhoods in Nairobi. In additiomm, ensuring the placinig or installing pollution control devices on aging quality of the new stoves has been difficult, coal-fired boilers in commercial an(d residenitial build- In higher-incoine residences and coimnimercial build- ings in templerate zone cities can iicr-ease efficienicy and inigs, in both developing and developed coulitries, in- decrease pollutants; coIlIvetilng them to gas can reduce door pollutaiilts are more likely to comiie froml cigarette their i iipaict on local air problemis still more, smoking, ulivented or imiiproperly vented stoves or heat- In cities where coial is used to fire individual Coal ers, airborne conltaiimianits such as asbestos or miolds stoves, as in mani (ih inese and Eiasterin European cities, 114 W`orhl Resuutrces 199t6-r Urban Priorities for Action upgrading the quiality of coal used for such heating can leaks in the steam heating systems in residential build- bring immnediate and significanit air quality beiiefits to ings can translate into reduced enlergy use 9i) (96). For neiglhhorlioods. For exa iI pIC, usC of Coal bri- cities in developing coiiiitries, reducing eniergy con- quettes-foritied froml pulverized, washed coal-can sLimption may not be a top priority, yet in rapidly imiprove combustion efficiency in home heaters by 20 growing cities whier-e new constructi)n is high, the to 30 percent and reduce carbLon monoxide emissions potential for cutting future energy needs through effi- by 70 percent and particuIlate emissions by 60 perceit. cielncy standards in building codes is large 19/). Building Addinig a sulfur absorbent to briquettes casi cut sulfur in eniergy efficiency dtiriiig initial construction is al most dioxide emissiois by about hlalf. Again, where possible, always less costly than retrofitting, and the energy colivertilng residenitial heating to gas provides further saved-and the power- plant emiissions prevented-can pollution relief. Recognizilig this, but comiiiiitted to be substantial. usling its huge coal reserves, Chinla is building several coal gasificationi plants to provide gas for urban resideni- Encouraging Pollution Prevention tial Luse ,)2E,.aig olto Peeto Onc of the most promising tacks to reducilIg industrial Promoting Energy Conservation emissions is to preVent pollution in the first place. PPollution prevention foctises on desigining cleaner pro- While energy policies are generally consider-ed to be the diuCrioin processes and material handlinig procedures. responsibility of national goverments, cities are inI a Tlis approach follows a natLural hierarchy of industrial position to help lower energy consumption. Cities can use several tools in their quest to lower energy demand, the first being a vigorous pulblic edducation carmpaign on the need for and benefits of energy coniservam ion and the options available to residential and comiminerciial energy _ users. Sucih options inclide the uise of niotre efficienlt V appliances and lighting fixtures, and, in coolerclinmates, the installation of weatherstripping and insulationr. The Urban (O Reduction Project, sponsored bv the International C(ouncil for Local Environmental Initia- tives, is a network of 14 cities that are workilig together to develop local strategies to reduIce energ) conisuinp- tion and carbon dioxide emissioins. The goal of the project is to show that emissioni reductionis are possible without harming the city's economlilc productivity. A preliminary study in the city of Toronto showed that the city could reduce per capit a emissions of cearrbon dioxide by 33 percent at net econ(omic savings even without consideriig the additional benefits of local job creation and the stimulation of new manufactu ring industries ;,w);. Policies adopted by the 1 4 cities ranige fromii economic instruments to regulations to broader strategies such as lauid use planning and improving publiC transportation. --. To achieve its target of 2.5 percent emissioin reductions, Hanover, Germany, has proposed the followVing meas- ures (among othiers): sWitChing fuels for electricity gui- a eration, retrofitting municipal buildings, strengthening energy perforniaiice staiidirds in the building codes for -z new buildings, modifvlig land use patterns, aind in- proving waste management. Copenhagen, Deiniimark, hias proposed a local energy tax anid utility rate reforimi Smokestacks. Algit i/iti5ii /iii 1 'iiCii7j i iiiis lo isiti to red uce eniergy ' co01S II1ptltl (I4i '4n. amient air p/olltioin iwd gcpini ohoore warn tig Clites can pI/uy .i The Urbanii CO, Reduiction Project shiows that simiple ona ic 11/ leini lii hitl? om IgIv ,(iitSiiiitii ii il iiid,istriu/ technical fixes sucLh as insulating pipes and repairing pinl/ioi'.! Winld Resiaurtcs 1 ')'-97 115 Urban Priorities for Action waste managemenit optiois. First, reduce pollutalIts at used to improve the urban environimienit by directing the source as much as possible. Secondl, recycle or reuse urban growth in certain ways. as mIuch as possible of the pollutanits or wastes that are Translating potential inito policY and theni into reality produced despite these efforts. Third, treat, detoxify, or has proved difficuilt, however. In part, the problemii lies destroyv what remains. And fourth, only as a last resort with defining the ideal urban form \. While high-densitv release pollutants to the surrounding enivironnienit (9Q). ciries can reduce the need for transportation, and The cenitral rationale for this approach is econiomic: therelby problems of energy conlsumptionI and po0llotion, prevenitinig poillutioni at the souirce both reduces polI1- witiloLit aidequaLte infrastrIcturc they may facilitiate the tion control costs aind increases the efficiency of prodLIc- transimiission of commun111Lllicablc diselses and increase tion, because fewer materials are lost as waste, congestion iit) r(U U. In contiast, low-denisity cities are Preventing pollutionl can also be a powerful mairketing land intenisive but may provide other amlienities sucIh as and public relations tool in areas wvhere environmental openi space. W\ithi,. a citv, a denlse cilister of induistries awareness has increiased and environmental heilth coni- may be especially hazardous if located near a residential ceins havei made their way onto urban ageiidas. neiglhborhood or a coastal estuary; ere dispersiig them Cities can be importanit catalysts and partiners in throughout the city coilid increase the need for trans- pollution prevention, mostly by helping to educate both portation and mia hinider pollution control efforts (1041. the private sector and the public about the advantages Even more vexing has been the relative failuire of of cleanier malnlfILctUring. Developling and helping to governmienits to successfulIly guide urban form, cveni administer information clearinghloLIses that offer details with detailed master plans a nd regulatory systcilis. Land on alternative technologies and their successfol applica- Use planning is notoroiously difficuir. In mosr ciries, tion in other industries are primne means of facilitating governments and/or private landowtners are unwilling a change to cleaner industrial processes. City govern- to rcliniqtish conitrol of land becaJuse it provides a source menits can foster a stronger environmental ethic aniong of Cash incomile and p)oliicall p Ivet lu.1 ( I0, r1117). Fuir- local industries by conductling public "greeni perforilm- thernmore, tlhere are no "decisiolliakcrs" deciding on auice" ratings of manufacturing facilities, by encour-ag- the shapes of cities; city forml is detcrmined by thc ing industrial maniagers to pt blicly coiniinit to inter-action of coontless dccisiolIS b individuals, house- pollutioni-reductioni targets, and by offering awzards for hol(s, and businesses on the one hald, and a variety of exem plarv environinentaIi performanice. government Interveitions designedl to infleiience or con- C ities cal enlist the support of the public through trol those decisions on the other rimxn. Regulatory tools education campaigns rhar mnake clear the uliseeni costs cani have unintended impacts. In the United Staltes, of pollution and that encourage consumers to "buy millilnimul plot sizes, initially intenided to preveint urban green." Enacting public disclosure laws that force local expansion, have achieved just the opposite by requiriLng industries to reveal their annual pollutioni emissions caan eachi house to occupy its own large lot r In cities ill also prod local firms to improve their environnienital developing countries, zoninig and reguIlationls have the records, lest they acquire a reptitation for being insci- ullintenided effect of purttilg the landl out of the finallcial sitive to local citizenis and rhe environimient. Such diselo- reach of the majority of residetrs. suire laws hlave been quite effective in altering corporate (Governinemit interveintioii in inland mar-kets is noniethe- bIehavior in some developed conlitries. Eni-couraging less warrante(d to mieet the land needs of the urban poor local nonigoverinimienital organizationis to act as watch- and to protect land on wvhicih settleenCilt would have dogs for industrial pollution pirobiems has also proved irreparable environi imentaiil ConseqLuenIces, suLIC as water effective in many instances t49!.l i()oL catchnienit areas I ino. This sectioni explores how land usc planniinig can improve urban cnvirotinmeniral qlualiry. Prescrliptionis for better urban land uise are not the same PRIORITIES FOR ACTION: LAND USE for all cities. In cities in developing couLnriles, land Use issues musr still focus on imprIoving access to serviced Underlving virtually all urban environmental problems urban land for the poor, for it is at this level that the is the issue of land use, from the lack of affordable greatest toll on the enivironimient and hlimanL health is hotising, to coligestioni and pollution from motor vehi- heing taken. How cities chioose to allocate and dlirect cles, to iniel cities mar-red by abandoned buildings. this land, however, cani have al im1pact on future envi- lndeed, urban form anid lanid use patterins withill a city ronnmental condcitions. In developed counItries, lanId use are critical determinants of environmental quality at.li issues should focus on reducing resolt-Ce con1sumIpFtion Tlhis coninection implies that land USe planoning coutild be and improving the qu ality of urbaln life. 116 World Resowirccs I996-97 Urban Priorities for Action Land for Housing Figure 5.3 Squatter Housing as a In niailv parts of the world, one of the iiamil was in Percent of Total Housing Stock, which the poor have obtained access to lanid has been Selected Cities, 1990 through Informial settlemienit, particularlv of fringe areas and hazardoLIs land. The squatter settleinents of the Dares Salaam, _ - urban poor are a Consistelnt feature of developinlg coun- Tanzania _ _ __ trv citics-from] New [)elhi, Indlia, to Caracas, Venezuela i Ii. (See FigLire S.3.) This process of land acquisitionl Pakistan __r an(d shelter provisioni is often illegal, hut in iani v cases it is the onlv optionl because goverinimienits are unable to Varazas,a Venezuela- provide suLffiCielli serviced lanid for housing. PubilIC housinIg projects fall far short of demiianid and oftenl New Delhi, benefit miilddlle-class rather- than poor households i I India __ As described in Chhapter- i, Cities andic the E.nvironl- Tunis, - ment," informnal settlemienits are rarelv serviced by water Tunisia | ___ or sanitation facilities or basic garba,c collection. As Rio de Janeiro, long as land rights remiaill lncleat; goveriniimenits will be Brazil u llwing to service these areas, even thoughi in many 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100 cases these settlemienits are so large that the governilmen t (percent of total housing stock) has no intenitioni of dismantling thei. Antl as long as residents face the threat (f eviction. they will be unwill- Source: The United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) and The World Bank, Housing Indicators Program, Vol. 11: Indicator iug to nivest In theil ioliws (I I Tables (Habitat and The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1993). Traiditionail policy responises hiave been to regard tlhis Note: Squatter housing is defined as the percent of the total housing lack (of infr astructure as the responisibrility (of public stock in an urban area that is currently occupying land illegally. works departments. A land-based strategy however, suggests that a mior-e effective way to improve the envi- owners and installs pulic infrastructure and then re- roiilineital conditions in these settlenients is to graint tains pairt of the land for pLubl1ic use (either for housing legal land tenure, either- in the formi of outright transfer for the poor or to sell to finance the cost of the infra- of land owinershilp to tenants or throughi long-terim struCtuire). The remiainiing land is returiled to its originial leases and residential righits. Experience has shown that owners, whio inow owni a smaller portionI of land but at with securitr of tenutire, the poor- Will build and inivest to a higher valuie I I I. improve the quality of their owni housilng (114) (II l In OuagadougouL, Burkinia Faso, for example, the govern- Protecting Land Resources itelit adjuISted tile lan(d allocation pr(ocess in an effort to Curb Lirhali spralwl and Iiit thc growthi of illegal settle- Usling land use tools to guide the siting of housing and ilieilts. Not onlyZ didl the numiber of legalized lots in- inidustrv away fromii environnieitalilv sensitive areas cant crease draniatical ly (60,00() plots of land betweeni 1 984 greatly iilprove cnvirollieiltal Luality icn ities. This is anld 1989), the regulIarization of land title ledl to the critical, for examiple, at the fringes of coastal I urban mobilizatioi( of local citizens aild resources in sLIpport areas, where developmenit cai resLilt In rapid deteriora- of other- public services such as wvater supplies anid tion of the nearby coastal eiivirolilileit as Untr-ated scliools Il i i. As urban land beconles imore scarce, Ilow- Wastes, erosloil, and (iilcontrollecd access to biological ever, it will become progressively iiorte difficuilt for the resourtces take their toll i I 1ig. poor to obtain land and housing in this mailiinier 1 17. Zoiiing, building codes, perillits, and ecoilonlic in- In additioIn to grantinig land tenure, several other strUlillents sucI as taxes an( fces are coninioii tools uised redistributionn mechailisnis have been tried to allocate by governi-nents to protect fragile areas and to preveilt serviced land to the urban poor, i(lICIldiilg land sharing, the titiiiecessary coniversion of ruLral land to urliall uses. land banking, aild land readLjustimient. Few of these These tools can be used to control idenisities, to separate efforts have been successfiil. Land read'Ustilient (also land uses, and to directly protect natural areas (1i)1. In klnowin as land conisolidatioin or land pooling) has been Costa Rica, for exanille. urban developmenit is re- soiewvhat effective in Taiwan, the Republic of Korea, stricted in a 200-nieter-wide marine aild terrestrial 7011C Japan, Colomiia, andl India. The gover-milileit (or ot(let along the coastltiie (121 i. Econoinic instrulients sLich as public authority) pools land from mainy private land- taxes oni vacatit land caii encourage owiners of land ripe Wo-rld Resources I 996-97 117 Urban Priorities for Action Ca racas, for examilple, 67 percent of the land area oc- cupied clby barrios is UlnSlit- able for houISing1 bcCauISe Of - geological st hlBit I It a 1i trCeLuCilt landslides. Yet tliis unstable terrainm is homle to mllon- tha il .550,000 peopl 1 27. Restricting thicse areas - 1 fronil developiuuef t will have littlc cffct if other housing options are riot available. _> C itr planners cani reduce _=__P 11 ) rh~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~lc lie 1th n1111 acts of O1ollu- S ion and the costs of abatc- nit it through str-Ltegic dcisioins oin he sitling and ; densitv of urb an induistries. _, t' Ill i;iiiv cities, industrial sites often abut rcsidential Squatter settlement. Lack of affoid hfe la/7d Ior hoisinqg rd.s to thle development of infornal set- neighb b orth oods r rare Io- tlenen7ts. liAe this one in Lte P7zL Ba/i Bl Won granted I tnd foijine 'na residenis vill uppi ie c ted in c vir on menital Iiv hotisifi(j omi fl/eit kl,wa sensltlve areas where the negative effects of pollutants for developmenit to build oii it, thereby redcriloI vaca;nt will be most pronouilinced. JudCicioUs usc of industrial land within city boundaries aid limiting the extcnit of zoning laws cain hclp relieve this problemii by relocating urban sprawl il 22. heavy industries out of the urban ceiiter arid into indus- Zoning laws or reCgulatiolIs that ban urtihan develop- trial parks. In Turkey the govern nient provides sulbsi- ment in specific regions of the city-such as cgreenbelts dized credits for relocating industries to industrial green ways, arid urbani growthi houndaries-can lire- parks, whiere existing infrastructure is better equipped serve open space and shape the form of the city. Al- to deal with wastes than in other parts of rhe city 1s). though few examples of successful greenbelts exist to Often, cltisterinig facilities in this way cani lead to date, interest is growing in riiany cities. In older devel- significant savinigs by allowing collective trea;tilment of oped cities, from Maanchesrer, United Kingdorii, to industrial wastes in a shared treatrniert plait. Otne suchi Philadelphia, large plots of inier city lamid, known as collective treatiiieiic facility, in SUrabava Indoiiesi;l is "hrownfields," lie abandoned as conupanies arid indus- ftull supported by the effluenr chairges collected fromi tries move to undeveloped land in suburban and rurall users, and is able to treat the wastes ir uses thoroughly communities ii2;. For these cities, urball colitainilerit ernotigh that its effluenit call le reused by the industries policies would restrict outward sprawl arid encourage it serves, helping rhern save oni water costs ! 12Ii. growth and redevelopmenit in existing urban areas. In Clustering facilities can le a particularly effective the United Kirigdoni, for examiple, the conmlination otf wav of addressing the nieeds of snialler businesses that stringent greenhelt policies aniid fuiding incentivCs is lack the knowledge or financial niieails to treat their Owi1 leading to the regerieratioli of riary ciry ceniters i i'4). wastes. In omiie eases, it niay be necessary to uLiderwrite Without regional coordination, however, these Coll- part or all of the costs of relocatling lower-iricoirie firiiis tainmemit policies are rar-elv successful. Greenhelts or to special cluster sites and conistrLnctlirig coiiiiion treat- urban growthi b oundaries can increase lamid prices in rhre ienit facilities for their wastes (i u. city and encourage sprawl beyrond theii, iaS is the caise of Seoul ls). In addition, political will and citizen Broader Strategies: Urban Form and activism in favor of green belts nieetl to ibe strong to fend off proposals thar reqluest houndary chaniges 11(s. Environment Furthermole, ecologically sensitive areas are impos- In addition tro direcring clevelopiinent away froni fragile sible to protect fromii urbhan ciuroachiment if pemople and lands, laid use plamiriirig has the potential to address industries are niot given alternative larid optiolis. In problems of resoiurce ConIsumption arid po(llitio(i by 118 World Resources 19(6-9)7 Urban Priorities for Action manipulating urban denisities. Nunierous negative in- infrastructire developmenit may be far more influential pacts are associated with low-density settlements. They in deternmininig where developmenit will take place than are often land intensive antd are characterized by high land use planiniiig i I7. The developielint of toll roads infrastruCtUre costs, greater relianice on private traiis- connecting Jakarta, Indonesia, with the nearby towns portation witih irs attendaint energy conisuLimptioni and of 'ulagerang, Bekasi, and Bogor has had a treniendous pollution, higih domestic energy use duie to the lack of impact on the physical growth of Jakarta, inteisifyinig shared insulatioll, and poor recycliig rates due to large housing and indLustrial developinent far fromii the city collection costs. itself and greativ increasing car traffic i ; sI. In conitrast, A coinpact citv with a coniceintrationi of jobs aiid in Curitiba, Brazil, where development was cihiaineled housiig in a central location is tylicalllv described as the along blus lines, car List is muchi lower (i ). (See Box most resource-efficient citv form, sling minimal land 5.4.) resources and saving energy through multistol- build- Directing urban growth alolIg public transportation ings anld reduced need for travel (i I, I)ebare conitinLues, lines can greatly increiase transit ridershilp and reduce however, oi the optlimal delsity needed to produce these energy consumiptioni. Recently, a numbliiber of large cir- desired effects. Even in cities in developing countries, ies-lPortlanlt, Oregon; Stockhioliii, Swedein; Toronto; where densities tend to be comparatively higi, large Vienna, Austria; and C openihaigen, I)eninark-have all tracts of vacanlt land within the city exist that could be atteinpted to conicentrate high-denisity resideletial devel- developed at high densities before expaniding outward. opuieinr near public traiisit stations (140i. Without coor- In Karacil, Pakistan, for example, where overall citv diniationi of landL use a1(i transportationi planniLig at the densitv approaches 4,000 people per square kilome- outset, chances are that cities will tcevelop increasingly ter (I 231, miiore thani 4,800 hectares of land withini the city car-depenidenit forins. In the Netherlands, for exanmple, bounda rv lies vacant a ; t the new town of Zoeterilieer did riot qluailfy for a As cities grow ro unprecedenited sizes, however, the railway coniiiectio(l until there were 50,000 inhabitants; centralized citv miiodel becomiies less tenable. First, while by then, car infrastructure was already in place and developmenit along mia jor lines of transportationi to and car-dependent travel parterils had beenl established (141). from the center of the city tends to be high density, the The differenit nature of the transportartioll altd land areas berween these "fingers" develop at low densities tise secto rs and general lack of institutionial coordillna- as the region attracts more people anild businesses. Sec- tion betwveen them have limlited the success of efforts to ond, concentrating several imillion people (and all the integrate the two in practice 14Th The effect of laid use economic activities that support them) in a central city policies on travel demand is also likely to depend on rhe can lead to severe congestion. Recenit studies suggest aldoption of econiomilic listrumilents that inicrease the real that a more efficient urhan form miay he multintucleatetd costs ot ciar travel. Otherwise, people may still chioose urban regions, where many siiall, dense no(des-satel- theircar over other modes of transportation. (See Chap- lite townis, new towns, edge cities-are liniked together ter 4, "Urban Transportation.") bv transportation iinfrast r ucturre I i4-i. In Berkeley, Czalifornia, a proposed land utse plan Institutional Needs for Improved Land Use adopts this "nodal" visioin rather than a centralized model for future urban growthi. By redeveloping exist- 1mm addition to the constraints to successful land use ing neighohorhoods at higher- denisities, the centers vill planning mentioned above ome of the key roadblocks become increalsingly compact and suirroDundlinig land can in developinig counitries is poor institutional capacity to be reclaimiled as openl space. Within eachi of these neighi- lanage uirban lanti. Most citieS in deL elopinig cous tries borhoods, zoniiig laws will require a comilbilination Of lack the informtion to carte out land tse strategies Urban mips are 'I to 30 vears oILd aiid lack any distan,e h i ad e description of entire sectioiis of cities, particularly the burgeon iing peni-u rban regionls (14 ). (o fflictilig ap- proaches ro lIand manragement-a forinal statutory svs- Integrated Land Use and Transportation teiml (often left over from colonial rile), an inforinial Studies oin whether high deiisities shotild be conceni- systeiii, and an indigenious systemll-CollnC together trated in one centralized location or in Imn;ly szmaller within the conlfined space of a city m1441. In addition, nodes for miaximtIm energy' efficienycv remnain imicomlcim- excessive and poorly coordinatecd rCgulatiois, inappro- sive (I 6 What is clear, however, is that neither strategy priate pricinig and taxation, antil land speculationi all will provide benefits uinless closelv coordinated with perpetuate lanti use problems. Improving laind manage- transportation inifrastructire. lIndeed, transportation Inlcut ill thcse cities is a crucial first step. ()nly thiei will World Rcsources 1 996-97 119 Urban Priorities for Action Box 5.4 Integrated Transportation and Land Use Planning Channel Curitiba's Growth Curitiba, l,razil, has received initerna- lems. From 1950 to 1990( (uritiba cial canals without consideration for tional acclaim as a city that works-a muslhroomed from a town of 300,000) natural drainage chalinnels conltlibutillg good example of sustainabilitv and ex- to a merropolis of ahlout 2.3 million 11). to frequenit flooding in the city center 1:. emplary urhan planning. In 1 950, how- NMigrants, pushed from the lanid as the HIow did Curitiha manage to turn it- ever, all trends indicated that Curitiha result of agricultiral mechaLnizationi, self into a positive example for cities in was likelh to become yet an1other city flocked to the ciry antd settled in squatter both dcvelopeLd and detve loping Coun- overwhelmed by rapid population houising at the urban periphery. Rivers tries? fI part, the city's success c ani be growth and urban environmiiental prob- and streams were converted into artifi- attributed to stronig lealdcrship. Realiz- ing that a static mzaster plan would not be adequate to deal with the dYnamic Figure 1 Curitiba Integrated Transportation Network natreL-e of urban problems, citv officials focused on developing simple, flexible. and a ffordable solutrionis rhar could he BARPEISINHA SANTA CANDIDA _ realizedl at the locial level ;and adapted to changing conditions. hI addition, the __ -s j,/ government promoted a strong sense of STA FBI-DD *ls A + V public piarticiparioni. Officials were en- STA FELICIDADE J B'ARM5SCALTO couraged to look at problemns. talk to the people, discuss the miaini issuLes, alid BRAL < 1/ only then rcach for the pen. This proc- zi \ / _ ){- _ \ ) ess provides insights that are seldon AMPNA DO SUEA ARBosA I ' self-evident at the drawing table CAMlNAD O SIO U9A j One of the kev actors in (Curitiba's sLIe- CAMPO COst7,D0 \t r cess over the past 25 years has ecen 1 \,Ar \)IA jaimiie Ler-ner, wlho served as imayor / - \: >-1 \ ¢\; \ three times, fIrom 1970 ro 1974, fioli D Integrated terminals IVOFNAS 1979 to 1983, and from 1989 to 1992. _ Express bus (radial) The must important lnifying featuLre - - - Interdistrict (orbital) / I of Curitiba's success is its emphasis on Feeder buses (conventional) - NAvP / CENTENARIC integrating transportation and land LS' _1 fAriiRAso r \ < X planning. The key conicept was to chan- r}| \ eCARWO \ nel the city's physical expiansioni away from the ceintral City aMid along five linf- H IVIINHO ear corridors or alxes. (See Figure 1.) cQUEIRAO Fh axis is h uilt arouitd a cclltrall or "_rstructural" road that has exclusive I / lanes for express buses for local traffic, 4 r and for higlh-specd car traffic flowing in and oiut of the CitV. Zoning 1WS encLour- age hiigh-density co mmiiercial develop- menlt along these transport cor ridors, Source: Jonas Rabinovitch and John Hoehn, "A Sustainable Urban Transportation System the while land awav fronm the corridors is 'Surface Metro' in Curitiba, Brazil," The Environmental and Natural Resources Policy and Training (EPAT) Project Working Paper No. 19 (EPAT/ The Midwest Universities Consortium 7ZneLd at low detisities. The central city. for International Activities, Inc., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, May 1995), p. 18. where traffic congestioi antd noisc have cities be able to begin to t-esolve conflictintg demanids for plati iiiig, tiow being tried in a feW developed and the use anid protectioni of lanld, developing wuorld cities. Althougih each city ha1s different It is also beconling inicreaslinglv apparent that nii- needs and goals, the brotad telets of regional planning gatinig urtan envit-oniniienital imipacts will depenld on the are sinmilar; First, high priority is gIVCI to env'rollieltal cooptipationi of local and regionial goverininiieits oil land values. Lan1d is recognized a1s being valuable in its use issues. Yet to date fewn mechanisnis exist to facilitate nartiral statc and is tiot simply seen tas raw ilmaterial for suchi cooper-ation. One suchi straregy is regional land tise urbainization. Second, rather thaii tryilig to fix proNinls 120 World Resources 19'6-97 Urban Priorities for Action been greatlY reduced, has beenl returined facedl with growing mounds of garbage, poor, cani draw on the skills of its resi- to pedestrians, the citv was ready for a large-scale recy- dents to tackle urban environmental As a result of these efforts, the bus sys- cling plant. But such a plant was be- problems. What may not be transfer- tern is used hy more than 1.3 million yond city resources. Instead, the city able is the will to change, political corn- passengers each day. Twenty-cight per- launched an iniiovarive "Garbage That mitmiient, and leadership that Curitiba cent of direct-route bus users previously Is Not Garbage" program. The pro- has enjoyed over the past 25 years. traveled in their cars (4). Despite having gram relie(l on households to separate -loilas Rabzno,'itch the second highest per capita car owiner- garbage for the city significantly cut- ship rate in Brazil, Curitiba's gasoline ring municipal costs. A campaign was use per capita is 30 percenir below that also developed to educare cihildreni Ionas RabInnovitchb is a Senior Urban. of eight comparable Brazilian cities, about the importance of recycliig, turn- Development Advisor for the United and air pollution levels are anmong the ing themi inito "secret agents inside eaclh Nationis Dei'elopnient Programme in lowest in Brazil X5. home"; now more than 70 percenr of New York. The city also uses zoning and eco- households participate in the recycling nomic incenltives to preserve culttiral programi. In all, two thirds of rhe city's districts and to protect natural areas. trashi is recycled, inore rhan 1(00 metric I. Joniais Rahinovirch amd Josef I nioanatn. Strong land use legislation and incen- toins daily (Yv Fl9vironinleatl )Inovation and Manage- tives have increased the ratio of avail- In slums where streets are toro n arrow ment in nvoril," Urban ManageN nient Progr.in Workintg Paper Series No. able green area per inhabitant from 0.5 for garbage trucks to enter, the city I (The World Batik, Wsltiigroii. D.C I.( square meters in 1970 to 50 square me- found a was to get the garbage to come tiiiie 199 ;), Table 1-Il p. 2. rers in 1992 Ih). Begininiig in the late to rhe trucks. The "Garbage Purchase" 2. Ibid. pp. 2, 3i-38 I 960s, the city set aside strips of land program allows residents to trade fillcd . O i I1. pp. 8-16. and prohlibited them fromil developmeit, garbage bags for bus tokens, parcels of 4 Rabiitiirch, "CUritil: Towards In 1975, the remainiing river basins surplus food, aid schlool notebooks. SLirlitiable Urban DeseliprmetI- Eiit-i were protected by stringent legislatiomt The food anid vouLCiers cost no inore ioltt .ini Ur/.nizatotit, V,I,. 4, No. 2 and turned into urban parks 17. By pro- than hiring trash collectors to go into Octoher 1 992t, p. 6. tecting natural drainage chaninels, the the slums, and providLe the added bene- 5. lidl pp. 6S-66. city avoided rhe need for substaintial fit of improving nutrition as well as 6. lets R,ibiiiis'imdt tid Phi Hoeli A nesv investinet1ts in flood control, and public tranisit ridershiip antong the poor. Sustaitiable Urban Trainsportatuoii Sw steli: costly flooding has becoine a thing of An estimated (35,000 families have hene- thc SSrface Metri' itt (irilmii Brazi!,- tle past. fited froim this program ion). The Fnviroiniteniial .iid Natural Re- C(uritiba has also tianaged to avoid In all its projects, the citv emphasizes soLirces Policy arid Traininig tEPAT) Proj- problenms commoni to other developing low-cost prograins that help people to eci Wiirkiing Paper Ni. 19 IEPAT/The cities, stich as land that remains vacant help themselves. Instea(d of huge city natiotal .tisit;tes tic tlnisersitv it Wr1is- whiile ownership disputes are settled, outlays for row upon row of housing cl)lisit, Midisoti, Wiscimnsin. M.tn 1995)¶ lengthy wvaits for development permtits, projects, the city provides architects p- 37. and inefficient property tax collection. and loans, elncouraging people to build °p it. I p 3 The city mainitains a detailed laurd inveni- their own honies. ()Id public bluses are S. Op. et. 1, p.2S. torv that allows city hiall to deliver in- converted into mobile sclhools for low- formaztion quickly to CitiZetIS abouit rhe income families and are able to go to a 9. Op , t 4 pp. 67-68. buildilng potential of any plot in the different neighborhiood eacih day of the 10. 0p. cit. 1, pp. 34-36. city. The system is constantly updated xveek in i I 1 P or cit. p. 47 as rime city expaiids 5. The lessoln to be learned froin (uri- Curitiha IhaS fouLn(l other low-cost so- tiba is that creativity can substitute for lotions to urban problems. In 1989, financial resources. Any city, rich or after damage is doine, efforts are mnade to anticipate ani(d prevent envirotniniental damiage in the firsr place. Assess- This cbapter was written by' Mike Douglass of the merit of iimpacts, ci tlCiding aln assessment of the possi hle Department of Urban and Rcgionzal Planning at the' Uni- ctunum lative effects of urha n developineit, shotild pre- versity ofHaiu'ai at Manna, Ho0olulu, Haueaii, cede and guide land use decisions. Finally, to the extent and Yok-sbiuS F. Lee of the Programn on Environment, possible, planniig efforts should enicomipiass ecosystemii- East- West Center, Honolilue. hased unlits stch as w%atersheds 4i. WVorl Resources l 996i)( 7 121 Urban Priorities for Action References and Notes 1 .Jorge Hardoy, Diin-a Mitdini, and David Sal - proviing Wirer and Sa nitatio n Services in ihe the Developing Wi ridf. Env'ir,ineint, Vol. reerthwa ire, Enzvierowroi'tal Proh/b'nis in Developing World," Eni'ironnment. Viil. .35, 315, No. 4 NMi% it 99 ii, p. 10. Third Wor/ld Citiies lEarthscan, Lonidon, No. 4 (May 19931, p. 32. 3;7. op. cit. 4, p. I1)0. 19921, pp. 1 7, 2 3. 21I. United Naiiions Internaiioiial Research and 38. Op. it. I(,, p. I ). 2. Carl Ba rroreiie trl., "Toward EDivirrnrnent a I Training Intieiturte fir it h Advainceiientr of 39 k1.rssachiUsetts Watier Resouirces Authority Srrategies tore Cities: Prilicy. Consideraiionrs Woiriteri, "Women, Water, and Sanitairoit."N1 RA "M Alng ageWtrSp for IlJrba ii Env iroliiiieiraItNi Man agemenet in iii Wonui'rarid f/re, Envtironmetni': A Reailer. pl Priogtr ni." I'rogre,s Briefii ig (NiW'R A, Develoiripiu Conitiiries," Urhbani Management Sally So ritheiiiner. ed. IMoiirthlr Review Bosioi ii NlassachLrSer iS, Marech 9. 1I94) Programnie Piolicy Paper No. 18 (The World Press, New Yrrrk, 199 1i, P. 1 23.P.. Bank, Washingtoin, D.C., 1 9941, p 5. 22. Op. cit. 4. p. II13. 4)). Strphieir A. Lstes-Srnargiassi, "'Livinig Wirhiii 3. /hid.. p. 7. ~~~~~~~~~23. Yoik-shiiu F. Lee, 'Rethinking Urban Wirer Our Meanus: A Successfuil Denii.nd-Side 4. The \World Brnk, Wor/ld Deveeopmi'nez Rc' Supply and Sanitation Struregy in Develoip- Wafier Resourrces, PIin fire Boiston," paper port /1992: Dev'elorpment taiti theiEnFurw'eii- ing Coriiitries ii tIre Hnut iid Troipics: Lessolits prepa red fir the Ma.ssauchuisetts Water Re- ilont (The World Bank, Washington. D.C., frin ri he In ieriuat ioia I Water Decade," Earsr- iiiUrcc-s Airthrit ini(N IWR Al NIMWRA, Bris- I 9921~ . p. West (Center Reprints.,u Elivininient Series ririr. I 9)i4I, p. 2. 5. World Health Organizatiion (WHO), The lIn- Nro. 9 IEaist-West Center, [Ioiiilulri. I 993l. 4 1. Op. cii. 26, p. st, itornaiiiionr Drinzking WVater Suipply and Sank P. 5 5.3. 42. O/p. it. 4, p. 10)2. trrtiori Docarle (WHO, (,eruev:i, 1 992), P. 8. 274. Lair Espiniosa and Oscar A. Lopez Rivera., 43. f )p. cit. 4, p. I103. 6. G. Watters, Health arid Environirrent, World "U'NICEF's Ulrban Basic Services Pro- Health Orga i inizaion, Gerievii, 1995 I per- graimnie in Illegail Sertlenietits ini G rrArernal 44. 1 Ip. it. 4, p. IO 1. sontal cornmunirc:ituionI. City." Ent'irrinntonf Soil [Ur/ani zaf imi Voil. 45. ()/i. if. 2 8, p. 9. 7. Miaggie Blaick, Mi'gra-S/ims: Thie Comnirirg 6, Nor. 2 (October 1994), p. 1 9. 46. The Woirldi Bank Frivirriirrrenr and Urban Saniitaev Cerisis I WaterA id, Londoin, I 994 1, 25. l)einniis B. Warner anrd Loiius l.augeni. Develomnpiiit [Divisionr, (Crr/i-Managing Ent- P. 18 "HealthrIi for All : The Legiice orf the Water i ierr.. iciti-a/ Peroblrems: Err oinrni Analvsis 8. Sandy Catrrncross,.Sanitafiorn anid WVtzfr Sutp- Deca de, WVafer Intecrnationial. Vro. 16. No. Si/ hr/oh'd Issues. Report Nio. 1.106 I.) H pa'v: Practical Lessoins ferom The De'1ar/c 3 (1 99 11, pp. L35-14 1. (The Worrld Bank, WashingtonriD. C., I 994l, ITlie World Banik, Washingtoin, D.C., 1 9921, 26. Naiioru;r Research) Coruiicil. Acadenriii de Ia p. 8.3. P. I. Investigaciorir Cienitifica, A.C., and Acade- 47. Op. itt. 28. P. 2. 9. ( )p. cit. 7, p. 1 9. inia Naciorna I de I ugenieria, A.)C., Me.rro 48. i )p. cr1t. 2 8. P. 1 2. 10. Op. cii. 7. p. 19. Citv's Water Supplv: Imnprovring fbu' Outt- 49. [Jiii ied Sitaies GenreralI Acc(Liriitrg OffiCe II . Op. , f. 7, P. I 5. /orrk fire Siustaintabni/ity (Natrional Acaidenir vt (At)I, WVteir Per//i)inn: )in/filimatirrii in f/ri' 12. Op. cit. 4, pp. 106-107. ~~Press, Washinrgtonr, D.C.. I 995l, pp. .32-33. (list/, o/ihrnatiii Wastewate,ir' Tre'afmntin 2.Exequicl Ezcurra and NMarisa Mlazcar- Svystcmus. Reporir Nir. R( :D-94- 109 (ICAO, 13. Geha n Sin na taiii iby. "Low Coist Sarn itatiron." Hiria rr. "Are Mega-Cires Viable? A Call- Wa slint Onri, [).(., 1994), p. 2. in The Prrrr Dir' Young,.lorge E. Hardloy. tionary Tale front Mtexicor City," 5)). 1 p. cit. 28, P. 9. Sin tid Cairniceriss, aind Davrid Sa trerthwsa ire, Eviriio,nnieitn. Vol. .38. Nor. I I]a inia ryfFebru- 5I.NrtrsirIRs.ichtiniI.(cri ie eds. )Earthscanr, Lorndon, 199))),ar196,p 45 .NnoaRevrhCuci om teen pp.L-27-1_57.r 96,p 4 W~istewaicr Mna.i.gemnrrt for Corastal Urban 14. Op. iii. ~~~~. p. 130. ~~28. Ismail Serigeldin. "Water Supplv, Sanitattioni Areas, Managing Wastewiater hr Cri.asta/ lie- 14. Op. ca. 1, p. 1 30. ii~~~~~nd BEnviroirinenralI Susta i ii, tiltr): The Fr- b,ni Areras I N.tion,ilr. Acaideity Press, Wash. 15. Jlohn Pickford, "'Truiiriiig ariid Huniair Re- nariiciiig Chaillenge." keynotre addreSS TOi the iligiriri, IlC., 199 1), pp. 3109-127,. source Developnient in Water Supply and Mininsternia Cirtference trin Drinking Waiter 52. C:irl Ba riotr ii.Water Quality anrd LUrbcanizai- Sanirairrin" `,atr'r /nte'rnational, VI . 16. anid Envsirotnmentral Sanitationt: Iitiplement- turn iii L,rtirt Americi," Water lInferii,afir,ial, No. 31(19911. p. 174 riig Agendia 2 1 (The Woirld Bank, Wiishiing- Vol. 1(IS 1990)1, pp. 8- 14. 16. Tviiv Matia Solo, Eduardo A. Perez, aind ton, D.C., Nla rch 1 9941. p. I10. 53. 1)/i,. cit. 49, pp. 1313 l. Steveil D. Joyce, "Coisrsraitits in Providing 291. Mbill. 54. Roditrv Fujifr:r "New Approaiches toi Waste' Water rirld Saniiltairru Services tor the Lirban Prior," Water a id Sari tat ioni for Heailth Pro)- .30. Op. iti. 28. switer Tretinritrer," Sitrids Piper I Furverrini cci (WASH) Technical Reporer No. 85 31. Op. cit. 23, p. 550. itierial Deeiselll FLund, New York, 199.3). (WASH, Washiligtorn, D.C., Ma rch 1 993), 32. Op. cit. 4, pp. 103- 104. Ps. 0/. cti,pr1417 P. 8. 5i p i.i1 i.34;17 1 7. William Hogrewve. Steveni D. Joryce. aind 33. D.A. Okirir, "The Vatlue ol Watter Suipply .56. Op. ni. 52.~ pp. 1 2- 14. Edriardo A. Perez, "The LiiiqLie Chaillenges and Siatitarioin in Developnreni: Ali Assess- 57 of Iiii provitig Peri-Urbait Sa ni ataio ii," Water nient, ' A nerican Jraurnirl,if Pub/i/i Her/thn. Takashti Asiriro, "Reusing lJrhut ii Wastewiva- and Sanittimon fire flea lilt Peroject (WASH ) Vol. 78, Ni.I I 1 19881, pi). 1463-1467. icr-Art Alterrnat ire .ind a Reliable Waiter Resiourrce,' Watre /ntoritiofrna/, Vii). 9 Techniical Reporti No. 86, (\WASH. Wishing- 34. 1). Whittiipgtoir of a/.. "HoLusehiold Demnand 1 1994), pp. .16-42. toir, D.C., Julyv 1 993l, p. 45. for Iimproedrrr Sanitation Services in Kumtasi, 8 alsNcnztiwz,"ra W erPlu 18. Op. cit. 7, p. 2 I. (Gha na: A CrntinS gent VaIiLritiorn Stuidy-," -li icNenoioie,"Ueai e elIa Vater Resurces Resertb. Vol. 9, No. 6uion iii Der!lrrpll1g C(Luriirries," Watier Re- I 9. "Orairgi Pilot Peroifect," Envr'ionmnent arid lre- Water3) Repp.ee Research5 . Viii - 29. No.24 6cci br 94) brantiatirsn, Viii. 71, Ncr. 2 1 October 1 9951. p. 18. pp.228-2_30. 35. [livid Peairce-, Director, CESERGE, [Jniver- $59, united Nationis Ecounomirc indl Sorcial Corin- 20. J.C.R. de Nlelor, "Sistein:us Conrdominiais de siry College, Lonrdorn, Decembler 1 995 Ipee- m1ISsion fire Asiri arid tIre Pacific I ES( 'AP), Esgotos." EFugeoh.ari.a .Sauitari,i, Vol. 24, soiiural conriurr incation). Stafeo ri c Fi/ar-Eutilwimnni t ut A4sia .nd ib I/ Pa- No. 2 119851, pp. 2.37-238. 'is cited in haohn -36. Jouhn Briscoie, "When the Cup Is Half Frill: rnll,, 1Y99) ES) AP, Banugkoik. Thailand, Briscoue, "When the Cu p Is Hailf FillI: liii- Irmpreeving Watler and Sariita:ut ion Seermies ini 1991)), p. 2.14. 122 World Resouirces 1996-97 Urban Priorities for Action 6i). j.iiii [1. Bern,reri. ''Alierii m,ii Appritis iii'. se in Develiopinig C iiiinrirrc. V'oi. I: The IllS. (Uniretd N,iiitis (Cenire itir Eliiii.iiSen tol Po11iiiii,ii ( oiiiriil idt W isit- \limige -irTiiil Sesii'r," U rhiri \i,ii.igineiii Pr,,- niieiits ii-ahiit,ii, Fi',lii.itiiiiif/ xap,rieiiia mciii: Regiil;ior,, and Fctiiiimic Insrri- gr.miinie Diisciissionj Piper Ni'. I , Tine alky l7iiitiniiig nu/ibiig' Shi/tce .Strittgii's nicii T trl.iii \.iTiJrLgineiii i'rigi .iiiiie W otrid Rink. \V,ishrn oniir 1D.( .. i994i, iiH,iliii,ii Nniorihi, Kecta, 1 99 1). p- IS. I )i Piaon lper N,,. ; The \World Rink, p). IX8. I 0,. (irlierinc Eair%i cqiie indl Pirrick McAiiL.in. Wishiii1giioi, DI.( ., i99 i, pp. 101- I. 55i. 1 1,. -it. XI1. pp1. 2 l-2 ) Reforminiig [lirIi.ii [,indl Pol' iiii it nd I,iisiii- 6 1. Ibl/ti,! P. IK 8 tI. P. -/. N. 1,pp. 940 I. ilt0is ITi DeVeIlopIng ( mitilris.- 1]rIiii Mbiii 6 2. tii it. 2. 1) 26. 8 p , if 60 1. a .gemlen! I'rogram PliI'iiv Pa per N''. S (The 6' B I ii R.roiie, Tr.inspiirr. W.irer indtl LrIi.ii 9Iniiorrid. '1iiiiii and AaronNai'.D'lie Nes9 p I lCIclpirreiii IDcparirmirn, The Wiild R.ink. EPiitc c ii ii ern 1Sirii-l~ u /~ x W.nsrrriiiii. [11 ., 995 persinaiuiniiinrr-jife Mliterrals Econirni ,'- Wo,rlddvarsh P,i- per No. 121 (Woiildw.iisi lirrsirrie, I 09. NiLk Devrs. 'l-viilsring Apprioichic.- iii 6,4. 1Uiine-d N.inr''i, Eniiereiir irer P'rigr.irn irr. \Vis1iT]rirgiir D1.( ., Scpieiiibcr 19~44, p. 4&. Aiii.igini, Fist (;roiiiiaig ( ~itie New A4/i I 'it fooiniriitl (lit Ri,',/ ..it I '9 3'14 i M.ick- p9 ol idieF n \.\-)idT e(m-lr,,I i chi to, 1 rbaii Pliiiiiing aiii M,av w~ell l'iiiirsihers.( Iixtil,rii. K.. 199;, 11. .'ll 9. w\irjiiiWidn t F Fiiid.1111 W\X'itj~ .iii The, m''i- h t ii n.je Dick iw mii Wick!. N itk D ct-.i 6. it. ITs ~rt-i ,%rii'i EiiriRedoi,rr Gin'Atiir, itm tk Sniit intd ( antic R:ikiidr, etd,. (I irigiir1.iin .rtirip. 6(.Ihi i,rirre Fiirdv, 'uuohd \W,i'ies Ill diii Wlie (WW F- W,si6irgnioin,D 1 .,191 -,l9 li Nets1 'I irK, nid' poh Wilc s0ol, n p,iper preselrnnLI ii tiii Wiurksiip oni "The LI 0. Menroupdiiin.r Fimii niriiiieiii.ii Inipruvemineri09 Nbt/i' 1[)i/i I ow 2, I srr i cruwi, cIll. t' \Wasie F,on in ' N.itruTni1i liiniriire for 1wi lroiig.ii, ",Air (Qririir \i.iigeiiieii ii Srif h \V lVwh Iris2rrIrie. \Visrirgw n, 1d.1 eitiritr indl Techirriuri Foretisirmg, LUnitrsriy I hik. lnrnrcuirinrrry SIrii, Nit. I Tlire21 iii Ioiroiiirt, .iid lirrcrir.rrurnil i)L%ei-iurpinrern Word Rink. \V.rhrrngii,[.1.i9))I ip. 2 RCesearc1h (crItic, H.iii'i Vier N.iiii Arigirs p. 1 i). t/. go ,D 1 It l(N9 pp,1. 79-76. 22-25. "994, p. 9 3.tdNiin uelo i i iIII 1.I05 67. I/iid. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~incurs Rib-liii,in . Allpiliiuri- ,if Bio,uun.5- I 12. (/. it. I 15 6 h 1Irisrirt FIIL intO SuIsriI ApcIsIIt "Ii Su01t1Iitt1 Tuc/iio/ii.eie (l-lbiiirr, N,rriiribr. I I M, ii hidl [Diuirgi-i , 'lIrhe ['hit ,il Fii E 1i)iriri W.isic Rciiscrt in' Asirrii ( ire,- I-ipmiiie - Kcrm.i. 19)1;), P. 4 1. tif Urkini l'iuLerrv anti Frivivrr'iiieIinL1 Mii11 iiiire,i/ S,i hiiit otuu 5 BmigkNik. 3(11iAr,1i.iT li , Roblie l'erli,k mud \Milrton Ruit-cll. -Ericriz .igcriicu : A,Lc FinpuiweritiiinT tl an Coirn- sDtureifi, 1e99iuilug p. 17 iku.[i.i.rt. irid Frivuroiirrirrrril Puihiy ii I hint,- ' -(in11itriiir [Vised Alrerir,urse.' Hiri' initri nli l)tseriii'te 1911,)) ~~~~~~~. I. hunia Riari' w it!, I-iire)' i! f/u Finirr ir. and I 'r/i,iiizutiiin Vtoi. 4, No 2 ilrux 6. t/. it. ii, pcs.iuit. VolI. Ilh '1991 ) pp. l0-2'5 1. I1992n, pp. I15- 16. 711. MiChael- `1 irde''L, Sc:.rreCT.iigriz Stun Il isie'1C 9. I -1). [D.imui HirneN. -1.tkImg Uirhiri 0 I 1) 14. (1/'. i it. 1t02, pp. 94 5-546. iiIl i-s , 'u,iI.i.rr. ateaii, (itc- Maiin Fiuissiouns In l truntui,'' Fniiiiriiiiiii. \ii. I9 . [(1.9. Agent y Ii'r hruerTI.innurir II l)Velviipiirerni ,i(uiiiiiit iii!1 Is'uk'i.iii1I Vol. 'Q i I j9 Ii 39.i Nii. 7 1 IpitrirherI I 99' 3), P. 1 9. (I S. Ai If, hegiubriuii i /i lii/; uri!l I iii! Iiiuit. i,X, p4. 9. i . ,1 1purr- 111.9. All), WX',hirirgrur 111. 1)., iIi ~~~~~1. 1)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6. Ui.9.1 ingres, O)1tice tu Te,. Iml i gi Assess- P i. .rIsrir F `nIetu, "(..Inrlm.iu,:: E xphoirurg Non- incuri I1 iTA), b-ii'eri,' P Ilfliut'iri Ti,-/'ri/J- I 1 6. Sniss 1.gui.l 'Why NMiu1s1r7e Tiuwn Dw~ell- Iruee%,cirlirin lr 0pipnrii Ill A,ramu I imie,' Liner- Lii'5 fir Ceiti,n lidi Faustc'rn Piieripi ers?-I''iii Muirigc renm ini 0ui.ig.uiduugoun uuirluui-nt .iur tIi/i,iiirz,i-riu VotI. 4. N:i. 2OITA F 562 1 ITA, W.rshlurrgrionr [DA. ii 19 1 ii Fitii,'rriii i;iit Liii!i rIum/iiiia- (0t)s bul r i1992r. p' 52. 1 993) p. 9. tii'. Vitu. 6, No'. 2 i(I .biii `c I994i, 74. tiiiit. I . p. i U . 7 lriiiiiiii iiiiiefr-eg tirs s:-pp. I [I 14. S.t/.iit. 61',, p. Ii.ronr (lIECU, -nipersi ndi'it Techiioiiigy 1. l/.ii.11,p 76. I 'si1 lnirru it: Fisr11rn for Lihiun Ernirurn- I c.ids toi Super S urg ''F-Note5. Vil. 2. I IS'. Nircirel Mtirtrigly, [Urbixun tMiurug neruu-r hl- 11TIE lErFF, "I I FE `irili Pruilecr Sixuru Re- Ni,. 4 i HE , WA.si,hmrri rluu D1.1 .N teuhrir irii i un N ,rss'iiA.uini porir-l miii Armenut I iiid ruie I ,ririb-,mn.' I 'i'2). P. 4. Fan! irtii-ing itrus; Niew A/i/reuuiur' to [ !r )Uniiied N,nniurs li-doeuprinil-m Priugrmrirmre, 99. Worind Rs,ouirst-s isiiiis- H 5iii 1.l..hTi on f iui P'kainingii and, A-i,,,gewi; wiei III t/re l u- N,-ti `1lrk. A imirsi 2',1 l99( p. 5.isri ithth I Hrird Narruur Fis rvrirrmt-mri P'r'o- (pi/rig W['tr/u! Nisk Dievasirmi ( aruile 7- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~rdh u ,muiu isci-R.ikuIdli, ciLs o .irgnmu.i (smiiup. Essex. 1lK., 77 uRir. Puio isr.o ''[ rIil Solid W,isit- Malrigs- gr.imirrr rutd [h,-iWilelint'stirsNNi'is Viiek.lop-) rlirilrii In murtdirnug: lii, iti in lrrgimred Re- inCTur pro'gramrmne W(s hr/ iRisrnuluror,iNnL Y i, 9 , siririe Rvtiir cr Si sierr," P ir-irs,iuiurui .in,/ 1'9'4'i5 (I\foied Umvirrerimy P'rcs-, Ne-ti P. 1 22. [ r/,mizai ... I. Voii. 1. No. I (A pr I I1) 9 1 Yoirk. 9`44). p. 2 19. 1 19. Sieplit ii 01sen, Dri-reT-rii (as R e .. tsirrri-, p'- 63 . 949. Ibid.. pp. 2 19-2)I1'). MNi.r.gerrinor (enrner Ui,mrreesim oti Rhr''te Is- 7 ti/i. i tj~ . 49. Ln rc rrri'iit amei .riikrn.indl. N.ir rigiisen. Klrii...t- [slmd, Mtirth 79). )i.iit. Is6, p. 6T. "T ..s,mud iii Err'viirrlii-irr.i Srraicgs l''r Sit). (/. i.6,p. Asrij,'' Wurd -ink Diu'cm ,iis- lr P.iper Ni,. I _2i1. innsl Ii. lifnt-rst-ii w,I rind LIse I mii ldsrti 91. 'm'ii -slimir . I se, 'Air listes reis. Sutlit224 i Tire Woirld 15.rik, W. hnsrrgniin. 1) (t.iiiiii ITT lli.-iri HivmsruiriroIn I.m1 \l.rnigt-- XI .k 5iF L AI0 v, wo wl '1)1 . pp. -~X .ilncur Iirhuii NIi.irrigcinrcrr Prungrmurirrs \W'.ire 1M. irgerirnir Iert.itrrz.i rior F s psri Dl)r-,1uusrur Piper No'. 121 (Ilre \W irltl Rnik. tite' Ini ,As,r, iid il is u hr,"- Easit-Wesi I 1)1. (i/p. , it. 2, p. I W.islirigiiin 1.1 DA _1I9941. p. 67. entrer '.pcn (Ersi \W si I curcer, Hiirriiiiiiir 012. Yo'k sirii E. l ee. lirsin P'irriring rird Vts,- 1 21. 1992r1, P. t.r'r I oilrurul i' S''rrhc'.rsi AslrinrCrime,'' 921. I/rI. Kiui/5nsiiin /iuriri.r of%MV-w.ns-r 12. 1 iioiie Rirkotii riis Nr,,k Dc~i , i -. midurii- 91 tii 8 it X, p. 22. 1 0( 1)994), p. S, 9. srir.Assesng tike New AXpprumus,hs. Iii A-laiagiii1rg Fist , ri 'iiring I /i( Ni'ii, A-.4i 94. `,sidri I oimrrur,'ur- L"Ie, ceit."' taeSsur IllS. ttp. cit. 2, . P preti-bin, ti liU.i,i I'/imiiiii dliii Mf,iiii..iu P'.rrurIP.mrlrnu ill Miiilicupml `ii,ih \W.rste Ser - 104. tii it. 21, P. I m. ncit m tIbcDc f l-i'pniiIg Wiekl.d Nit kil D(vIr WtirId Resources 1 996-97 123 Urban Priorities for Action .iiid (CStole R,ik,.di. eds. t Loilgimi Gmri urti I Sti. Op. 'it [([if . I p. -79. H,lt,i t I iit'tit lio a Vol. IXS No,. . EL,.x. ([K., and 1'Hi \Wiloe & Sotms, inc.. 1*,1. Mlicltel Rephligle. [test Pr.aictL l ii fruits ( 1994t, P. X;. Nevx Y'nik. 199;) 1 ' . 3 potrtirtit Modleihitg [o.r Air QitAlity Plan- I ;9. 1unix. , RztixiTIoviteC 1llt Ii 1lsef I e.ItiI]. IT)TI, " II- 123. IDo(itlud T. 1.i1ittlele 1reuleve lopitiig l[rhutit ttittg [.t4' et prcp:iel pre li te t'iptrdtr IIL v ir ueitil:I ItItII- riin MIIi N1iti:geitteti ii Rimkitfieldls." L tla lilutts. Vi. 7 N,. h tLi,t- EtCvir,rittteira.l i)leitsc Fund I Enviroin- ( Iitiilm. Br;i l," liI,.iii M.taiageiieiit Pr''- ofln lItisin r cit of i-,,1 P'oh,, C I.iilcridlge. 1iii,,i.I Drlietese Fit \V,liltll inW tti i).(: I.. l1). gDtitn WitrkiTllg P'iper Series No. I [Tih 51>.tss,nittt'ris, NiteN niber 199i5, p. 1. mLe1 er 199)1. p. 12. Wotirld Swik, W.tsliiigioiir 1D.(:. tiie 1[99i, 124. L i [irc si(itgdiiot Il.K.t [Deptritieiiii of riltc 1 2. lm[itted N,itioin, [Detelotpiet iio[ittL tttnuiite P' 2. Fiiuroniiititnti. lit (J'tlhlcgc: i'.uttit,-si'ps (LlNII'), Hiimitin ctllmttttitilt Re/i 1tt 1 4 I 41i. [,lg:.iiis.ritti itir F IT101t1io C (Co-peration Ree'n,t,- altnain Lit ml.oi,l.' l ilt, Ai s %; (lK. lNI I', Nes 't ourk, 994), p. I and D v1elee ItlIT1e IFS I)) miid F.iropeutii D)epirilelllor (I [Iti FIT tioiiiiiie[ir. 1.ton.don,. I l ()/p it. I()5. (biIkerIim l Nlitiisrers it Tr:iipori 1't944 , pp. I- 12. 1;4. W illm-l, 1'. A\niierxoi P. S''ri . Ft MT I u;m g/I let 7; A.ii! .Tast,iiiSu ilile 1).- I25. Ksimg-Hv.n ii ilK , '(' 0 reoll ed( DlCeltip- In , EJ), 1. 'lill 1r UrlIm Yor!7-t Ft'rlnl i -, ,/ ..,wll (()F.(:[) mid I(:NiT, Pirims '15l) iieil .111d DeIr ti,illmi: Sc,ul, Koelr.l.' ill mide tli, I'mimniel iletl: A Rc,ine of1 I-tw. p' S S. `1 A H ilz.z I1t v,/! [ri, I, I ,I,l /l I b,- I wI(lltb1 rb,ll /ilS >,i i Vs-l 141 i)gl:l( I -ir-- F iI TTc ,TTTIPoIT . I!T/,i TII,. V .....4... 0n s ion or E mo ic ( ol-Oper;milon 'tei, I'm,t ii't,Itit, os i/i / S,,-c ci,llinitiI ',; Nt. I I 9't9W, f,i rlmcttiiitig. .111tLI DeiC1IuipiIte )t F(DIN. I 'Ioirim,cc'ilci/ Wo rlZ V;.al& ( :wl"It-lul " oni Fzill millm' 01- I ;5. NlUrlk Ro-elalld, Towanil S iwsa.mab.hll Csmil- Poh, ,,wx, lor 'aw M,Zl 1t)e I 9s (( )F(1) tillh, S.lsl,i blt' l,c,ltqlttttitr. [suLit1 9cr- nititlltics:-4 )Sctc lr, i Ho, I - Mie mil,l/ P.] -is. I 9tt) p 41 igCleldti, Mlli cel l S ihei. iid KS.(. I- Gn ,imcn%; (Nititn.ml Rotttid 1 42. tt1c it.1 ;4. Siv.ii.tiii:ikiix ,it.ii, dcsl. (Tlime Wo-rld Baink, Tdfili t lthe I[mi tr,ltl-ttet .ii,1 mtIe [Ittlt "V.111l45 g 1J. 1c).( l DA_., .C... pp [44t 19-2 1 014) v ........O&>1 9`le,;1.,Itretitt 19 1 4 i. F11 Iir-cma. "Meg;i-Ciliy M.iliiigemictiir p. 24S. 1 * F .I oi rrm Striegies: Regiiiial Vien s." ' 1 2( gi. i 1 :1111 "(,0rCMl Edg ae, fo,r HeAkhNilx ( it 1-1,I' M hInltl .111i) tIIerge use. see \Viiij. rimu AlP.,A- l (t I (Grotetb and i/c Fitmre, ies '' Tt, I irlmn /S.,z th,- l.......gwt: Tl /{|1ill.l o / ........... ,Irrs<-1l. 1'1 zif gS im. ,, William P. Aii- K'111dRl l I.1. Fr uchs c !.t . cdx. (United Niticons {ies2.lil TI.', I i,,,lt L il',~~msi: TI' */i'tiptiiil '4 ilersi Pi. lo,,i ci S. K;miru .ldikru inid)l Few .1. iii l . isi Pe 5- I .,kvt. 19994), P. 2 S. I irb,,,,, U 'fi,g x Spring 1 't'4,. p. 4. NIIILer, -I 1liii, F-ori, Fntergi , titdl lie Eiii,- 12-7 Virgitt., J ititim ecl ii iz. -- I .,idlsli,s i thile roiiiticitt: A [(lleA it 1isses, FeIdeltlie. itti1 144. li6. cit. I(ih, pp. S;-7. Squi.rter Sertleutmcix 'ts ( iarmu.s: T wv.ird, s a r 1i, . ol it i . Nil. 4S, No. I 145. Rti1id I. Doeriing ci A.. Pl'niinig /I,e rSis [eriei I-Itierstm.uidiug oft S-.iis.iitt Fi.iti,-s. ( , 9"tt5 /icruli,cciliiig. taueutmtx; TIir icc/s iuutu'ge.ulungl-.ni'retuui- Fn,tt'ii,ut ,me'il Urb!l z. zltic., Vo.l, 4., N .-. I; '. it. IONts', P. XXN. mcmu P'rt',/ ',,,) lo I_ ,/-U.'s,' Planniuu, 2 5)Lmtui'er 14992). p. 84. I ',X. T''mnttte Fihit.u jitd Ida A,, ndil Dlii.irmii[ (tROVtI (S c111iijsj tt1 O ue th uture of ihe '2S. tIp. i)t. p2 P .ii.i.t. Flil (I1.1I.tilg1s to `iii 9tsel- fuiI1I1 r,-riouo \N.ireelfrci'tr Ti T rontro'. 1991). pp. )29 ()l ')i. 11)1(. pp. 7X--9. op'imueiii it l;ikk.irri: Nlet criplit,iwt RegiLton.- IC-iS. 124 World Rcstmrccs 1990-97 6. City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability M anaging enivironliliental resources dur- In efforts to iniprove the urban environment, local ing this era of global urbanization is governments are especially critical. Local governm1iienits / one of the greatest challenges facing are responsible for most aspects of civir-onmiienital man1- the world's cities. Witlh the fastest ur- agemrent at the city level, fr1om0 thc provisionI of urbanii ban growth oCcul-ring in the cities of infrastructuire and land usc planninig to local econiomiic the developinlg world, the imiipact of ul-bai andl iiidus- developmenit and pollution control. To properlv fill this trial growth on the environment is no longer Ilimited to role, local governments nluist develop their lcapabilities a handful of rich counitries. It is rapidlv becoming a far bevond 1 their Currenit levcls. In both the developing problemii shared aroulid the Nworld. In addition, the anid the developed world, local governmients are ulider growing problem of urban poveirv is a serious con- severe stress froi rapid Urban changeether 10pLila- frfflaidng factor in the effort to i-1ai age the Lirban i- founding factor in thetion growtlh or decnlie-fiscal pressures, growing de- enviroiinienit and provide essenItial urban services. mand for services, and Increasing pollution. ihey ofteii The previous chapter outlines a range of policy op- have neither the mandate nor the monev or resources to tions for tackling many of the direct environmental threats facing the world's cities. None of these policies cope with their Mounting problems. will work, however, if there are Insufficient administra- true In the developing world, where urban growth is sVIll~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~iis rapid Jowve gOe_1fIIt tnere to- bCutilel Underfunded tive legal resources, or insufficient political will and nIost rapid atntl gover ments tend to be underfunded public support to impleinenit these policies effectively and. nt wa Meeting this urban challenge will require the concerted Eg uall important is the need to build on the efforts actions of evervone with a stake in the world's cit- of low-income cimmumunitiestoimprovetheirown envi- ies-tgovernments at all levels, nongovernmen1tal O~r- roinmlienits. Community mobilization is by n0o means a ganizations (NGOs), private enterprises, CommUnities, substitute for governmnciit interveintioni; governmiiienit ac- and citizens. tion is essential in tackling th1e imiterconniected problems First among these actors muiist be goverincnt. A of povertv and cenvironmiiienltal degradation. BLut the powerful arguml1ent remains for a strong governmiiient potenitial for c01m1111munitics to help themiselves cani be a roJe in environnienital management >) Governments are major force for clhanige. Indeed, over the past three needed to plan for growtlh, to regulate pollutinge- activi- decades. most urban "success" stories have involved ties, to harmonize competing uses of the urban eniviron- projects that have incorporated conmmullitV action, ment, and to address questions of equity that purely from1 the ()rangi Pilot Project in Karachi, Pakistan, to market-oriented approaches miss. the Zabbaleen In Cairo, Egypt. W-,,I,/ Re (sou)r-cs 1996.-97 125 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability Table 6.1 Structure of Political Accountability in Major Cities in Developing Countries City Mayor Council Bombay, India Directly elected Temporarily dissolved Jakarta, Indonesia Appointed by government Directly elected, no legislative power Mexico City (federal district), Mexico Appointed by government Directly elected, no legislative power Sao Paulo, Brazil Directly elected Directly elected at large, legislative power Seoul, Republic of Korea Appointed by government Directly elected, no legislative power Lagos, Nigeria Directly elected Elected Shanghai, China Elected by council Elected Source: The World Bank, Better Urban Services: Finding the Right Incentives (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1995), p. 39. As described in the previous chapters, some of the frastrLICture was already in place. In contrast, many m1ost severe environm1enital degradationi is occurrinig in cities in developing counitries are facinig new pollution cities of the developing world, with the poorest citizelns threats with weak institution;al structures, inadeqILuatc beinig the most severely affected. This is where the m11ost Capital budgets, backlogs in providilng basic infrastrucI- concerted action for urban environmiienital improvemiient ture, arid econiomiiies far less able to generate the needed is needed. For that reason, this chapter focuses primirily capital '4. oii the developing world, examining the challeniges fac- Part of the problemit is that, unltil recently, miiosr iiig local governmiiienits arid strategies for enhanicing tlheir goverrinienits in developing countries were centralized, capacitv as maniagers of the urban environmient. It tlhen oftenl aulthoritarian, regimiies ( ). In the lare I 960s and looks at strategies for empowering and encouraging 11970s, many cenitral governmiients established national low-inicomiie communities and giving thenm access to the housing authorities, urban developmiient corporailtioIs, resoulces they need to improve their own lives. Coom- and national land use planning authorities to conitrol inulnitv mobilization is by no nieans limited to cities in urban development as newly indepenldenlt regimes developing Counltries, however; This chapter also de- sought to consolidate their power- ,) These instittitions scribes related initiatives in developed country cities were believed to be better equipped to handle urb-lan sucl as New York Citv and Chattanooga, Tenn essee. developinenit arid infrastrUCtUre investinent because of Finally, it concludes bv examining the vital role that their muclh wider powers and greater financial resources cities must play in aclhievinig the goals of sustainable comiipared with those of existing local authorities. development. However, as thc num111bers of these institurtiolis grew, ConfLIsioll over levels of authlority, overlapping responl- sibilities, and vested political inter-ests grew in parallel. STRENGTHENING LOCAL GOVERNMENTS Metropolitan authorities woulId construct large, expenl- IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES sive infrastructure and then transfer the nmanagemient responsibrilities to local auLthorities, who had neither the Local governments play a central role in mzaniaging the financial nor the technical resoUrCes to operate or nianli- urban envirolilneit. They usLIalIVh bear primary respon- tai it. In additioni, metropolitan institLItionls, account- sibhility for urban infrastructure and land use planning able to the central governmeit, lacked adequate avenues arid are often directly involved in the provisionl of hasic for public participationl 7). water, sanitation, arid gar-bage disposal services. As a result of these arid other factors, by the lare Given the difficulty and variety of these many furic- 1 98X0s, a distinct trendc toward decentralizatioll tions, strong instituitionial capacity-including adequate cillerged, with a (niajoritv of ceiitral governme>nts trans- funding, efficient organizationi, clear litres of authority, ferririg somiie degree of political power back to local aiid qualified personnel-is necessary if local govern- unirs of governmiiient (Sb Yet, the scale arid extent of tlhis miieints are to be effective environimiiental manaagers. Jn- decenltralizationi have varied enormously. Inn ilany Latin fortunately, such capacity is too often lacking. Ini many American cotiuntries, for instanlce, decenitralizairionl has developling countries, local governniients cannot provide riieant a shift from a cenitr-ally appointed iiiayor to one basic urban services, let alone regulate and enforce directly elected by' the public i). In somiie counitries in elvironinental legislation ;, In Europe and North A frica, by contrast, decentirali/atiori appears to have America, wlheni air pollution became severe, the legal, ocCLirred only in name. The cenitral government Contiln- regulator', arid finiancial struetLires to implemenit enivi- Lies to appoinit n1vurirCipal officials and conitrol local roimierital manatlement already existed. The basic in- spendi ng decisions (o) (i I). In short, decenitralizationihais 126 World Resources 1996-97 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability not always resulted in a real devolution F 6 S of poe to loa MLnciaite, no Figure 6.1 Sources of Municipal Revenue, of power to local municipalities, nor Slce onre has it necessarily increased the electoral Selected Countries accountability or fiscal autonomy of local authorities (12). (See Table 6.1.) Brazil The reluctance of central govern- ments to delegate full financial resources Chile and functionial responsibilities to mu- Colombia nicipalities IS understandable in politi- .1 cal terms (I n. Furthermore, there is no Kenya guarantee that local governments will perform any better than central govern- Philippines ments. Good local leadership goes far beyond financial resources and techni- Thaiand cal skills (14). For example, strong politi- Zimbabwe cal will is needed to impose a new . propertv tax, and all too often, munici- 0 20 40 60 80 100 .' ._ . . 3(percent of total revenue) pal leaders find it easier to ignore the needs of the citv's poor than to raise the needs of the city's poor than to raise the M Government transfers and grants H Property taxes taxes of the citv's wealthier constitu- ents (is). Despite these difficulties, a * Local fees * Otherlocaltaxes number of local authorities have al- Source: International Monetary Fund (IMF), Government Finance Statistics Yearbook 1994 ready begulii to address urban environ- (IMF, Washington, D.C., 1994), pp. 172, 202-203, 211, 388-389, 533, 625, 687. ready ,eg, 11 to Note: Data are for the following years: Colombia and Zimbabwe, 1986; Chile, 1988; Brazil and mental problelns. (See Box 6.1.) Philippines, 1992; Thailand, 1993; and Kenya, 1994. In other cities, however, there re- mains a distinct need to build a founda- tion for urban planiniig and governance at the local level for financial assistance is high (2o). (See Figure 6.1.) (16). Doing so will require enhancing local revenue re- Studies show that an average of 90 percent of public sources for planning and management and rapidly build- revenues is collected and spent by national governments ing the technical and professional competences of local in developing countries, comlipared with about 65 per- government personnel (il7. In this era of increasinig re- cent in high-income Countries (21). sponsibilities, it will also require forming partnerships Attention to urban finance is crucial if cities are to with other actors, including other cities and the private adequately discharge their duties as urban environ- sector. mental managers. Strategies to increase urban financial resources begin with basic reform, allowing municipali- Generating Revenue ties to initiate, determine the rate of, and better admin- Although local governmen1ts in developing countries ister taxes-be they property taxes, special taxes such often have levels of responsibility for services and infra- as business taxes or motor vehicle registration taxes, structure comparable to those of local governments in local surcharges on national taxes, or user fees and developed countries, their revenue bases are generally service charges for government-funded programs (22). much smaller-about one hundredth or less, according One critical area of reform is improving property tax to one estimate (l8). Indeed, in some of the poorer collection. Although property taxes are a common form developing nations, local governments must function on of local taxation, in many cities thev generate little annual budgets equivalent to only a few U.S. dollars per revenue compared with other local taxes such as auto- capita, which severely restricts their abilitv to fund mobile or income taxes (23,. Difficulties in assessing services or expand infrastructure t19). property values, keeping assessments current, and en- Low revenue bases result from many factors, not the forcing compliance have made tax administration a bur- least of which is the failure of central governments to den on municipalities. Also, exemptions to such taxes transfer to local governments financial resources along made for political reasons or to attract development can with management responsibilities. In most developing erode the tax base or distribute the tax burden inequi- countries, local capacities for revenue generation are tably. Moreover, tax rates and exemption policies are rudimentary and dependence on central governments often set by the central government, so changes in these World Resouirces 1996-97 127 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability I1o a I,S , 94to:iS :EEI S- Box 6.1 Cities Take Action: Local Environmental Initiatives Action at the local level is essential if The focus of rhesc Local Agend;i 21 own elected mnayvors anid couLncils. This the host of urban environmental chal- campaigns is on the process itself-mo- drarmatic deccitralizatioln of govern- lenges are to hc met and cities are to be- bilizing commiiunitv resources and com- ineit power meant that local governi- come nore livable and susrainahle in mirments, setting clear targets, menr decisions wvould lbetter reflect the the long term. Realizing this, manly cit- maintaining accountability, and measuir- neecis of the province's many small and ies have begun local environmental in- ing concrete progress-rather thaln on remote communities. itiatives or embarked on ambitious the conmmunity environniental plan that Second, a coinniittce was cstablishe(d planining processes to gujide their future results. Yet, these plans incorporate to devclop a Provincial SustainalIle De- development. The best of these efforts many of the elements necessary to re- velopimenit Plan. It conisisted of rcpre- are consultative in their design and ac- duce urban impacts on health an(d the senratives from the province's different tion, involving input froin residenits, environment, such as the provision of jurisdictionis, NGOs, the private sector. civic organizations, nongovernmental basic services. conser-vation of re- and kev comistituency groups. The com- organizations (NGOs), businesses, and sources, and pollution prevention. mnirtee esrahlished six "themiie boards' labor tmnions. A few of these initiatives Cajainarca, Peru, is one of the many in the areas of eduCation: natural re- are profiled below (i. cities that has successfully developed a sources and agriculturc productioll anldl emploviyment: cultLiral heritiage and tour- Local voices. In /ismi; uirbain enviroinment: and womnen's Cajamarca. ' v issues, familv, and population. After PerLu. deenotral- gairherimig local iniput fronti the va,rious ized govern- ' regions, each board developed a strate- gi ents have- gic plan for irs particular area. giver) community __ ,~, _The initiatives proposed by these members a voice groups reflect the differenir concerns of in totba; environ- rhe constiruents. In the rIural co tomiiilti- ,nenfal planning. ties, the plan included initiativcs for items such as terracing on steep hillsides, J seed banks, and woodvworking training b centers. \Varer deliver-y svsteins wvere con- ' sidered a top priority. Farmers' concerns _ _ tabout Illillillg pollution resultCd ill plan1s for nimoire rigorous environmental assess- DEVELOPING A LOCAL AGENDA 21 Local Agenda 21. Cajamarca ranks rents and a new tax system. among the poorest comImnilllities in the The urban hoard, in contrast, drew Agenda 21, the plan of action developed world. In 1993, the infant nimortalitv rate tip a strategy thar included developmlenlr in Rio de LC.aneir0, Brazil, at the United .was 94.7 per 1,1)00 live births, 82 per- ol health seivices, a refLuse collection Nationis Conference omi Environineiit cent higher thlian the Peruvian national prograil, anid a park improvemiienit pro- and Developinenr (UNCED). recognizes average and 30 percent higher than the graiii. The urban hoard is also consider- the importance of local authorities in average for low-inconie counrries. The ing rhe creation of an ecological belt plaining for sustainable development. Kilish River, a source of drinking water andl a land use plain that will guide the Local autihlorities often oversee planniing, foi maniv of the regiorn's poor, has been city's expansion. maintain infrastructure. establish envi- conltaminated bv miniing operations and In many cities, developing local indica- ronmenral regulations, assist in iilple- untreated sewage. Farming on the steep tors to measure progress is a key cono- menting national policies, and are Andean hillsides, overgrazing, and the ponent of the l.ocal Agenda 21 process. pivotal in rallying the public to support cutting of trees for fuel have resulted in The region of Hamilron-Wentworth in environnmental objectives. severe soil erosion, exacerbating flood- Ctanada is at the forefront of these ef- Agenda 21 challenges each local author- ing problemns and threarenimig the liveli- torts. Local officials used an extcnsive ity to woork with its citizens, local organi- hoods of the area's rural population. public consultiationi process including fo- zations, and private enterprises in In 1993, the provincial municipality cus groups, (luestioninaires, and coilmmi- adopting a "Local Agenda 21." Through of Cajamarcai, which governs the entire niry meetinigs ro design indicators that consultation and comisensus building, lo- province, initiated an exteinsive Local are now being used to assess progress cal aulthorities are encouraged to forinu- Agenda 21 planning effort with two toward rangible goals. late strategies that reflect the main components. First, Cajamarca environ-niemital goals of the conmmunitv. City was divided into 12 neighborhood TACKLING URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL Since 1992, approxiinatelv 1.200 lO- cou,ncils and the surroun(dinig countrv- PROBLEMS cal authorities in 33 countries have es- side was divided inro 64 "minor popu- N1iummicipal alurthorities are also making tablished Local Agenda 21 campaigns. lated centers" (IPCs), each with its great strides in improving urbanl envi- 128 WN orl(t Resources 19'96-9T City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability ronmental quality. Iniriarives address a erared by these companies has beein re- nent of successful urban planning con- broad range of problems, froni provid- duced by more thai 5O( percent. sisrs of public participation and consen- lig basic services such as water and Maniy local governmients are also real- sus buildiig. Third, although most sanitation in Quito, Ecuador, to con- izing the role that cities play in regional policy anialyses assume a top-down ap- serving biodiversity in [)urban, South and global environmental problems. Cit- proach in trying to introduce pollution Africa, to reducing ciar emissions in ies are banding together under the aus- regLltilaiols or carbon dioxide emission Quezon City, Philippines. These pro- pices of varioLus associationls to tackle reductions, rhese problems can also be grains prove that huge sums of money problems such as regional water pollu- addressed from a decentralized, commti- an d advanced technologies are nior al- tion (as in the Mediterranean). Parnier- nitv-based perspective. ways necessary to make loCali7ed im- ships among cities also transfer infor- Finally, urbiani developpment failures of provemeints. mation and techinology concerining ap- the past decades demonstrate that local In Graz, Austria, the challenge was to proaches and solution1s to common ur- governance cannot be replaced bv inter- find a way to reduce pollutioni fronii ban problems. national infrastructure programs, the re- snall businesscs (automobile and ma- O)ne of these partnerships is rhe CC)0 locarion of central government agencies chine production, shoe niantifacturiiig Reduction Programil coordiniated by the to secondarv cities, the establishment of brewing) Witliour underminiing their economic viability. In 1991, the cityin- Pollution itiated a partnership with the Institute c ; control. In for Chemical Engineerinig at the Graz Quezon City, nliiversity of Teclinology to work svith t Philippines, a sample group of s11all businesses. The impromptu road initial participants ilicluded thiee pririt- inspections help ing companies, a large vehicle repai_r to control vehicle shop, an d a wholesale coffee roastete emissions anld chaini store coImipaniy. After an initial training session, each company set up a projecr ream to de- velop a cleancr productioft program The institite helped the companies to re- _ view nevw techinologies annd a varietV of other wastc management mnCasures - _ hased on the major waste streams of each company. Identified measures were Inter-national Council for l ocal Environ- parastatal service conmpanies, private classified according to their economic mential Initiatives (ICLEI). More than coinpianies, or NGOs. Without strong payback. For example, the small print 100 local authorities front 27 countries local governinents, policies will nlot re- shops had 54 techinically feasible nan- have joinedl an International Cities for flect local priorities, programs will not agem'ent oprions for waste minimizationi Climate Protecrioti Cainpaigi. Partici- be responsive ro local conditions, budg- and pollurioni prevention. Twenty-tour pants pledge to meet and exceed the re- ets will not reflect local realities, the ac- percent would be profitable in 1 yvei; 30 quirements of the Framework Coniven- tions of different sectors will nor be percenrt Would be profitable wvithin 2 tion on Climate Change by reducing coordinated, and commiunities will lack years, and I 5 percenit would be econoini- carbon dioxide emissions b! tIp to 2(0 the consistent voice they need in na- cally neutral. percenr by 2005. As part oif this iniria- tional and international policy processes. As an additionial economic incenitive. tive, ICLEI wsorked With 14 cities to de- -let) Briiginann companies that achieve a threshold re- velop coinprehensive local actioln plans dIuctionl wn wastes and emissions are to reduce carbon tlioxide emissions. awarde(d an "ECOPROFIT Label" that let) Briogonann is the Secretarl, Genleral they can use for mar keting purposes for LESSONS LEARNED of the International Couincil of L otal I year. After I year, companies need to These examples represent only a frac- Lmu'ironmneotall,ritiatit's, Toronto, achlieve furtihe ivwaste reducrion to coI1- tion of the various efforts of local Canada. This conitribuitionl was conimis- tiliue to display the label. The biggest il- auLthorities. However, thev illustrate se,- stoned by the -arlh Council, San Jose, centive, howvever, is tlr-ect cost savings: eral key points. First, despire the seein- (h)sa Rica producrioni costs for participating comil- ingly overwlhelminig challenges, local panies have been retluiced bv as mudli as govermens are not stagnantand Notes 60 per-ceit. are making great strides in addressing I. Box is drvin fronim c.se siudies pbliishedi Since thu project's inceptioln, approxi- uirban problems th roughi partnerships hb the interi.amtonal CoLincil for locil En- marely 401 firims have participated, and With Iocal businesses, NGOs. and even 5ironimntIltii huiaiives, Toiroito. the voluLile Of troxic aid solid wastes germ- orher cities. Secontl, a crucial coilnpo- Wor~tl d Rcsouirces 199)6-_)7 129 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability rates and policies-even ro compensate for inflation or ing, effective urban enviroinmenital management re- to correct inequities-can he difficult to achieve t24i. quires personnel with appropriate managerial, techni- Maximizing the potenrial of property taxes for local Cal, and finiancial skills. Key skills spani a wide range: revenue generation w'ill require both chaniges in local the drafting of legislation and regulationis, environ- tax structures and imiiproved assessmenit and collection mental monitoring and enforcemiient, and cost account- procedures. This will not be easy. The hasic data on ing, to name just a few .ii). which property taxes are hased are lacking ini most In many developing countries, there is a severe short- cities. Disputes over land ownership, outdated citv age of trained personnel. Lack of training, low wages, maps. and land transactions that occur outside formial and limited career opportullities pr-esenit serious obsta- market structures all complicate tax collection. Rapid cles to attracting and keeping effective urban managers urban growth on the peripheries of these cities exacer- , io. In Indonesia, a recenit study foulid that the average bates the difficulties because new settlemienits musr be length of trainilng related to urban mianiagemiienit and constantly incorporated into city records if the tax base finance among more than 700,000 local officials aver- is to reflect the physical growthi of the city i2ii. aged only about 2 hours per year. Accordingly, the In the area of improvinig comiipliance, some relatively Indonesian government plans to establish regional ceii- simple measures can result in significant tax revenue ters for local personinel training increases. Delhi, India, for example, increased its prop- Building the capacities of environnenital profession- erty tax collections by 96 percenit in I year through a als in local governnieit will require a grealter comimiit- combination of measUres, including providing dis- rment to training and techinical assistanice programs at a C.ounts for early pavments, centralizing collectionl points variety of levels is,. National govcrnnients can play a for tax paynienlts, freezing hank accouints for defaulters, par-t in enhancing local professiona;il capacitv both by and requiring taxpayers to pay taxes before appeals providing granit mioney to support local trainilig efforts against their assessments cani be considered i2hl. and by establishing national technical assistance pro- Another valuable source of revenue for city govern- grams specifically directed at niunicipal enmplovees. In ments is the introduction of user fees for environinienital Brazil, a teamii of trained officials from the cenitral services such as water and sewerage (2-A. Few local government was sent on a temporary basis to local governmilents have either the institutional capability or governmnit offices to advise municipal urhan maniagers the legal authorization to set and collect user fees (28) and help them upgrade the analytic and technical capa- (29). In Bangkok, for example, the allowable charge for bilities of their staffs. Eventually, it evolved into a garbage collection is set by Thailand's central govern- permanenit extensioni service known as the Brazilian ment, although it is the city that imulst provide these Iiistitute of Municipal Administration 1 9). In Malaysia, services. As a result, city officials can chiarge only regional centers that offer course work in local plan- US$5.95 per household for garbage collection, even ning, budgeting, and other skills have been established thlOugh it costs theni US$9.83 ma 31;.n Even wbhen local for local governmient professionals 140). governmilents do have the authority to set user fees, these fees still typically fall far below the actul COStS Of Partnerships with Other Actors providing services, as described Ci Chapter 5, "Urban Priorities for Action." Whereas governments have historically provided the Attempts to increase the financial base of local guv- bLlk of irbian services themselves, the scopeof pro)lems ernmilents must also include reforiniig the direct transfer faciig today s cities are too large and city c(offers are too of funds fromi ceitral to local governmenlts. These trans- sniall for local governimients to handle them alone. fers, which occur through such mechaiiisnis as granits, linstead, local governmiiienits will needl to capitalize on the subsidies, and other payiments, are CLurrentlv one of the resouLrces availaible to them, be they private comiipaniies largest sources of local funds in the developinig world. providing capital and jobs, NGOs providing informa- In many cases, however, they are suJbjeCt to political tioni and grassroots nobilization, or commUnities tlem- manipulation, are not targeted well, are irregular in selves. their timing, or do not take into accounlt local circumn- In recent vears, there has been a trend toward the stances or priorities i 2 . privatization of public services t4-u. Awarding contracts for environmeintal services to private companlies offers potential cost savings. Where competitioni and adequate Building Professional Capacity accountability to municipal managers exist, privatiza- More revenue does not in itself guarantee a more effec- tion may net substanitial savings without degraiding the tive local government X34). In addition to adequate fund- quality of service. This has been the case with garbage 130 World Resources 1996-9. City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability disposal service in Buenos Aires, Argentina. wlhere pri- of the primiiary objectives of deceintralization was to put vate firms under municipal contract are able to offer the municipal governmenit in closer touch with the high-quality collectioi services ilore Cfficicintl than the conlinunity arid to facilitate a higlher level of citizen city itself can (42). For such partnerships to be effective, participationi in planning Lirban services, especially with however, cities must execute appropriate oversight (4 ). the barrio associations in the city's Iong-underserved Partnerships between indtistr-y and governmenit can south zon1c .47,. also be productive. Such partnerships ca11 stimulate Other miunicipalities such as Porto Alegre and San- developnment of cleaner manUfacturing processes and tos, Brazil, have established denmocratic planninlg and energy technologies for local Lise or can encourage the budgeting procedures using the inptLt of citizei CLuncils, adaptation of off-the-shelf techilologies to local circuIn- caclh representing a spCcific population group or urban stances ,441. service issue 4.:;. Some of the most valuable relationships tlhat govern- ments can cultivate are with NGOs arid corilioniiiitv groups. These organizations cani deteriniriie the special A COMMUNITY-LEVEL APPROACH TO eirCrunistances aild needs of neighborhoods, plan appro- priate projects to address those needs, mobilize funding, ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT arid g enerallv bridge the gap betwveen gover-nimiienit an d Go(Ioerrnmiients arid others somiietimies underestimate the the affected Comm tin lity. Partinersllips do not jList hap- albilitv of low-inicome coInmtlrrities to contrihtite to pen, however. To foster therii, city governments 111Iust solving the environimiental problems that plague them. actively prornote the involveinentr of outside grotips ill I0-o oine, thlc I1agIIitt(le of urban environrmentalI prob- environinenltal planning arid decisiorirna king. leiics-irnadeqL;Iatesewerrage, flooding, airpoll Ltion, aid groulid subsidence-are often seen as being too vast for Taking Charge comImunlities to address. Furtherimiore, commuililinities, especiallv poor ones, are seen as lackinig the orgarliza- In imaly ecities aiid towlis In the developitig w^orld, municipal governments are already involved in Lirban tinirial capacity or financial resoLirces to either construct im-proveriierits, establishirig participatorv plannling eoniiniuntv irifasrrtutttre or riianaeenr arid niarshaling their political and econoniie services SLIch as water PUMPS or Public toilets 49). processes adnasilntle-poiiaaidenni Evidence from- SuIcceSSful communi-tyntefforts COunters clout tO strengthien local authority over environmental mianagement. In 1992, citizeiiprotests about the basiifs thesc beliefs. AltloLighi ir is trire that rnanv environ- deteriorating air quality prompted Mtexico City officials metal prlenis such as air plti arid flooding to create the M4etropo itari Con limlissioni for the Protec- re-qLiire a citywide or eveni ai r-egioinwide iapproachi, many tidividual projects calrried oLit at the coinnitinity level momi of Air Quaility )4~). The local government has played11y c an conitribute to a solution. Nunierous exaniples have an active role in urbani alr quality conltrol, remiioving s, . . . .i. . D ~~~~~~~~~sliowil that uilcder 1,ulrP(I-ti\xe coiiditiotis, ineighbor- polluting industrial facilities from the city, restrictilig hoods and conirilunities can nianage laies, waterways, privateaLltOillOI)ileuse,developd cningauitids al)rm.nage lnes waerway private automobiloe use,developing artidbrinlging cleaner Xand waste disposal systems. In conimniunity after coni- vehicle fuels to the market, planitiig trees, and iivesting nri irv households have joined together to improve heavilv in public transit inifrastrtictLire (46o. TO pay for thlese initiatives, the niuilpzillv has cstablishe( 'its WI cdrailnage, coLiistrtuct roads and laiies for access, clear dii-etiatie the ninicipait haseestsh itreunwn land Lif refuise, or create oppei spaces where children caii dirctandflxile inncig rrnigninit \iti fregn play. (See Box 6.2.) banks and goverinments. In 1994, the city of Quito, EcLlador, took a simillar course and achieved the passage of national legislation Poverty and the Urban Economy to establish the Metropolitan District of Quito. This If governmienits and other actors are to pursue more legislationn provided the niunicipality w'ith control over sLipportive policies arid actions toward low-income all aspects of environmental policy. land Lise r egula1tionell C r1111iunities, they must begin by adiLusting their percep- transportationi planning, and organizatioinal design of tions of povertv aLid its relation to the urbani economy. the municipal governm1ent. Having established a local First, these actors n1iust abandon rlie notion that accel- goverinmenit with sutfficienit power to plan its ownI fun- crating econiomic growth in the city 'ill necessarily ture, the niayor theni proceeded to decenitralize the curT-e Urbani poverty or reverse environniental deterio- municipal adnmiiiistration into three geographic zones. ration. In fact, althougli ecoinomilc growth and strLuc- Each zone has its own local office responsible for for- rural chanige in the economnny h avc raised general niulatilig iiew service delivery strategies for its area. One standards of living in 111may countries, there has been no W'orhl Rg('rsnuces / 96-97 131 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability Box 6.2 The Orangi Pilot Project, Karachi, Pakistan For well over a decade, a nongovern- small family enterprises, a low-cost plied to OPP for assistance, collected mental organization (NGO) called the housing upgrade program, a program money, received tools, and organized Orangi Pilot Project (OPP) has demon- to assist in upgrading physical and aca- the work i7). strated that, when community interest demic conditions at schools, a women's OPPI was able to drastically reduce rhe and resources are mobilized, low- work center program, and a rural devel- cost of construction by simplifyinig de- income settlements can greatly improve opment program. signs and standardizing parts. The cost their own access to environmental serv- Each program was introduced only at- of a sanitary latrine inside the house ices, health care, and employment. ter a thorough analysis of community and the underground sewerage linc in Located on the northwest periphery needs and identification of the most in- the lane was 1,000 rupees (US$90) per of Karachi, Orangi is the largest of the portant community actors. Each pro- household-ahout one fifth the cost of city's approximatelv 650 low-income gram has periodicallv been reevaluated similar improvements built by the citv settlements, known as katchi abadi (1 . and modified to respond to changes governnient s.}) (Si. Orangi was first developed in 1963 as a within the community. Three of these Each lane depended on its own small government township of 500 hectares, programs are profiled here. septic tank until the system reached the but migrants flooded into the settle- critical mass required to install secon- ment after the 1971 war that led to the Low-COST SANITATION dary drains. Although this represenred creation of Bangladesh. swelling the set- Until 1981, Oranigi had onlv primitive a gamble on the future expansion of the tlement to more than 3,200 hectares. forms of sewage disposal and drainage. system andi was discouraged bv interna- The ethnicaliv diverse population of la- Convinced that it was possible for low- tional development experts, OPP be- borers, skilled workers, shopkeepers, income people to install their own sani- lieved thar onlv such a decentralized clerks, and whiite-collar workers now tation svstems at an affordable cost, approach would empower residents to numbers about 800,000, living in OPP began to use the organizational ca- build their own sewage infrastrlcture. 94,000 houses (2). The average family pabilities of the local leadership in each When the svstemii successfully rcached income is estimated to be 1,500 rupees lane to adapt and implement simple the scalc required to integrate the lane per monrh (about US$59), but spans a sanitation technologies. svstems into an overall communitv svs- range from under 500 rupees per The greatest initial obstacle was the tem, the lane septic tanks were covered month (US$18) to more than 25,000 ril- Orangi residents' expectation that the over and did not become the sanitation pees per month (US$980) (3) (4). government would supply a sewer svs- "time bombs" predicted by outside ex- OPP's approach is based on the con- tem without charge. Onlv when all ef- perts. viction that people organized in small forts to petition the government for Waste from the Orangi sewers runs groups can help themselves, and that if services had been exhausted was OPP into open waterwavs that flow to the social and economic organizations able to work with the community to de- sea. These waterwavs are overburdened within a community are strengthened, velop alternative solutions. by waste from Orangi and from Karachi services and material conditions-such Although poor, Orangi residents were in general and still tend to overflow dur- as sanitation, schools, clinics, and job motivated to pay for improvements to ing heavy rains. The miain sewers re- training-will begin to improve, as will sewage systems because their houses quired to prevent this flooding are the employment opportunities (Si. represented a significant investment. responsibility og the Karachi authorities. In Orangi, OPP organized residents Health concerns were another major OPP has developed designs for main into groups of 20 to 40 families living motivator; mothers in particular saw a sewers and is lobbving the Karachi Mu- along the same lane, with the thought clear coniection between unsanitary nicipal Corporation to build them. that these families will generally know conditions and disease. Homeowners Under OPP guidance, berveen 1981 and trust each other. This principle of were willing to assume responsibility and 1993 Orangi residents installed small-scale organizationi, along with for constructing and maintaining in- sewers serving 72,070 of 94,122 houses careful research on the needs and capa- house latrines, sewer lines in the lanes, 'o0. To achieve this, community niein- bilities of the communitv and the use of and secondarv or collector drains, per- h spen more thaS$ million of appropriate technology, has govcrned forming between 8(1 and 90 percent of ets speint more thand US$2 illion ot OPP's community development strategy. the work needed to build the system. t US$150, and Oex OPP started its work in Orangi in The Karachi governnient would then be tension of new technologies and 1980 with a low-cost sanitation pro- responsible for the provision of the gram and spent the next 4 years work- main drains and treatment plants (6). HEALTH AND FAMILY PLANNING FOR ing with all segments of the community OPP personnel prepared models and to build trust and confidence that OPP other visual aids to demonstrate how LoW-INCOME WOMEN was going to be a permanent part of the the sewer system would be laid out. Research conducted by OPP showed community. Thev drew up instruction shects and that Orangi residents suffered high inci- Once the sanitation program had posters for each lane to ensure that de- dences of typhoid, malaria, dysentery, gained momentum, OPP gradually de- centralized constructioni planning none- diarrhea, and scabies, as well as highi veloped other community efforts, in- theless resulted in a coherent and rates of infant and maternal mortality. cluding a basic health and family workable system. Each lane selected its Surveys reveale(d that Orangi residents planning progranm, a credit program for own lane manager. who formally ap- spent a substantial portion of their in- 132 World Resourccs 1996-97 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability come on curative health care, but paid In its program, OPIP chose to address particular service. Rather, the cominu- little attention to preventive measures. the largest category of women's employ- nitv provided the service to itself, with Therefore, in 1984, OPP began a pilot nient, vwhich is stitching clothing for appropriate assistance from OPP. program to provide health education contractors in Karachi. Women stitch- This approach to community develop- and family planninig information to ers in Orangi complete piecework ment demonstrates the flexibilitv re- poor woomen, bound for export to international mar- quired for successful NGO intervention Realizing that conventional clinics kets. The system of contracting for this in low-income urban settlements. OPP were ineffective because traditional gen- piecework was exploitative both finan- worked methodically and sequentially, der segregation made it difficult to cially and socially. Male contractors developing its organizational and techni- reach woomen through suchi a puiblic fa- paid xvomeni substandard wages, often cal capabilities in each particular prob- cilitv, OPIP introduced mobile health mistreating and sexualiv harassing them. lem area before moving on to address training teams, consisting of female doc- Eliminating the contractor, OPP set another. As a result, each OPP project cors, health educators, and social organ- up \Y/C's that deal direcrly wvith suppli- can stand on its own. Taken together, izers. These reamns contacted groups of ers and customers. The WWCs, located however, these projects demonstrate the women throughi selected activist fami- in family homes in the neighborhood, effective long-term role that an NGO lies in their neighborhoods, providing a xvere lenr machinery and supplies bv can plav by working in a single commu- more discreet and effecrive source of OPP and were assisted in contacring cli- nity on an ongoing basis. healhri education. ents. The families running WWCs were -Akltar Badshah OPP also developed a system in which allowed to charge only minimal over- the neighborhood health activist deliv- head and were required to earn most of ered medical and birth conitrol supplies. their income through their own piece- Akhtar Badsbah is Director of Pro- An intimate neighbor, the health activist work. Reduced costs enabled the grams for the Mlega-Cities Project in was a permanent and confidential WWCs to pay a fair wage to the work- New York. source of supplv for the members of her ers. The WW'C daily wage was 20 ru- group. The healith activist also arranged pees (US$0.80), compared with the References and Notes for womliien to receive intrauterine de- srandard daily wage of 15 rupees 1. Arif Hasan, Sealing-Up rifthe OPl"s Loie- vices or rubal ligations from the mobile (US$0.60). W\W(' managers tended to Cost Santittaon Progranm IOrangi Pilot heallth reaiil. be women and to treat the wonien Project-Research Traiiiiig Instirtte, Kara- Orighealth team. healrh alid famil workers fairly since they wvere also chi, Pakistan, 1993), p. 1. Originalyitesee hthaiid fi 'ly neighbors and friends. 2. Arif Hasan, Replicating the Low-Cost l,an00 low-income faw ilies in Orangi. A Initially, the WWCs required substan- Sanitation Programme Adininistered by 3,000 lw-incom familis in Orngi. A tial financial and mnanagerial support the Orangi Pilot Project in Karachi, Paki- survey of the tairgetred farnilies demoni- from OPP. aver time, hiowever, WWC stan, in The HumaIn Face of the Urban strares the effectiveness of the program: managers learned to weed out untrust- EArviromorlde. Procoerlecg e ofnth Second more thani 95 percenit of the children worthy SupplierS and customers, to io- n Annal Su torid nablk Conerelcp opi EiitI- are immLunized, 44 percent of the fami- zors uplr n,zsoes om-ronm^sentally Suffstainab)le Det elopplielt, Is- lies practice birth co entrol f epidemic dis- tivate their workers, and to increase mail Serageldin, Mtichael A. Cohen, and quality control. WWCs, operating as K.C. Sivarainakrishnaii, ed,. (The World eases are onitrolled, and hygiene and supportive community orgatnizations Bank, Washington, D.C., Septeriiher nutrition have improved 't2t Infant rather than exploitative contractors, 19-21, 1994), p. 152. mortality fell from 130 per 1,00() live have proven more efficienr and reliable 3. The exchange rare in 1995 was US$1 = births in 1)982 to 3 in 1991 (i ;i. In rhan traditional contractors. Clients in Rs. 25.45. 1991, OPP revised its model to reach Karachi actually prefer to use WWCs 4. Akhter Haineed IKhan, Oraugi Pilot Pro- our to a larger nmibiler of families. OPP because of their greater productivity, ject Programs Oranigi Pilot Project-Re- inrroduced a 3-month health curricu- and individual wvorkers prefer to work search Traiining Institure, Karachi, lum rhat covered the preveritionl of dis- for WWCs because of their higher Pakistan, 19941, p. 3. eases common in Orangi, merhods of wages. s. Op. cit. 2, p. 150. family plaritiing, and improved nurri- By the sixth year of the program, the 6. Op. cut. 4, p. 7. non and hygiene. WWCs had become self-suisraining. 7. Orangi Pilot Project," Ennirrnzment anid OPP continues to provide loans for the 7jranrzaun Veil , Nit. 2 (October PROGRAM FOR WOMEN'S creation of new WWCs, but these are 1995l, p. 229. EMPLOYMENT paid back with interesr i5i, s. Ibd., p. 228. C)PP initiated its program to develop 9, op cit. 2, p. ISI. Women's Work Centers (WWCs) in AN ONGOING ROLE 9. Op. cit. 2, p. 151. 1984, beginning with a survey of em- OPP's approach to communiit develop- If. Op. cit. 2, p. s plovment patterns in arangi. The sur- ment offers a model of how communities vey revealed that the rising costs of can assume responsibilityv for services for- 12. Op. cit. 4. p. 24. living forced wives and daughters in merly considered the responsibility of 13. Op. cit. 2, p. 151. Orangi to work to supplement familv governmenit. In none of these programs 14. Op cit. 7, p. 233. income (141. did OPP see its role as the provider of a 15. Op. cit. 7, p. 2.33. WJorld Re'sotrels J Ct6)_7 133 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability -1 hoods, where a substantial share of incoime is generated ;5 §. *,, in the hom'e aind neighbiorhiood itself. O(ne of the most conisistenit findings abour urban squatter settlemelniits is - ii;l 'iEthat the strolngest motivaitioni for conitinuing to live in lithemi, despite the environmental degradation, is access to the variety of economliic activities fouLid nearlby s,iS. In circumnstainces in which the comimunity itself is the locus of stibstantialI emlploiment, an improved livirig enVironment can generiare important new economic op- p-_ort(unities. For examnple, in mran low,-incomle settle- ments where environimenital infrastructure such as pathways and covered drainage channels have beeni constructCd. these improvemnents have led to a prolifera- tiio of comniercial enterprises-food stalls, beauty salons, zland general stores-where few existedl before (S ih i-. An important corollary is tha fact that improvinig the environmenit wvithin low-income coniniuiiitics contrib- u tes directly to the health of rhe urban economiyi ixo. Too _ (5_> .ofteni. the poor are assumed to contribute to an undif- S fereitiatecd 'irformali sect)or that is mistakenly pre- sumeld to havc Tio linkaiges ro the rest of the urban, national, or internatiomial econoinv In rca litx', this inifor- mial sector is integrated into andi contributes Lirectly to t I rhe urban ecoinoiiv as a whiole SQ) on.oi The informal sector- stipplies goods (recvcIed materials, tools, smnall m_lachines) anid services (repairs, transport, sales) to the agricultural, livestock, fishing, and forestry sectors as well as to other businesses vitrhin the city (II) i6. Such intercolnectiolns underscore the criticaLl necd to address CunmmLunitV problems in an integrated fashion Community action. 1 //114 ;//! ) I .l //7 /1 that deals witih both income generation and environ- S/Ilt I 1 I I It), it( II, 1/1/(i 1 I(!r IPI[ II ') I 1t I i '1I)III 'It en II t 3taI II ia 1 ia genIIenft. I f wl / i/tl/, I (ISII(711 7 (1V to11~ ci In h, ( I,. III !; (! i ~ i- %-, I/d1i I lit] II,' IF (l//I/(I 1ItS/sI /C >1/. Elements of Success in Community instanlce of poverty taking care of itself in any city vi a Management econiomic growth or market forces alone ith i. Several lessons have einerged from studies of how poor Not only is poverty a per-sistent featLure of societies at urban households arld their communities cope with all levels of per capita income, but accelerated econlomiic environmenital probleriiis. Taken together, these can be a growth brings its own forms of environmieintal crises, basis for rethlinikilig how govermilienlts, NGOs, and the social dislocation and alieriation, anti heighitenled social initerniatioallll developmlient commilg unity can besr aom ig- and ecoononiic inequities that the imiarket h/is niot cis- meit rather than undermne grassroots enviromental played anfy capacity to resolve (i2 5 ;. (See Chapter 2, mlanagement efforts. "Urban Elnviroinment arid HI Lunian Healthi.") TliLus, en- vironinental ifiiproveniieits for poor neighborhoods Integrcting Environment and Livelihood at thze caninot simply wait for better econiomic tilies but muisr HouseI:od Level be an integral pirt of the strategy for econiomitc dlevel- Oftel, rtiroujghi no chloice of their own, low-income opment within the citV s54:. househiolds are do fl$cto managers of the local environ- Especially in the developinpg world, governimienlts Imerit u6t. NManv of their dailv activities revolve around must also accept that environimental factors are closely using and ma naging na.tural resources such as water and interwoven with cruciail econiornilc factors such as eiii- fuclwood. The ahility of pooir houselhol(ds to manage plovment. This is particularly true in poor neighbor- thesc resources and reduce their exposure to envilron- 134 World Resources 1 990-97 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability mental degradation (either by boilinig water or by re- enable household members simultaneouslv to earn in- moving garbage from their communities) is largelv de- comes and to obtain essentials, such as clean water, terimiined by how mulch effort they must expend on other food, construction materials, and health care (6 s69). necessities, such as eariniig sufficienlt incomiie or securing The experience of the Zabbaleen iii Cairo illustrates access to health care and education, the potenitial of this approach. An ethnic group living in The size aiid comliposition of a household are critical several large settlements, the Zabbaleen have long to its ability to manage the environment. The poorest earned their incomes throutig wastepicking. This infor- of poor households are those with only one adult or mal means of waste collection provides a substantial parent who cannot perform the manyv tasks needed to benefit to the local government by reducing the amount sustain basic levels of existence [r4). When a large share of solid waste that needs to be officially collected. Yet, of effort and time is spent on basic survival, it is less the health and productivity of rhe Zabbaleen are threat- likely that sigiificant attenitioni will he giveni to environi- ened by the environmental conditions in which thev live mental management. Poor women in the barrios of and work. In the early 1 980s, for instance, most settle- Latin Amierica, for exainple, spend up to 80 to 90 lours ments had no water supply, sewerage, or electricit. per week earning cash and buinviig or otherwise obtain- Residents made a liviing by sorting garbage, often within ing essentials such as water, food, clothiig, and trans- their homiies, greatlv increasing the risk of illness from portation s. Expectiig them to mainlage a community disease vectors as well as injuries from broken glass and sewage system is unrealistic. meta l. Households do not live In isolation, however. Where Starting in the 1 980s, several international and local community-oriented sentiiient is strong, a poorer groups began working with the Zabbaleen establishing household often looks to neighbors, frieids, and rela- programiis to improve environmental coniditions in the tives in the conitliyuitv for help. Stuidies also show that settlement and to facilitate the collection and recycling households negotiate issues such as responsibility for of garbage Asmallindustries proIect,for example,gave cleaning neighborhood streets or sectirinig fuel, as well loais to families to bcuy machines that can convert as how resources withini a commiuinilitv w:ill he distrib- garbage such as rags and plastics into useful secondary utied, materials. This not only has reduced direct contact with These findings suggest two strategies for improving tihe garbage, bUt also has increased income becauIse the Thes fildigs sgget to stateiesfor nipovig materials fetch a rmuch higher price thian the rags would. environmental conditionis. First, it is possible to btild Theconsftructo of lcl compost plants has gven oiicoiimuiit newoks s atilansofiiibilzin laor The coiistrtiction of local coinpost plants has given on communilty networks as a1 means of moblizingT labor reiet h biiyt ev (as inl the Orangi Pilot Project), as a way to reducecosts residents the ahiliry to rccle organic wastes as well, obc o(as IntheOrangin Pilot project) as dS wa reduechanism creating nl employnment opportunities and reducing of basic goods (as In Caili, Colombia), or as a miechanism- the amonOLit of garbage left onl the streets 7j to inipt-ove the efficeielcv of se rvice cieliverv: In Buenos teaitlto alaelt ntesres ) In Mexico City, the squatters of El NMolino have also Aires, for example, the governmenit has been building on cotiniiitinnitv nietworks to improve its distribLutioll Of y earning opportunities. Household wastewater, garbage, food aid through its Programa Alimnentario Integral v and sewag are conducted by above-ground rubber Solidario (PAIS) plan. Unider the PAIS plan, beguIn Id o or ruhel 1989, grotips of 2(0 to 100 residenits form multifamily tubing intoa isirdo an alternative syste organic wastes. The sirdo dries and filters wastes pro- kitchelis; these kitchens then receive a subsidy from the ducmig water cleain enough for aquaCeulture aiid commu- governmelit to purchase food thcmselves 66. This form - e d f of distriutioni proved to have several advantages over the previous svstem, which distributed boxes of food to , , ,, , ,, . . , , ~~~~Houisebold Stabliztv anid Conitnztinitv Menmbersbip individual households. By forminig a pool, the famillies in the kitchieni are abile to buyV food in bulk at reduced Essential services such as water suppiv, sanitation, and prices. More importantly, the fanilies are able to decide gairbage collection in low-income settlements are not for themselves how to spcncd the subsidy. ly 1 994, 6,700 readilv provided hv individual action. Nor do increases multifamilyl kitchens were operatling in Buellos Aires (6&7. in individual family income necessarily lead to improve- Second, one of the hest avenIues for improvinig menits in ncighborhood living conditiois. Instead, these household enr ironmnental management lies In combin- are neighborhood and coInmmunity issues requiring col- ing it with income-generating activities. This can be lective action (72). However, if people do not feel a sense done through activities based directly on environmental of security in their households or that they are members manageiment, such as recvcling, or indirectly, through of a community, they are not likely to devote their progranms thiat create cominUllity-based enterprises that energies to iiprovilg environilmenital coniditions. W,)rld Resources 199(-97 135 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability to improve the quality of their own housing 176) (77i. (See Box 6.3.) The Role of Women in Environmental Management In low-income communities, womien are invariably the principal managers of local environmental resoul-ces. They are responsible for keep- ing the house and the neigh- horhood clean, disposing of household garbage, and ob- taining fuel and water, among other things. Women also plav a critical, if largely unrecognilzed, role in coin- Competing roles. Many poor wornen work within the home or neighborhood. where they juggle munity planninsg and man- competing demands of jobs, childcare, and household management. agement. They seek to ensure the provision and mainte- nanice of such basic collective First and foremost, security comes from land and services as water, health care, and education. Women housilig tenure. In many squatter settlements, however, also come together to confront and solve common prob- the status of residency is uncertain. Official policies lems such as inadequate housilIg or infrastructure (751 i79). often declare these settlements illegal, whicih means that Yet, in many instances, women are given little voice residents are subject to eviction without warninig (7. in decisionmaking (s. Local authorities and planners On the other hand, at least in selected areas, governments rarely consult withi women or work with them as equal have given implicit recoginitioni to such comiluities by partners. The consequences of not including women in providing them with basic services, limited infrastruc- comm unity decisionmaking range from inappropriate ture, and even quasi-governimienit officials (74) i75i. infrastructure designs to poorly coordinated services. Even though land or housing tenure affords a sense There are innumerable examples of projects to install of stability in a community, it is the perceptioni of being toilets, water pumps, and washi basins in which no able to stay on the land rather than having the legal right attempt was made to consult women or understanid to occupy the land that often matters the most. This what would be culturally acceptable or practical for perception can arise from othier indications of continu- them. In the Yucatan, Mexico, squat-plate latrines built ity, such as the length of time that the community has on the recommendations of engineers were rejected by existed, the extent of goverinment investmenit in commu- women who preferred pour-flush latrines, even though nity infrastructure and services, or whethier previous this necessitated carrying water s8i. efforts to avoid eviction have been successful. Consequently, involving women in community pro- Although perceptions of stability appear to be more jects has two very real benefits. First, tapping into important than the legality of land occupation, this women's knowledge can greatly improve the likelihood should not be taken to mean that land security issues of a program's success. Second, improving the urban can be ignored. To the contrary, one of the most critical environment can translate into direct benefits to needs in cities is a coherent land titling process for the women's health and thus to the overall sustenance of the poor and low-income commullities. The long-term sta- household. Where womilen have been given access to bility of low-income communities depends on the ability credit, a voice in decisionmaking, and educational and of households to gain clear title to land for housing. (See employmenit opportunities, substantial improvements Chapter 5, "Urban Priorities for Action.") in living conditionis have been documented. When given security of tenure and clearer legal bases In Nairobi, Kenya, for example, female-headed for property ownerslip, the poor will build and itivest households in the Kayole/Soweto slumiis east of the city 136 World Resources 1996-97 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability hayve made tremilendoLus progress in improving their Cominunity Organization livlilg coinditoions liince 1988. the IM ultiig f)(tin;) !e?ln oping wvorld, these exercises 91Pte11 space to inenercities. pmv'd;'w A,- f/ lri/f.l! if0 z ff [z/ GpO , /0( CL /r .1 1('I i.sii?sscs t generailly focus tii identify- 9? l>ape' ing the worst environmental threa1ts to he alth. A range of to 5 years. More than 1,70I ( hoLiseholds have brenefited I I A I technILiques Is being LuSCe to iedntify priorities, and some from the i iiiproveineiits 9Z of thesc are niore participatory and iniclisive than oth- ers. Somei emphasize datai collcction in concert with Co -ninunitv Credit Programs public CoiisUltatrotns; others foCLus nltre on1 conisensLus The lack of finainicialI resotu-Ices is a ma 'or obstacle ill bluilding to reaclh eiivironilileital goals. fostering coiniuniti-based dcvelopment. However, There is no agreeiiieiit on which azpproaclhes work iiaiiy xperieiices sliow that, once tlhce are orgaiiized, best. As the Urban Management Programme (UMIP) e iii titiiities can ani d will begin to contribkite their ownl ft tid, tihe priorities deterniinecl by public consultationis fn lanC;al -CSOLII-CeS andz wvill repayl loans. A cotiiiiioi 1 may be very different fromi those Identified by rapid featuire of nmaii SuCCeSSful1 pr-ogr-aiiis is the princ'iple r scieitific assessments. (The UMIP a joit priugram of the grouil resptnsibil ity; wli cli is ofteii accomplished by' n atii e ep Prtigranio e, theH - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~llnltcd Naitioiis D)evelopmencit Prlogramme,n the Habitat otrga iiizing borrowers ilito siiiall-sCal csLIbgroiLups withil international Coalition, anl thc World Bank, is ii1- rlieC z1111111.111tv. (See Box 6.S.) volved in developing environmiienital action plans in a nuimb er of cities.) In Sao PaLalo, Brazil, for examiple, Iinlted greeil space was identified as a high priority ill SLi rVeVS I111 IlaiV COliLntriCs show that relatioiisliips be- the cotisLiltaitioii process bLit did not eveii make it onto twceil envirtonuieiita I poll ntioii and h Lima ii heai lth are the data-based probleiii rank iig in. (See Tahle 6.2.) The otfteii poorly Liiiderstood. Simnple acts stich as waslilgo t, t tl , 0LItCoIl1eS of both1 of tnese p rocesses are largelv dlepleld(- hands, which caii significaitlyv break poor environi- enlt oil wl o is mtvolved; a Pool- tailivl maLv have a LIltitc nient-poor health cycles, are not practiced. M°odet sro- different set of pritirities thai a rich oiie Even in1 the graliis, sticl as poster or radio cailmpaigls, and working d data coellectiosn prrocess, the blases of those collectiiig wirlt leaders or designated coinimiiiiiitry enviromtiineitmal ll iiterpretlig the data iiiav be a factor. health specialists caii begin to address these issuies. a urtermre, tl tais rema abor FLirtherniore qlUeStionis remain1 aboiit whether and howv these exercises canI best be translated iito action. SETTING PRIORITIES l)Priority-setting StLidics provide Valilable informatiO1i but miay have liiii ted iiiipact if they ignore public sell- A ke' elemicir iti the mnyl' efforts lt lider way to create tituieit or the partieCaltr political, financial, anid inistitu- butter cuiui tuuti .ities aid cities. fri-oiii Caaniiarca, Petrt, to tiotial coiitext of a cit. They m;' lie less effective if 140 W 'wid R'soit-cs l')r)(-')7 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability Box 6.4 Citizen Participation Leads to Better Plan for the Bronx, New York In the summer of 1992, residents of the plan includes a variety of more defensi- more for the enrire project to he com- downtrodden Melrose Commons neigh- hle spaces for differenlt ages and differ- pleted. borhood in New York City's South ent purposes (2j. The Nos Qtiedamos Comilimiittee has Bronx discovered that the city was plan- The original city plan proposed a identified a first phase of the project ning to revitalize the neighborhood and middle-income community wvith 4,000 that encompasses an eight-block area. that many homes were slated for demo- units of small, attached houses over 30 The development includes proposed six- lition. blocks. The plait developed by the Nos to eighit-story mixed-use huildings, foulr- As it turned out, the City Planning De- Quediamos Commiittee envisioned a low- story toWnhouses, two-famnily homes, partment had been working on the plan to mid-rise mixed-income residential restorationi of existing residLential huild- since 1985, hut with little comniunity community with about 1,500 new ings. off-street parking. a 4.000-square- participation. Like so many other such dwelling units, 80 rehabilitated units, meter park, and various other opeit plans, the "revitalization" would dis- 16.250 square meters of commercial re- spaces for comniunitv gardens an( clhil- place many community residents froin tail and office space, and 18,600 square dren's recreation. The area inIcludles all their homes, apartments, and businesses. A few residents were otitraged that We are staying. members of the commullity who had In the Bronx, local stayed througIl thick and thin would be - f f>- leaders helped rewvarded for their fortitude svith the ' A- fr41 convince city offi- loss of their homes. They were also frus- -' cials that commu- trated that the plan was developed by nlt A\/,'A/r ^ my input is crucial people who did not live in or know the tJfl/"\YI/'l': to the success of neighborhood. I plans to redevelop At a series of public forums held by ° '_ decaying urban the Bronx Center, a comttiuxiity-based < . ' neighborhoods volunreer planning effort for a 300- 2 K _ . block section of the Bronx that encom- 7 passes Melrose Commons, long-time > residents angrily denounced the plan. Stung by the public reaction, the lead- ' ' I ers of the Bronx Center and the Bronx borough presidetit activelv encouraged meters of space in community struc- of the bunildinig tvpes proposed for the Melrose Commons residents to get or- tures. larger (ievelopimient and canl thus serve ganized and involved in the revision of One key to the plan was the use of six- as a model for subsequent developmenit. the plan. The Bronx Center provided to eight-story mixed-use buildings witli NMost of the la.nd is city owned, which the services of two community organiz- stores at the street level and apartments will miniimize the need to acqUire pri- ers, and a longtine resident provided of- above. Residents felt that such build- vately owned sites. fice space. Two architects donated their ings would provide enough people on The work of the Bronx Center has at- services to the group, known as the Nos the streets and in the stores to help tractedl the atrenition of community ac- Q sedainos (We're Staying) Commit- make the neighborhood safe (;I. tivisrs, public officials, husiLness Icailers, tee. ml. Another kev was to minimize the dis- professionals and academics from mainly In 1 year, the group had 168 meetings placeinent of residetits. Under the origi- cities in rhe United Stares artd abroad. and each week sent out about 250 faxes nal plan. about 78 families and 80 and international institutions such as to city officials. The original plan was lbusinesses were to be moved out of the the 'orld Bank. withdrawn by the city, and the Nos area; under the new plan, about 55 Quedamos Committee became the focal families an(d .51 businesses would have References and Notes point of a revised plan. to move, but nost wvould be given top I. ti C-[v z.ild:7, "Revohirmiii -if l'topeC The residents' insights produced many priority for new homes and stores (ouer Wclls Urp it the Broi'.. Ne )twk significant chamiges. City planners had within the communitv. Timuis i Itijy 8, 1'i)9 S, p. Bl . envisioned the center of the community By mid-1994, the new plan had heen 2. Mter-yn Rothisrteit, A RemcL,il P1.i1 itl as being in the south, bitt residents said approved by two local conimunityv thru Broit' AIvoicATess,. Nct Yo,rk Titms the center was actually in the northeast boards, the Bronx borough president's (lkl Ir), I'J94i, p. [R. quadrant, where many people lived. office, the New York City Planning i. Ii'. The original plan called for an 8,00)0)- Comminissioni and various other city square-meter park in the middle of the agencies. and the City Council. But project, but residents thought that such manv of the designs for hotising devel- a park would be indefensible and opmnents in the proposal do not fit into would immediately become a havemi for any current government housing pro- drug addicts and crininals. The revised grams, so it could take a decade or Wr(,rld Rcsoiiurs l')')u-'( 141 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustaioability 2^Q- ";t: V ] r> million locallv in spending on air pollution conitrol equipment and a new local ma nufacturer of air pollu- tion "scruhlbers." The city's husiness and political leaders ailso saw J" . ! itimprovemnciits in the city's elivironlilielnt as a marketiog Opportunitv that could attract new businesses and new inivestmenits. The city's electric buses are made by a new loc al firml that has also received orders from cities in several other states. The cirt wvanits to traiistorimi a decrepit old inidustrial area, the Soutil( Central Bosiness District, into a nlewv mixed-use conmmiiunitr of neighbor- hoods anid environimentally pristine bLusinesses, which Participatory planning. In Chattanooga. Tennessee. clizer.-s would allow emplovees to live near their workplaces. leadlers, andplaniners vvere all given a clhrce Into pick p a ie un Environmental iim provemenits gained fLurther coiln- .anud help redesign 140 liectares of untderutilized land mullnity suLpport in 1 984 durinig the Vision 2000 project, whichI bloIght soine 1,700 members of the comninUllity those most affected (the poor) are not given the meanis together over 20 weeks to ralk about their vision of the to articulate their needs. Political support, timing, and city in the year 200(0. Th meetinigs rcsulted in 34 an emphasis on cost-effective solutions are also im>por- conicrete goals, which in turni generated some 223 cite tant if these processes are to be tranlslated into tangible projecrs. The projects included the conlstruction1 of thc liprove lien rs. TeIniessee River Park, the Tennessee AquariulIl, and a In the wealthiier cities of the developed world, prior- c(onirmitnient to upgrade the citv's substandard hoLisilg. ity setting catn take on a different guise. Rather than By 1992, 85 percenit of the goals had been met. Somc foCus ol life-threatening environnienital problems, somne $739 million was invested in the citv of which about comliniuties have the luxury of thinking about the two thirds camie from private sources. By 1993, rhe future. In numtierous cities across North America, for comlimunity \wvas ready to start all OVer again, launching instanice, com1mullities are using public foruins to de- ReVision 2(000. velop a visioi of the fuittire ainrd theni decide upon1 collaborative strategies for getting there. Table 6.2 Methods for Establishing Environmental Indecd, the experience of Clhar- Priorities, Sao Paulo, Brazil tanooga, Tennessee, shows how large- Problem Data-Based and Criteria- scale comm1.1unitV participation can add Priority Consultation Processa Based Problem Rankingb extra impzetus to a cityZ restorationl pro- High Substandard housing Surface water Lack of urban infrastructure Environmental hazards gram. Only three decades ago, aui pol- for the poor Forest/agriculture lution in Chattainooga was so bad that Settlement of risk-prone areas Hazardous waste drivers often had to switch on head- Limited green space Poor sanitation lights in the middle of the (aiv. Tubercu- losis cases were three times tile national Medium Inadequate sewage treatment Ambient pollution Water supply not protected Solid waste average. Flooding Noise pollution The city's political, business, and en- Coastal pollution vironmcntal leaders, along withi the Indoor pollution comlminunlity as a whole, all played a role Low Vehicular air pollution Rural ecosystems in the turnaround. The ciry's political Poor transportation Cultural property leadeis cracked diown lOn air pollution management Source: Josef Leitmann, "Rapid Urban Environmental Assessment: Lessons from Cities in the in response to the requiremiienits of tile Developing World, Volume 1: Methodology and Preliminary Findings," Urban Management 1970 federal Clean Air Act. Meeting Programme Discussion Paper No. 14 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1993). p. 33. Notes: the llCVV law' s liealth staidards meaint a. A public forum that reaches a consensus on priority issues. This process does not requiring local industries to install air necessarily reflect public opinion but is based on participation by interested stakeholders. polluItion contrrol equipment. Blut the b. Using data collected during the rapid urban environmental assessment phase, urban problems are ranked according to the scale of their health impact, economic losses, im- req u i reienits also prrov ided local eco- pact on the urban poor, irreversibility, unsustainability of resource consumption, and de- nomilc stimulus, generating some $40 greeoflocalsupport. 142 World Resources I 9)9-97 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability URBAN VIEWPOINT Box 6.5 Nigeria's Community Banks: A Capital Idea With a small loan, many low-income tecting forged currencies, and so Most loans are for less than N5,000 workers and craftspersons in Africa forth-as well as a minimum working (US$200). could expand their informal businesses capital of about 250,000 Naira The community bank program has far enough to provide some security for (US$11,000). Communities raise funds exceeded the country's expectation. The their families. However, it is difficult, if for the bank in much the same way as annual general meertig of these banks not impossible, for most people to ob- thev' finance other cooperative efforts has become something of a community tain a bank loan because few have hold- such as building a school, a clinic, or a festival, with drums welcoming the conm- ings, such as land, houses, or livestock, church. This entails mobilizing every- munity members, who often come out that could be used as collateral to se- one with strong ties to the community, in their Sunday best. The chairmen and cure a loan. Without such leverage, a including sons and daughters living board members of the banks have ac- large segment of the populationi is con- abroad, to pav a charge or make a do- quired local respectability and feel a signed to persistent poverty. nation. This sense of ownership by the deep sense of accomplishment in the A popular alternative in Nigeria is the communitv has contributed to the pro- changes they are bringing to the eco- community banking program, in which gram's success. nomic fortunes of their neighbors. one's honor and standing in the commu- The community is also responsible for At a few community banks, some mi- nitv can take the place of collateral in appointing a board of directors and nor problems that required intervention securing a loan. The principal function staff for the bank. According to irs char- by the National Board have arisen. A of collateral is to ensure that the appli- ter, a communitv bank must be owned more serious problem, however, has cant does not renege on the commit- primarily by a community development been the exposure of some community ment to repay the loan by the due date, association although overseas relatives banks to the crisis in the financial sec- In Nigeria, in places where strong coin- and collectives such as trade associa- tor of the economy. This has particu- munitv ties exist, a peer sanction system tions, farmers unions, marker women's larly affected those communitv banks has been used to ensure correct behav- organizations, cooperative societies so that had placed funds in disrressed ior in credit transactions. The commu- cial clubs, and corporate bodies can banks and finance houses in Nigeria. niry's basic system of trust creates a also be shareholders. It is still too early to make a definitive climate in wvhich residents can pool The only government involvement is a statement of how much community otheir National Board of Community Banks, banks have contribured to resolving the other. Iwhich develops, monitors, and provides problems of urban poverty. Examples Although primarily designed to de- provisional lops, for these banks, of specific loans, however, illustrate the liver credit to the rural population, Ni- ThevNaional Board.can provide a com- potential of these tvpes of credlit ar- geria's communitv banking program m tinitv Ban a h loan rangements for improving people's , , . , . , ., ~~muinitv bank wvith a matching loan has been launchied in urban areas with . g i.ves. For instance, an unemploved large numbers of poor persons whose equialent to Its working capital after it young man got a loan of N7,500 livelihoods depend on infornal jobs. has been operatng successfully for 3 (US$340) from the Obeiudu C:ommu- More than 35 percent of Nigeria's com- nionths. The matching loan must be nity Bank in Uromia, Edo State, to buv munity banks are in urban areas-with paid back within 5 years. Community a maize grinder. Because he paid in one fifth of these in the Lagos metro- banks may apply for a final license is- cash he got a discount that enabled politan area. Most urban community sued by the Central Bank of Nigeria Af- him to buv a wheelbarrow as well. He banks are located close to urban mar- termploved another young man to use kets, where they cater largely to the nity bank can apply to the Nigeria De- e anothero manoe the wheelbarrow to help miarket credit needs of market women, food posit Insurance Corporation to have its women and customers to move their sellers and wholesalers, drivers. and me- customers' deposits insured against a goods around. With money earned chanics, many of whom, although not bank failure. from that activiry, he was able to pav well-to-do, own some small shares in By December 1993, community banks back the first loan and to take out anl- the bank. had mobilized more than N2 billion other one to buy a second maize The first community bank in Nigeria (US$90 million) nationwide-more grinder. When he paid back that loan, was commissioned in 1990 in Tudun than half of this as savings deposits. To- he took out yet another one to buy a Wada, in the Kaduna Local Govern- tal assets had risen to more than N3.2 portable electric generator, and he has ment Area of Kaduna State. Within 3 billion (US$145 million), and loans and not looked back. years, some 879 community banks had advances of nearly N750 million -Akin L. Mabogunle been established throughout the coun- (US$34 million) have been made. Some try. Currently, 1,052 community banks 40 percent of the loans and advances are in operation in Nigeria. were for commercial activities. Manu- Akin L. Mabogunje is a chairman of To establish a community bank, a facturing accounted for more than 18 the Development Policy Center in community must provide all of its own percent of loans, agriculture and for- Ibadani, Nigeria. He formerly serv-ed as banking equipment-a building, safes. estry accounted for 17 percent, and Chairman of the National Board for office furniture, ultraviolet lights for de- transportation accounted for 8 percent. Conmnmunity Banks in Nigeria. World Rcsources 1996-97 143 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability Box 6.6 International Urban Environment Programs There is growing recognition among UN[)P's Public-Private Partnerships works, includinig programs in Australia, agencies that their role should be one of Programme promotes the collaboration Canada, and the Unired States ;s. institutional strengthening-helping cit- between the government and private The International Council for Local ies identifv their worst problems and de- companies, with the participation of Environmaental Initiatives, which is for- velop local means to address them. To nongovernmental organizations mally affiliated witih the International this end, many of the multilateral and (NGOs) and the scientific-academic Union of Local Authorities is the inter- bilateral programs dealing with the ur- community, in the provisioni of city serv- national environimental agenicy for local ban environment are focusing on re- ices such as water and sanitation and authorities, working directly with mu- search, capacitv building, and infor- wasre managemenr. The objective of nicipalities to develop tools and nan- mation exchange, as well as trving to the program is to help foster commnunii- agement approaches for enviroinmental find new ways to foster participation by cation between local authorities and the protection and to implement local ver- local commnLillities and political leaders private sector at various levels, creating sions of the Agenda 21, the plan of ac- in the process of assessing environ- concrete opportunities for technology tion developed at the United Nations mental problems and developing priori- dissemination and investments that can Conference on Environnmental I)evelop- ties for action, produce social, economic, and environ- ment (the Earth Sinimit) -i. One of these programs is the Urban menital benefits. Numerous NGOs arc also forming in- Management Programme (UMP). which UNDP also has creared the Local In- formation exchanige networks. The is funded jointly bv the United Nations itiative Faciliry for Urban Environm1ent Habitat Interniational Coalition. tor ex- Development Programme )UNDP) and a (LIFE) prograin, svhich is an attempt by ample, is a coalitioni forimed by overI number of bilateral agencies. The UMP the international communitvy to provide 200 NGOs from 56 Countries working is executed by the United Nations Cen- direct support to local groups workinug on housing or related issues is). Other tre for- Hunian Settlements (Habitat) to improve the urban environment. A networks include the Asian Coalition witr te foroHuniank Se s (Hiasscitat) committee composed of a diverse grouip for Housing Rights, the Arab NGO ageicv The program focuses on five ar- of local people looks for proposed pro- Network, and the Center for African eas: urban land management, the provi- jects that involve collaborative action Settleineiit Studies and Developmcnt. eas uba lad iaageen, heprovi- among NGOs, commnunity-balsed or- sion and maintenance of urban infrastructuire, miunicipal finanice, the al- ganizations, local authoriries, and, po- References and Notes leviation of urban povertv, aniid the pro- tentially, the private sector ( 1. Carl Birrone et a/., Towird Finviruri- teviation ofthe urban poverty,oandthepro- The Sustainable Cities Programmine. lci StrilreSgies for C(itirs: olicy (otilsd- receion of the urbaLn environmelnt which was launched by Habitat and the erarions for Ulrlbain Eiviroitinenil Sfince 1990, theIMPirnniea hastaele ies United Nations Eiivironment Pro- Management in Developing C.oiintries. define broad environten tal strategies gramme in 1990, focuses on capacity LUrIsa it Mantagenient Prograititne Pa per and build the capacity to manage urban building at city, country, regional, and No. 18 (The World B.unk. Wxshingion. problems :. The program is operation- global levels. In individual cities, the DLt., 1994), p. Xi. allv decentralized (vvith four regional of- program uses broad-based consultation 2. 1 he MetropoliMamn Eitironnient.l Improve- fices in Accra, (Ghana; Kuala Lumpur, processes to mobilize local resources for ment Progrni (NEIP.) MFIP Pro&grrss Re- Malaysia; Quito, Ecuador; and Cairo, the development of environmental port 1993 (The World Bank, W.ishiigron. Egypt) and attempts to bring together strategies and the implementation of pri- D.n . 1993), p. 1. the creative expertise of the interna- ority projects. More broadly, the pro- .3. United Nations D)evelopmnent Programnie tional assistance cominunity. grain promotes the sharing of infor- (UNDP). Local Ilniti:irive Facilirt for lir- The Metropolitan Environmental Im- mation among cities in different regions Iran Enviroitnment (lIFE): Reporr oii the provement Program (MEIP), a UNDP- of the world and also marshals techni- Gloa.lI Advisory otninitiicei n dfll D)oiior funded effort managed by the World cal and financial resources from bilat- Workshop: First Year Review arid Siraie- Bank, focuses on environmental im- eral and multilateral sources. mc Planning (lNl)P New York. 1994). provements in Asian cities. MEIP works Denitonstration activities are tinder way in cities such as Beijing, China; Boin- in cities in 20 countries. including 4. Liiiited Nations Centre for Hu ittait Settlc- bay, India; Colombo, Sri Lanka; and Chile, China, Egypt, iehana, Mn1ozam- iiiencs (Halitlt). Sustainable Huimanin Settle- Kathmandii, Nepal (2. MEIP assists bilue, Poland, and Tunisia 4to zm menits De;eloptmiet: Impleientinig Agenda 2/ (Hahrtta, Nairohi. Retviva member cities in the development of en- In 1986, the World Health Organiza- 1994). p. 9. vironmental management strategies and tion devised the Healthv Cities Project action plans, the strengthening of the in- to serve as a forum for city officials, Prolc. T: Pilog CioititHe-Based Health stitutional and legislative framework NGOs, and others to exchange ideas Prorirorion Stairewide, Natoiitl Civic Re- for environmental planning and enforce- about a wide range of issues, including view iSpriiiJSuiirnier 1992), pp. 105-106. ment, the identification and mobiliza- traffic, housing. tobacco uise, AIDS, and tion of resources for Ihigh-prio-ity mental health es). Initially limited to 6. Ibid. p. 05. investment projects, the promotion of Europe, the project has since become an 7. Op. it. 1, p. 84. community-led efforts to improve the interinational movemeit involving hun- S. H;hitr;r hlrternamiontal Comlition," 1 vi- environment, and the sharing of infor- dr-eds of cities around the world. There r.ompzent and Urbaniza.tion. Vol. 2. No. I nation among member cities, are 3 international and 17 national net- (April 1990), pp. 1)5-1 I 2. 144 WXorli Resources ) 99f-9- City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability AlthoughI the process vvas soniewhat ad boe, it nev- Wide, city-based producers and conisuimers a1reCady ac- er-tiheless was drivei hV all U erlying cosenisus in the count for Most of the renewable and nonrenewable late I 960s and I 97(s thar the cit\ was tailing, both resource consu i ptioll naid waste generation I D;). econorimcalkly and environimentally 1 'har dirove the IMally of the priority actions cal led for in this reporr process alhead was a tacit agreement bctWenCI hbusilless have been foCused on thie f'irst part of the Cequaltion: leaders and the community at large about the value of imieeting,, the cirretir neecds of rhe U rba n poor. As previouS environmcn ral i improvemcen ts; ill addition, rhere was chapters hiave mnade clealr, this involves iot itjist p-ovid- stronlg community uppor resuilring from1 the VLisio ing physical necessities such Ls food, fuel, and wAater but 2000 process "S adeq iatC livelihioods intd other SOCial, cultural, rihealth, and political nleeds as wvell. In wealthier cities, the seconid part of the equation, CITIES AND SUSTAINABLE DEVE..OPi\IENT sustainllable developmnleIt, assuLiics increasing inpor- tance, ani rthe priority actions center- on reducilIg both NM-ally of rhentc sarnie Ideals ab.our *Irizenl partjicFatol(n a1ndcl coni iniri\ mnobi ilization are embodied in the excessive consuim ption of nattira I resoti rcs and the broader concept of -sLstainable cities," which has gar- buirden of wvastes oi th globral environmenft. As cti- nered increasing attenitioni over tihc Iast few years-es- sebried in Cha prer , Llra Priorities for Action," pecialiv but niot elisively intheleveloped world, As stLich initiatives incluide reducinig fossil fliel CoiisuiniIp- yet, howcvr. there is little agreement aboti what c0i tioni, tor examiple, throLigig cinrgy coiiservatioin and stirtites a 'sustainable cityv" or whether, i11 fact, slch all iiiore efficienit transportation sVstCllms and redlucnig rhe ciltitv is possible in the via rrt)w sense of the worcl A a tilnllt of Waste throtig pul)lution pre\xention. narrow foCus oni sUstailable cities, for- instaiince, cain leaid These loiiger-te rmii ecological coniccrns are relevant to to the ideil that citics shLild only d raw o)il nltural cities in the developinlg world as well, for ais thecy grow resources froim with in the in lilediate regionl, whichi and prossperi theirconmsuniption of resotirces andi genera- seems incrclsilniglv at odds withi the globalization of thle tion of wastes Will rise accordinIglV Linless actions are world econ0om1vy. taken niow rO proiniotc the e fficielt Lise of resoLIrces a lC SoLilie commentators ha\e argutd persLiaisivelv that a th miinlizationl of Waste i 1)4. The challenge for all nlore tisftiI fra mework is to foCus instead on rthe role cities is to seck iiew management approaches thar both of cities il stistainable developImlent mLum. imi) Here, provide for the needs of urban residents and protect the sustaiiablt' development" is defietid as meeting the environnmentral resoum-tees On which h1111a life depends. nceds of the prescenr WvithOit undermining the r-esource and ecological base for future generations. This defini- tioii is in keeping with that used in ( ) Cor (Xnmwu Future, the report of the World Coni1iissio11 011 Fonvi- This chapter eas written b1y Mike Douglass of thc De- ro(ninncr and Developentr (also kiiowIl ais the Bri mLir- partment of Urban and Regiontal Planning at the Uziu'er- land Coi mmission! I I 92 (io2). sity of Ha'zia at M1Manoa Hooidltu, Hawaii, azd Cities are clearly central to mieetiig thc goals of Yok-shim F. Lee of the Program On Enviironnment, East- sustainable development. The mnajority of the worldls WYZest Center, Honiolditu. population will soon1 live in towns antI cities. World- Worl/d R csourL s 19)969-9 145 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability References and Notes I .Nick [)evasa id Cai-ole Ra kod i, "The Urhan MiNI,tecr's thesis, Un i cer it y ot Hawaii, Hoite - 5 I . Niicha iele tiglt 1S, "Urha n Povertly iii Asia: ChalI erige," iii Mani sing Fist Grccteing Cit- ILili i. I1995, pp. 22-2s(. A5 Sitniin.i ry ee/ Issues atitid Pcolicy Receenintei- ic's: Nefi A/i/cec.thes to Ucrcan Planniing aimd (. Op o-. 20, p. It.itioisii d..~isctissio ii pa per (Depart itieiitt, Manaitgemnicet in the Dev eloping Wt.irld, Nick UlrIin anid Regioiel PI.1iiiiing, I Jijiversity of Devas anid Carole Raikodi, etds. )Loeetgieine, 26. 1 p. c it. 24, P. 24. Haiwaii, 1-oilii. 9951, P. .5. Fssex, LIR.K. ind Joihn Wiley & Sonis, New 27. .Shialbhir Ciieeiii. "The C halienge ot tic- 57 (/ /6p94 York, 1 993), pie. 31-, Ian Maciagcnteiit: Sicine lssLteS,' In i Ur/bani 5-.4. .I 2. 1/mcd. A,11.tna5ch'in't: Pci cick's tntl linneovation /in i.4,p 5 Bet tebcptnt4 lonetrit's. C. Sh.i'hi r Ch,cni a. 54. 1 p. cit. 49, P. 1.5. 3.Carl Ba rte te t't ci., "Ti wa rd Ficvi roi neitim! ed). Pr,ieger, Wctspi rt, Con ileCricIir, aid1 is. Up/. ctt. 4, p. 53.. Strategies fo r Cities: Peilicv' Considers atios Lonidoni, I 993), p.7.5. itiiiArdam tidKisiSienhin- for Urban EnvironTlieItiti Mattigeiteiti in 6 Ord iAdan ndK soSorh nd Developiiig CitititrieS,'' tlrhatii M\.it.geiiiet 28. O p. cit. .5, pp. 26(,27. lidad. 'Household Fcoeiiiiiic ) i ntl vliirtiu- Prrigramnmte l'oliicy Paiper No. 1 8 i Tue Wourli 29). 0/ip. cit. 24, pp. 4.5-70. ueimtlit I NI .i eigeitient iii BangLeok: Tue (Caes Bank, Wash ingto n. DIC.. 1 994), pp. 13334. 30. Ksecieccini Sius rilar. ratidic Wa.iita Uliaii- oe Wit Chiotigloii attd Yen-ar-lkard,- Asiant 4. Jorge E. Hard(q, DMI13 Mithil, Lltici D;i% id ratana, "Wasre Management iiiid ciieNted cefr Fiti 'irctniro itmanla . A e.igeig ce'nt. 4. jorg E. Haren> i)sii:e 'liriji, aiid as iN rttaita Waste anagenettt atNothe2Ned ).'il 2, N. 9I4t 994), 1717488 S.itterrthw.eire, Eit ire imtnitta/ prcoblemes in f(re PUNLi Pairtici pationr in BangLeek," Re T/iiet Wiec/ld Cities )Fairthsc.ic. 1.iiidiii, gieeut,i Dt'''efee,p tcit l)tileet'ue', V,ii. 14, Nio . . Nlike DeetegIl.Sc .tiid Mali;e Zioghiii, 'Stesraiii- I 9921, p. 2 I 1. 3 i 1 993), pp. 68-69. i iig ( 'ities .i rle/i Gri ssrc iots: I civeihi i e, Eit- 5. Williani [)iliiiger. "'Deceeitr,iii7atiiii inll Its I .The exchi.uige rate on Febritiry I 3c. 1 996. iroilmt, B remigkd' So/icl Witcor) i/nn, SLi -n Iliipiic.irioiis leer Urhbai Service Deliserv,' Fir- was U1S$ 1.0) = 25i.23 BahN. Phicic. Kii.ko6," N i. 2 (194, r p. Pl'l-2tit , ban MnI ategenment Progr.i iititie Discussion Pa- 32vi.ci5p ~ 8 i iew Fol. Pe nt. ii N I. 1cg.i -Ciies I ha i LI00 per Nit. 1 6 (The Wiuti d Bati k, Waishlitiigiron. 2 t ~p.1-11 8 mi .Piia.-1gl(lC:Goa l [D. (:., 1 9 94t, 11. x. ;.1.1 0/c. cit 24, Ppp 26 it. haie;tu itimie itit hiiietverieui,'' iii U!r/cti A'lani- 6. Nick D)evac, "Evceliciig Appricachec.- in 34. .1/c. cit. 2.i.1pc'iiit'imt: I'ceitii's tued /miiii, icitcis ill Mani.giitg Feast Gret c nicttf lities: Newi Ap- .1.5. lIp. cit. A pp. 49- 1. Dc'ti'/b piing I: intricits. C. Shbablen C:lieciii.t, prochcicus toUbnPanng'm aae d. )IPraeger, Wesi1e...rt. C Inneieecicuit, iiit inn ntee tIc/vte,p eiing lVute! N cic c evise I )lp. c it. 7 P. S. IEondon, 1 993). pp. 47-48. attNd Caroic Rakeidi. etis. Lioiigiian. Fssexc, 17. Nicks Docugs,iss Iic idiira Dhariii.p.utni, idit 59L. Jiohii Frctiuedin tit, Flil..n/cit'e'euitc : T/cc Pee/i- LIK.. . itd Jcihii Wils.Y & Scois, Ness Yot rk, A pratisdiceo I i tLltiiiii Jr-cctiv/eirk, f c the t'ir tic s cet. A/t'rettti'c' Dc'i't'cpincnit(il )[hck wellI. I199.3i, P. 9it. /cii a c/n A,timP/tae: Recpe/i/a VI (Bap- I ..inteiritdge ind~ OxIf/crd. L[tK., 1 992.i. PeP. petias, C,cierncneneii Icc)ldciesi,i, J.tkirri. 43-4.5, 49-Si. 96-It) I INN0 . c. p.i. 38 94)p. iw /p t..i .S0 27, p. 1 2. 8. lip. i/. 5. 1.1/.ci ,P - NIfinci,try ci Fe,reigii Afifairs. L Urmie,ili Pecrtr 9 1. Op. itt. 5, P. 1 9. C ip. it. 1,' .1 . Ailcvi,itieci," Sesr(iucl Piilicy. Dieuceiicuit ii I)). ti/i. cit. 5. ic. 9. ~~~~~~411. 's-ike Doutglass, [)ep.ir-iieii o/ LirhalTilteed DIesc,inel ietii Citeper.eriiii Nii. 5 i Miieister I -. Pattricia NIcCiritec, M0lcu T:ned F1.ifaieil. iiid Regtuiome! P'inninicg. Ititiiersity icf HiWici, for t)ctclcoptiniit C c,er;ieraieeit The 1-lagie, Alfretci RcidrigtieZ, "Ticwardis in hit/er- Htici1i1Li1ti I )96 t persoena cociniiiuiiic,ittii(. Neilierlmtids,I 1994i, p. 41. stand intg cf CGicierii,tice," in Urec/a,i Re- ihI1 l go-S]%,lglg (dc ;te sealrch/ itt t/bc' DBetcc/ccpiic Wucc/cd, Volumete 4 1. (ip. c it. 6. p. 98.5.t2.MceiYeee.'ce tii ut]W se Finer: Perc/e. tie, 'csnci tAct Cite, Riicha erl 42. Ilp. cit. p. P 56. .igcDnir'i Iese'Accj/, Tal/euMli,l9 p 26.1.1f Srreil cidit ILtidi tlI Kjeli ber8 Beil ed cs. (Centre 43. 1Op. it., . 5 6. 63. (It/c. c it. 49. pp. I 1-1 4. for Ureaim & Cecnine_niits StUittie, tJicierisccii 4 Ic i..,p 7 4.1lttt :icisi N. .ciiiicit ec ref Tcecreitoe Torceiirc. 1 99.5). Pe. 122. 6.tJirL ;llTS( .jF m mcadSca 12. Op). cit. 5 . 4.5. Exectciel FZCLirra .teid iarisa Maz.iri- Commisseicnce /for Asia aimd ties Pci/ic. Statc' Hirci irt, "Are Mega-Cit ies Viaiele? A5 Cati- , i Ur/e.ieizcitie cc itl Asia i/itt " tieP.iii [99 1 Ii3. Op. cit. 4, pp. 1 63-164, 207. titonary Taile froit Mlexicoe Cit y, (L .N., N,ss Yoir k. 1 991) p P. 4-i T1 -4-2 I 14. O p. .it. II Leiicitiei. Vici. .18, Nec. I iiceiiti.irs/Fehrti 65. Op. c it. 59. 1.5. lip. cit. 4, pp. 2 8-29, 2/E3. a ry I 996), . P . 6ei. The Mcg.i -Cities Projeect ,en ciete ( cii cr leer I16. ti/. cit. I I, 1'. I iii. 46. lItp. cit. 31, lep. 1t)3'c1 04. Cirhani icis Regicetiti Stitches with The Fictici- IT7. (i/. cit. I I . p. 1)04. 47. Interni,tieeni,l Ccciicii fner Lcscl Eciviront- tirtiot ci C1 .iie0TlelIe,rar-c Stuidies, ''The I'AIS IX8. Ct/. cit. 4, p. 16,2. ieieiiti.l l1itit1ittiec I CII), 'CceiiliiHiiriiy- [Lmci: Fices. Crg.iiizitiocn teed SeltFEne1elovy- Ba scd Serme is e lIIiviers : Q2 iiio, Ecuaidor," nieni(te oi [ice Pclotie: hiciteio A5i rec,," Irll: bn E.n- I19. Stiliei,t Arrossi it at., Findiii/g C-ceimuiii(t' CiSe StLdy Nso. 2 1 (ICIELI Toeronto. Caii- sirciciteitr-Pic-riy I ac Stucks Meriec )Nlegci- Ietttiaii cs Eci r ltsc. ii. I end cii. I 94, p. .1.ced. I1994). Citie Proja ect, Nesc Ye rk, I 994)4, P. IO. 20. Willicant Diiitiger, "Uirian Proeperty T:i x Re- 48. feh BrUtgIii1.i1cit. Secrettiry Genieral, Intierite- 6.Ileid., P. I 2 foriTIl: C Miideliiiie aidt Reconinienesidatiocts,"tieciCctncileItalEircns-illi 68 /cct.4,p2. Uirbani Mitiaigemeiit Procgrammiie Tutu Net. I toll (n lfr EvrrneIA 1- 6-().I.49 .23 (The Witchd BtKu . Wishingititn, D.C., I 992i,iiae, Toeronito. Caiid.i. I c9 pecscen:i 69. Hiccit Pcerboi 'IUrbecit Soelid Wastte Maitnige- p. 38. s. iiitii, ieimiieir in Banidunig: Tcew rclrs tee Integrated Re- 2 1. Op. c i/. i, p. 16. 49. Nlitke Dcutgiass. '[Fhe PoliriccAi EL.eieenivc cit oetrce Recoeier Sycteini,' :e/irceimiie.e tote I irh,tc lioserty .ini] Envirieiniciit,l Nctitage- U!c/eIiiizctticcc. Vcci. 1, Nec. I iApril It99, 22. I/p. cit. 5. pp. 2-3 imenr in Asia: Access, Einposcermni t, aidis pp. 601-69. . 3. Op. cit. i. p. 19. (Coeitiiiiiirc Bised Aiterititise,'- Fecitr... - i1. The \leg.i-Cities Pirecicr inid hEncironCHeeicc,e 24. NMirico Desai Brsewe-r, 'SMeeting the Needs of icici/tit) l.!d/cI/cbizati/tcu, Viii. 4, Nec. 2Cctco- QUci.liry liieri.:i-Tccecc1,ii 'L.1tiel 1ecuiee Eicvirocti- thie Urbain Pocccr: Fitianicinig Eiiviroiiiiitsieicl 111- her IL s9 2i, Pe. 1.3. 1itellr.ll iti11 t)CVCilpiiieiTl Pregr:eui: (Litr,'' tra,trctrtsire mitit Sersicc int Asi.iii Cities," .Si. Op. cit. 6. p. 94 Liriecac Ftiviroiiincii-Peee city (.i,ce Sueidy Sc- 146 Wkorldi Resources 1 996-9/7 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability ric, NIleg,i-Ciricv Pri ICC New \I irk, I 94) Iaui.arilltn. Voil. 1, No.. 2 (O,r iirr 1 9I' 91 *, I) (p a 57. p I 9 pp. 1-42. p. 4- 'i. FLtgCiii.rI ~ ivtiro Einii FlowI Cs ind (mirsIo 7 I. I(tc. ,itt. 9,p. 4 7 8 I. Uniiited N.rir10rr 11IiiiinTIo1tiri Restitch arId Rolierl.,'Si I Jrlmiro FcIIiIr9icII `,iii 72. Yok-ittuu F. Lee, "(In,ii tnily -BIased Urbkrn T r.i unI IIIIIg lIiisri rrtc I ,toI i Iiu' A d ,I IIvI I IeCI It 1. NIgtn CIt9 I n,ii Traer c/i 1-yicItrtien,l,5 Fiiv-irriinernrtil Mairageimentr: I o,il N(,Ds Womlnen (INSTRA\V), 'rW ltmei. \Vjter rid Irt Pi'r......I Mi'tttal(.tit, dclt P'rIiIblrrms Ur- ;scivCata,~riyr,' RcgtloinId/ Dr't''/iprrt'rt Dui.- Saiitaioi, irrr ii Wwrrcrrt d.InI 1 I' iiIiCltI- i'lnI,,,, v Aiitw,c'rrr!' i( tider-irr dc Trl.tl o,rpr loguc, Vol. 15, Mi. 2 t -\uumin 1994I'mil: .A RI'.IIr. Salik `,rllhiiieIicr. ed. MtIskII, l.itrtt,rrw 1994i. ltgr, 'l. IS (.2 Ariiir ~ ,NIlonrihlI Re%rietc Pi'cs, N,-tnt Yrork, j 911 p. I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.i2, . I/iLI Joel c ALidetrr I, "Eviction Trend~ WI 'rId- p.' 12;.57 pl91 wie,l-ultd tire Rorle of LrocaiI AIthtlriircs In 82. Arri-tin Hoirivrg FITIiui. "AfriL.ii Folrriirig2 (. i. 7 p 161 Iiiipleilliietriirg rue Righit io Hrrtisiiie' Frtt' 1-untd PIr,Igr,sI Reporti for I kIIcr l- -oot) C 9 (I/ -a1 7"2 Colrint'itut .trtd t;r/IIniiz,rtIij. VIII. Ir. Nro. I Ijvorle SIIvCioI. LIIi I 992-liii un 1 '' (A rin- IApril I 994i, pp. 10-lb . c.ti HoIiSItig Futitdl NunI hoi. ' 1. S 7 6. 't ok-shint F. let. LI Urni P1iIl1tiruiig irld Vec:- iii tIli.ilior.Iitil%i thil tIiC Unittid Naiit Fit- 198 `,c~ I riter, 'IBr.i%i' N-ew (-tie (hitt- tror ConitrolI in Siirthe.rs Asuiai S iCs.- virlI nititC t Profrnritiil, \V.tiiriigriwi, D).(.., Bi II..RlicL 'It tIte LSi,vr.irn.tirlc I o'iiiiiitit- K.lcsi"YIrtg !(ircl/Ctil ca/ Mt'c!tc Ill .SLi'tll 54 Vol I92.P. 127. tier' BIll,"I 7hc Arimticir / ctrti.i. VIoI. 17 Id) I 994t, pp. S45-S-46. 96. At ii Strly r, W,imnr'i-I Hwireb, I/c/indroc No. I `,r SrtintI 1i99Si, pp. 22-29. '77 I U. .A ercy fo ITra Ioni Dic Ip tHmit.mu, .StC,li'Cc'w: F/-, lis(c1i 'i HiCItil. I9. (1k. lit. 4. ppI. I -7-(1 1<..'. .IgCiICV It It tntcrn.l t ltItt.i I t)Cl CII ~~~~ Zimida/iiic, Resetii-Jr Reiorti 5b15:6 Ifliuc Nti- illS. AIDt), Reguntlarizrling t/le uinl/cinilc La/ 10TIJinit Switlii unittitile fri Ituulclduu RL- I ii. Rodilluc \Wln it- il Ir-v'pii Winutiten, '(iries D1'i''/iptit'tnt Priic ins. VIII. 2: DI)sctISsilii l'.- Clt,S~kilii.S c-ii192.iiiuchsiririci:At(veris''i na per' (LI.S. AID. Was,h ingrciiu D.( -, J99 1 LII,1 92..il h r ioi'11 -I NIi " I is 79. C..rrlriiiie (IN. NMlrsr, Geitt/I P/aarntgri .ird II,"Planing l,c -it p1miiilIit d Apro IOi d I 'Ici lrrii Rrdlru-v- Whitti midt 1-ispli Rrutriledn,e. Lonidoli and New tYork, 1 99 3i, J10, /),,c'II/iIiIin bSt dill! 71'iec! SI IC/I I olIlr.idli. I1(121, pp. 9-Si I 79. lrrirh K~eIherg Bll, W'intetr,Firs rriii- Ge-ge \V.itr l'rlrlivliiig IP., .A,iiIArIc'n. Hi1. WIir1n I DIidiiiivsIiridllt FrienIiit.r4iitpti1II Ic tiwiil rid UrhrurZiontrt: A (Uide to the Itt- Nliciig.rri. I 9i9 1 p. S-2 14. cv2.Wo lopiiii I Tr cln lnlViri O ittnIllsH t1rrd I)e er.itrrne." FiztuiCIrtrninrt itca ;/ciiZniIl. 9..i, iir.ri I d. Uirtiritet. Reli.tin LerIcPiltt i'renv t)vtil. Iutl r I 0 prd VIn. 3, Nro. 2 (Ocriuher I 99 Ii1 p 92-lr1 3. tug the 11LuhurtI \hilir I.lItc i-rlict -NiRiirUi 11Vrj. r,.O or,I.. 18) .N 911. P.Miirrli I - StyN tIc.I FooId folr Tlioitgltt: Ml.k- Fir-st,- bm,rii'mn,rtiicl in,! Urrtri.tiin.Sll 14 ct 4. p. 1 7 I. riig Writen Visible",' Ertt-uicnrttmtnctt6 andU- .No. 2 r (clIirer 1.1)919, pp. 2;- 19S. 114. t/. it. 4. p. I World Re'sourc'es I 996-97 147 Appendix A. Urban Data Tables A ssem bliing comipiip-abrle data on the comiipr-elhenlsive, international daita sets arc exacerbated W,sorld's urban places hals been stirpris- by differenices am1ongcoutLliries il tIlc definitio of lwat ingly difficilt. Despite the importanice of ColIstitultes all urban place alcd ill the priority assigiied ciries as honie to mior-e rhan 45 percent of to data collectioin, givei sppecific locail or national iieeds. the worldl's people, data that cha racrerize M ost nationaiaI and iiitcriaitionial progra ims that promilise the urban experience arc u1nexpectedly spa rse. globally conilpl-rabIC urban data sets have lnot vet pro- Those data sets that do exist are scattered amliolig the duLced alnV pulishleh1C findillgs. international statistical agenclies according to hei r topi- The Utiited Nations Centre for H LI mall Settlemniets cal manodates. Fo- examliple, the Uinited Nations Pop lIa- (Habitat) is the oiilv InterilationalI instirtitioni with a tion Division miakes estimates of urbani dceimographilc specific nmaiidate to assem ble inforniatooln on LI rban pa raiimeter-s (and contrasts theiii to the rur al experience) Cras. While recognizinig thc liiiitations of definition, and estimiates population iin the world's largest cities. coinparability, and cominprehenisiveiiess, Hab itat h as The United Nations EnvironmllICnIt Programiiime (tJNFP) nionethteiless set otit to develolp a set of indicators oii the aliid thie World Health Orgainizatioll (\X'HO) illmlitir air w orlcds cities th;at "WOuL]L CTreate a sLI1t,lItIatIIV ell- pollLitlon in about .50 of the world's citics Uiiider- their haiced ca p:cty to make aii aCCurate description of Global Enivir-onmentail M 01on1itoring Svstein. \XHO also ., , . . 9 - ' . , ',- shielrcr ,Il L irbanliationl condirlons." Habit.ar's efforts provides Li rball/r-u.ral estimates of access to safe drinki r ii i H I ]ef s I ll to -ollipll tllCSC Clata, while' f-;alghlt W'tll Lli'l'i CtlItiv water and sanlitation Services, whillc the tIintecd Nations to compile these data, while it w it difficult Children s Fun,1d (U,NICEF) provides siiila r data oii hI access to iealtlh services. Yet thesc few gIlobal daLta to assemble ew data sets. (See Data Table A.4. efforts are not desigiied to provide an integratedi or Once developed a ciilii set of urban indicators comprelhenisive view (f the Ut ban experit nee WoLlii I)c cilorm0LISl% Valkklblc both localb' aiid intcrila- the ii rhan experience. laIV. SLe I eirilid icaltoias bOLe] poid oblcitx Evexvi tlhii cities, topical responlsi bility caini make it tiol lx'. Such indicators woiiIdrovideaglobal oiit difficut,lt to findl data. S)ome kinds (if USeful data (e.g., tfor local problems, helpling local leaders dietermine which diffCLIr toflicl lata Solie ind OfLJSCLIIdara(e (If thecir problemns areC tiniciie aMid WhIich they' share with mleasuL-es of the econiomiiic importance of a citv or r ir- han/rtiural inigratioii rates) are si ily ec(l lected ther cities. Ideally, stICh a shared dcata sCt votLld rCsuLIr Urban areas are ofteil spread across maniaiy tiriSdicrtionis, in inicrased c l 111111n(iClicatioln andl the sharing of local aind, ConsetLientily i no oine ageiicv is responsible fo- so1Luitio ins to (i1iiiinli problems. A coniiiiIii set (of rbhan collectinig alnd rcportitiig data on an v giveil tOpiC lor thle indicators iniglit also prioiiote the collecti mi, skiariig, whole. Differenit administrative ulits ilmighit have iloll and integrationl of data and inform nation xxithii cities Con tiguIos but overlapping areas, fi rthel-rCeo1inpoulfdilig Local polhiclma kcrs iieed informatioin to nma ke wise the CoiiftLsIOn. In the Uniited States. fOr examl fe. po-rt mailageniieiut decisonIs. In addition, pollicymakers at re- atitholriies Call 111i i lde pa rts of nlii n.Vcities (e.g.. the Saii gi0 l,0ali rl iOiaal, and internaltonal Ilevels nee(d intforiiia- Diego Bay area) aid even parts of separate states (e.g., tin on Orl rban iFsstlS to set prio inties, allolcate resotUrces, the New York Port Autilioritv). Di ffiCuilties hii creatinig aziid help coiistrtict sotLitioiis to urbaii probleils. World Rcso.rces 1990-9v 1 49 Data Table A.1 Urban Indicators, 1975-2025 Number Dependency Ratio of (Dependent7ppulatlon, ages 1990-95 1990 95 Cities <15 and >65, as a percent People In Absolute Urban Rural Greater Than of the potential labor Poverty (percent) Urban Population (ODO1 Percent Urban Growith Growth 750.DOO force,ages15to65)- 199Dt990 1975 1995 2025 1975 1995 2025 FHates Rates Population la) Urban Rural Total Urban Rural WORLD 1,538,346 2,584,454 5.065.334 313 45 61 2.5 0.8 369 X X X X X AFRICA 104,123 250,276 804.239 25 34 5.4 4.4 2.0 35 X X X X X Algenia 6.460 15.591 33.675 40 56 74 38 05 1 44 46 23 20 25 Angola 1.087 3.569 14 799 is 32 56 63 26 1 X X X X 65 Benin 620 1.691 6.344 20 31 52 46 25 o 49 s1 X X 65 Botswvana 91 416 1.651 12 28 55 70 1 7 33 55 43 30 55 Burkina Faso 394 2.809 14.376 6 27 65 11 2 0 3 0 43 49 X X 90- Bunundi 't6 480 2.853 3 8 21 6 6 2 7 0 43 50 &4 55 85 Camero 2.022 5.938 IQ9504 27 45 67 4 9 1.2 2 44 50 37 15 40 Cenm,al Aincan Rep 693 1.301 3 745 34 39 59 3 4 9 0 49 49 X X 90 Chad 6217 t .362 4970 1 6 21 39 3 6 251 0 42 Sri 54 30 56 Congo 504 1.523 4347 35 59 77 45 0.6 1 46 51 X X 80 Cole d voi,e 2.168 6.211 23.61, 32 44 64 So( 2.4 1 49 54 X 30 X Egypi 16.6771 28.1~70 60 519 43 45 532 2 6 1 9 3 39 45 23 21 25 Eq-lorial Guinea GI 16Q 547 27 42 69 5 9 0 4 0 46 48 67 60 70 Ertre 256 607 2.511 '2 1 7 36 4.4 2.4 0 X X X X X _thlona 3.061 7.371 _37 929 'a I 3 30 4 7 2.7 1 44 50 60 X 63 Gabon I F5 660 1877 31 so 70 4.7 1 2 0 40 43 X X 4 1 Gambsa The 9' 2806 t.022 17 206 49 62 3'1 0 47 47 X X 65 Ghana 2.955 6. 333 21 934 30 36 56 4 3 2 3 1 45 50 42 20 54 Guinea 676 1.981 8.039 i6 30 53 5.8 20C 1 46 51 X X 70 Guinea-Bissau '00 238 882 16 22 45 4 4 1 6 0 X X X X 75 Kenya 1.775 7.817 32.6'6 1 3 28 5 1 6 8 2S5 1 41 54 52 10 55 Lesolho 176 473 1.973 1 1 23 47 6 2 1 8 0 44 45 54 50 55 LDberia 488 1.366 4.674 30 45 65 4 6 23 049 51 20 X 23 L bya 1.491 4.649 1 951 6 1 86 9 3 4 3 '1' j~ 2 46 50 X X X Madagascar 1.253 4.003 t7.378 1 6 2 7 50 5&8 23 0 X X 43X 21X 50- M:lwi 14'2 1.505 7.0&83 8 1 4 32 6 2 3 1 0 X X 2 25 90 Mali 1.000 2.909 12.277 1 6 2 7 50 5 7 2 3 0 48 s1 54 27 60 Mauatar,ia 278 1.224 3.255 20 54 73 54- 103j 0 46 51 X X 80 Mauntus 388 453 856 43 41 56 1 2 1 1 o 30 34 a X 12 Morocco 6,520 13.071 26.917 38 43 86 3 1 1 2 2 38 47 37 28 45 Mozamb.que 905 5.481 21.468 9 34 61 7 4 0 3 1 45 50 59 40 65 Namibia 186 576 '.939 21 37 64 5 9 t 0 0 42 51 X X X N:gel 507 1,558 8.160 1 1 17 36 5 6 2.9 0 X x X X 35 N genia 14.6/6 43.884 146.948 23 39 62 5 2 1 7 2 46 52 40 21 5 1 Rwanda '75 483 2.367 4 53 1 5 4 2 2 5 0 44 53 85 30 90 Senegal 1,643 3.512 '0.505 34 42 62 3 7 t7 48 47 X X 70 S,erra Leone 620 1.632 5'136 2 1 36 59 a48 t2 0 X X X X 65 Somaia '.'164 2.382 9.760 2 1 26 46 2 5 0 9 1 X X 60 X 70 South Atnca 12 314 21.073 48.673 48 51 69 29Q 1.6 6 35 48 X X X Suidan '3.033 6.915 27.075 ' 9 25 46 4.4 2.1 1 44 48 X X 85 Svwaziland 67 267 933 14 31 57 6.2 1 4 0 33 52 48 45 50 Tanzania 1 602 7 230 30.344 n0 24 48 6.1 2.0 1 44 53 58 10 60 Togo 373 1.276 4.906 16 31 52 4 8 2.5 0 46 50 X X 30 Tunisia 2 797 5.03 9.784 s0 57 74 268 0.9 1 .34 17 20 1 _Uganda 933 2.670 138118 & t 3 29 _58 3 1 1 45 52 X X 80 Zaie 6.660 12.766 52.129 30 29 50 3.9 2.9 1 52 51 70 X 90 Zanaha 1 686 4.071 1.6 35 4 60 3.5 2.6 150 52 64 47 80 Zimbabwe 1 202 3 619 0. 874 20 32 55 5 0 1 s 36 53 X X 60 EUROPE 453,668 535,052 597 660 67 74 83 0.6 (1.01 79 X X X X X Albar a 794 1.285 2.661 33 37 57 1.6 0 4 0 32 40 X X X Austria 4 034 4.424 5.651 53 56 68 0.7 0.6 1 32 34 X X X Belanus Rep 4 7'4 7.215 8.361 50 71 84 1.1 (2.9, I X X X X X Belgium 9 298 9.809 10.236 95 97 98 0.4 (2 5, 1 X X X X X Bosnia and Herzegovna 1 172 1.695 3.t02 31 49 69 (251 (60 0) X X X X X Bulgana 5.017 6,201 6.450 58 71 83 0 4 (2.4, 1 31 40 X X X Croatia. Rep 1 924 26959 3.428 45 64 61 1.4 (2.6i 0 X X X X X Czech ReP 5 780 6.736 8.096 58 65 76 0 1 ( 132 36 X X X Deannah' 4 140 4.414 4.577 82 &5 90 0.3 (004: 33 32 X X X Estonia Rep 968 1. 18 1 t81 68 73 83 (0 2) (1 S) 33 39 X X X FRnlano 2.745 3.225 4,129 53 63 76 1.o (0.4) 1 31 35 X X X France 3848t 42.203 50.055 73 73 82 0)5 0 4 41 34 37 X X X Gemmany 63&866 70.616 70.310 81 87 92 0.8 I,2, 16 31 36 X X X Greece 5.003 6.817 7.806 55 65 79 1.2 (1.0) 2 31 37 X X X Mungary 5.560 6.541 7.393 53 65 79 0 3 (1.9) 1 32 34 X X X Iceland 189 246 321 87 92 95 1.3 (1. U 0 35 39 X X X Ireland 1.704 2.043 2.740 54 58 71 0 5 0.0 1 34 39 X X X Ilal 36 394 33.101 39.895 66 67 76 0.0 0.1 6 X X X X X Lalvia.Rep 1616 1,663 1.943 65 73 83 (O 4, (2 0) 1 33 39 X X X Lithuania Rep i.842 2.667 3.213 56 72 84 0.9 (2.3) o 32 40 X X X Macedonia. loaner Yugoslav Rep 847 1 294 1.914 s1 60 74 1.6 0 1 0 X X X X X Moldova Rep 1.376 2.293 3.647 36 52 71 1.9 (1.3) 0 X X X X X Nethedands 12.070 13.601 15.105 &8 89 93 0.8 02 2 X X X X X Nonvay 1.842 2.667 3.213 68 73 82 0oz (0.2) o 33 44 X X X Poland. Rep 18 850 24.853 32.565 55 65 78 0.9 (1.1, 5 32 33 X X X Portugal 2.515 3.496 5.374 28 36 55 1 . (01 30 34 X X X Rcmna 9.809 12.650 15.499 46 55 71 o.s (1.3 30 38 X X X Russ,an Federitso. 891 ib6 1 11 736 118.705 65 76 86 0 a (1.7) 1 6 X X X X X Slovak,Relp 2.191 3.146 4.451 456 59 74 1.2 (0.7) 0 X X X X X Slovem a. Rep 7.38 1,236 1.445 42 64 79 1.8 (2.11 0 X X X X X spaa, 24.765 30.292 31.886 70 76 85 0.5 (0.7) 2 31 34 X X X Sweden 6.778 7.296 8.583 83 83 88 0 5 0.5 1 36 39 X X X Switzerland 3.534 4.379 5.762 56 6 1 74 1.5 0.4 1 3 1 35 X X X Uknaine 28.564 36.099 40.t95 58 70 83 0.7 (1.9) 7 X X X X X UnnedK,ngdom 49.896 52 119 57.375 89 89 93 0.4 (0.4) 4 35 37 X X X Yugoslavia,.Fed Rep 3.905 6 134 8.479 43 57 74 2.6 (a021 1 30 35 X X X 1 50 Wrld1 Resoulrces 1 996-97 Data Table A.1 continued Number Dependency Ratio of (Dependent population. ages 1990-95 1990-95 Cities <15 and >65, as a percent People In Absolute Urban Rural Grater Than of the potential labor Poverty (percent) Urban Population j000) Percent Urban Growth Growth 750,000 torce, ages 15 to Sb) 1980-1990 1975 1995 2025 1975 1995 2025 Rates Rates Population fa) Urban Rural Total Urban Rural NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 235.306 331,761 507,609 57 68 79 1.8 0.4 64 X X X X X Beize 67 101 231 5C 47 60 23 30 0 X X X X 65 Canada 17.548 22.593 32018 76 77 84 12 1 1 5 32 35 X X X Costa Rca 814 1,702 3,843 41 50 69 35 1,4 1 36 43 29 24 34 Cuba 5.977 8,389 '0.862 64 76 86 1 5 (1 1 1 31 36 X X 35 Dormincan Rep 2289 5.051 8.890 45 65 80 3.3 (0 3t 2 38 43 55 45 70 ElSaloador 1.651 2.599 6,015 40 45 62 2.7 18 0 41 48 91 20 75 Guatemala 2211 4404 13,389 37 41 62 3.9 22 1 44 50 71 66 74 Hait 1.069 2 266 7.076 22 32 54 4.0 1 2 1 42 45 76 65 80 Honduras 969 2 482 6 870 32 44 64 4 5 1 8 0 42 50 37 14 55 Jamaica 888 1314 2319 44 54 70 15 103) 0 34 42 X X 80 Meuico 36,948 70535 117222 63 75 86 28 (00) 8 39 44 30 23 51 Nicaragua 1.220 2.787 7072 50 63 78 48 21 1 48 51 20 21 19 Panama 839 1.401 2.620 49 53 70 2 4 12 1 35 43 42 21 65 Tnndao and Tobago 637 938 1.511 63 72 84 1 9 (0 81 0 38 44 X X 39 Unmte States 159.069 200,695 281.179 74 76 85 1 3 0.2 43 34 36 X X X SOUTH AMERICA 137,578 249.331 406.679 64 78 88 2.5 (0.8) 31 X X X X X Argentia 21 C29 30.483 43,083 81 88 93 .6 (1 31 4 37 42 16 15 20 Bolimia 1 975 4 505 10,370 42 61 79 4 1 0 0 1 41 46 60 30 86 Brazil 66.065 126599 204 791 61 78 89 2 / (14) 14 36 44 47 38 73 Chile 8.101 11 966 17864 78 84 89 1 8 09 0 36 41 X X 25 Colombia 14.434 25526 41532 61 73 84 24 103) 4 35 43 42 40 45 Ecuadot 2.926 6.698 13456 42 58 76 35 05 2 38 46 56 40 65 Guyara 220 302 668 30 36 59 2 4 0 1 0 33 38 X X 60 Pataguay 1,045 2.613 6.476 39 53 72 4 3 1 2 0 33 48 35 19 50 Penr 9.319 17.175 30.653 61 72 84 26 03 1 37 45 32 13 75 Sanuame 163 213 418 45 50 70 23 (O0) 0 X x X X 57 Uruguay 2349 2.877 3,491 83 90 95 09 (211 1 37 33 13 10 29 Venezuela 9911 20.281 33,791 78 93 97 2.8 (3 5t 4 38 47 31 28 58 ASIA 592,282 1,197,970 2,718,435 25 35 55 3.3 0.8 154 X X X X X Alghanstan. ilamic Stale 2 040 4.026 18.059 13 20 40 77 54 1 43 43 53 18 60 Amenia 1.780 2 473 3.783 63 69 80 1 8 0 6 1 X X X X X Azerbalsan 2.930 4216 7194 52 56 71 17 06 1 X X X X X Bangladesh 7,108 22.034 78430 9 18 40 53 1 5 3 X X 78 X 86 Blhuan 39 105 597 3 6 19 48 10 0 X X X X 90 Cambodia 731 2,123 8567 10 21 44 62 22 0 44 45 X X X Ch.ua 160.047 369.492 831,880 17 30 55 40 (OOi 51 28 36 9 X 13 Geotgia. Rep 2.432 3.190 4,544 50 58 74 1 0 (1 0O 1 ' X 0 0 X Inde 132272 250.681 629.757 21 27 45 29 1 6 34 36 41 40 33 42 indonesia 26.259 69.992 i67.393 18 35 61 4 5 0 1 9 34 39 25 20 27 Ian. lslamic Rep 15278 39.716 92.491 46 59 75 3.6 1 3 5 47 53 X X 30 Iraq 6765 15.258 36.435 61 75 85 32 04 1 45 52 X X 30 Islae 2994 5.098 7308 87 91 94 39 3 1 1 38 40 X X X Japan 84409 9712C 10319C 76 78 85 04 102) 8 29 36 X X X Jondan 1.438 3887 10.107 55 71 84 59 26 1 45 50 16 14 17 Kazakhstan, Rep 7.374 10218 16.257 52 60 75 12 105) ' X X X X X Korea Dom Peoples Rep 9,356 14.650 25094 56 61 75 24 12 1 X X X X 20 Kotea Rep 16.947 36.572 50987 48 81 94 25 57) 6 28 31 5 5 4 Ku-tad 844 1.501 2.765 84 97 99 (63) (130r 1 X X X X X Kyrgyz Rep 1.250 1.847 4.079 3 39 57 2 1 1 4 0 X X X X X Lao Peoples Dem Rep 344 1.080 4.316 11 22 45 61 22 0 48 48 X X 85 Lebano 1,849 2.622 4,154 67 87 94 4 1 (1 41 0 39 44 X X 15 Malaysa 4 616 10.814 22.942 38 54 73 3.9 0.8 1 39 45 16 8 22 Mongolia 704 1.468 2.926 49 61 76 3.0 0 6 0 X X X X X Myanmar 7282 12188 35,759 24 26 47 3.3 18 1 38 42 35 X 40 Nepal 649 2 996 13 959 5 14 34 7 1 2 0 0 44 46 60 51 61 Oman 53 285 1983 6 13 33 78 37 0 X X X X 6 Pahlstan 19.733 48742 161 579 26 35 57 44 20 8 44 48 28 26 29 Ptairpnes 15,294 36614 77.622 36 54 74 42 10, 2 38 45 54 40 64 Saud,Arabia 4,257 14.339 37.618 59 80 88 20 106) 2 X X X X X Singapore 2,263 2,848 3355 100 100 120 10 00 1 29 0 X X X Sr, Lanka 2.998 4.108 10660 22 22 43 22 10 0 33 37 39 15 46 SynanArabRep 3.352 7.676 23.311 45 52 70 43 26 2 48 54 X X 54 Talokstan. Rep 1.223 1.964 5.881 36 32 50 29 29 0 X X X X X Thailand 6244 11,787 28.756 16 20 39 25 08 1 28 36 30 17 34 Turkey 16.651 42.598 79,102 42 69 87 4.4 (2 51 5 36 43 X X 14 Turkmenitan. Rep 1 98 ) 839 4.067 48 45 61 2 3 2 3 0 X X X X X Unted Arab Erorates 330 1.600 2700 65 84 91 34 (0.91 0 30 36 X X X Uzbekistan. Rep 5.465 9130 22300 39 41 59 26 20 1 X X X X X VietNam 9.021 15479 46.135 19 21 39 3' 20 2 36 44 54 X 60 Yemen.Rep 1.147 4877 19.674 16 34 58 80 36 0 X X X X X OCEANIA 15,389 20,063 30,712 72 70 75 1.5 1.7 6 X X X X X Ausiralia 11.943 15.318 21852 86 85 89 1 3 1 9 5 33 34 X X X Fry 212 319 692 37 41 80 22 1 1 0 X X X X 20 Ne. Zealano 2552 3.077 4.011 83 86 92 15 04) X x X X X PapuaNeowGuinea 326 690 2,431 12 16 32 36 20 0 X X 73 10 75 Solomon Islands 17 65 323 9 17 38 6 5 2 7 0 X X X X 60 Soirnes United Naiorns Populabon Des,on and United Nations Developmenl Programme Notes a. Cies grealer than 750,000 population as assessed 1 1990 World and regional totals mclude countnes nol lisled 0 z zero or less than hall of ihe unit of measure X = not asarlable or undermtnate. negatise nuorbers are shown n parentheses Fot addiliona omfornabon see Sources and Technical Notes World Resour-cs 1996-9J7 151 Data Table A.2 Access to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation, 1980-95 Urban Household Access Urban Household Access to Access to to Safe Drinking Water Sources Access to Sanitation Services Sate Drinking Water Sanitation Services (percent of atl households) (percent of all households) (Percent) (percent) House or Public Borehole House to Septic Wet Urban Rural Urban Rural Yard Pipe Standpipe and Pump Other Sewer System Latrine Other WORLD AFRICA Algenia X X X X X X X X X X X X Angola 690 150 260 9'j 40.0 1.3 419 G(; 8. 8.0 G.o 1C.0 Berm 41. 4130 60.0 40 X X X X X X X X Bols ana 10. 0 6 00 o 00.0 85 9 X X X X X X X X Buon3Faso 52.9 75.0 500 'C00 230 30.0 00 o 9 X X X- Borundi 920 4103 740 50 ! 30C 6 0o oc oo. X X X X Ca nernr 42 G 45 o9 X X X X X X X X X X CenlralAlroan Rep 18.0 Id0 X X 80 .G 1.0 0.0 X X X X Chao 48.0 7.0 72.0 70j 100 2801 03 1 0.0 0 20 00 710 Congo 92.0 2 0 X 2.0 X X X X X X X 1X- Col dIano,e 590 81 0 100.0 41.( 59.0 :0 0C 1.0 87.0 130 9.0 . Euypl 820 C 50 0 -3 o J o X X X X X X 'X X Sqyou!(,lOu 82.0 0019 0.0 01 9 679 19 9 0 1 Eauaknulal"ui1ea 880 0019 100. 101 132 X 36.1 3n1. 870 130 X X EdIea X X X X X X X X X X X X E!h,upo 730 11.0 97.d 7 o Y9 X X X X X X X GLaon 901 500 0X x X X X X X X X X Gambia. The 01 6 5f 8 50.0 29 C 42.3 5s10 414 n0o 1 0o 170 00 o 23.0 Ghaa 70.0 40n 64.0 3:.C 458 7 10.0 05 0.0 20 9 0.0 450 Guinea 610 62.0 175 I.1 611C 0.3o 00 oo0 17.8 F11 019 Goi'lno-B0-s5n 38.0 5-79 24 0 4.0 35.4 33 51 0.0 ' .2 80 '0 15.6 Ke,wa 67 1 49 0 63 9 78.6 X X X X X X X X Lesotho 570 570 30 4410 310 208 0.0 00 I 24 o191 19o Libra 580 eo3 490 4.0 298 '56 3' 28 6 210 205. 3 280 Libya 1000 84.03 100 85.0 X X X X X X X X Madagascar 0319 101 49.2 3.6 X X X X X X X X Malaw' 52.0 4410 89.0 600 354 14 6 10 1.0 15.5 00 0.5 75.0 Ml. 3960 38.0 88.3 240 176 14 4 498 17 72 968 0o 860 Ma-l'ania 64 0 89. o 34 o X X Y X X X X X Maurti ls 95.0 850 9810 97C 85s0 30 019 034 42.0 41.1 4.0 12 9 ?lOswco 9s01 14C 665 17.9 X X X X X X X X MozambiqLle 17.0 400 70.0 4.6 35 82 U.0 03 133 720 1 C9 48.3 Namibia 873 42.0 765 41.0 720 142 0 0C0 693 0.U 00 77 Nige 4519 58.0 59 0 40 2099 '4.0 30 5.19 0.0 30l 50 67C Ogeria 631C 2650 51.1 290, 327 242 36 2.5 0 35.3 1.1 16.5 R.uanda d4C, 6719 88.0 171 X X X X X X X X Se,megA 84.0 28.1 92.1 40.0 54 1 30.4 199 0 o 25 4 oI 50 0 11 I SerraLenoe 580 21.0 55 31.0 X X X X X X X X So, Iala 5oO 29 o 119 C 5 1 X X X X X X X X So.ulhAt, ra X X X X X X X X X X X X Sudan 6610 43.0 858 14.1 319 1208 0. 21.3 25f 126 00 70.2 SwazOund 41 3 44.0 78 0 35.0 372 3.8 00 0 37G0 420 0G 019 Tlazania 75 0 46 0 76 0 77 o X X X X X X X X Togs 74C 58.0 122 205 3C1 I 425 02 1.2 0.0 I $1 4 77 Tou, sin L-).1 89.0 98.1 930 933 43 1.4 230 05.3 350 2.3 6.0 Rganda 7o 3U 36 6 X X X X X X X X Gyanda ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~.17.09 32.0 736 57 80199 5199 19 9 Zone 370 23.0 20J 35 X X X X X X X X Zanb a 64 0 27 1 67 1 25.1 X X X X X X X X Zunbab.e 950.0 900 9b.0 22 C, X X X X X X X X EUROPE AbaOaa 1050 95.0 10010 159.0 X X x X X X X X Anslna 100.5 0190 100.0 11 100 X X X X X X X X BHaMus. Rep 1001 100 1193 In) 0 10190 X X X X X X X X Be.gum 1019.0 100.0o 10. 100G0 X X X X X X X X Bosnia ar3 Heazegnsion 1C0.3 X X X X X X X Y. X X B'ig-aii 14(00 960 11O90 111.1 X X X X X X X X Catia. Rep 10100 X X X X X X X X X X X Czeoh Pea 1r19.0 1901o 100.0 100 19 X x X X X X X X Denmak 100.0 100.0 100.0 0019C X X X X x x X X Enlona. Rep I00.0 1009.0 10040 150.0 X X X X X X X X Fir land 99 0 90g0 0 1 G 90 19 X X X X X X X X F,ance 1191 1005 010) 1 1 00 19 11 X x X X X X X X Geqnnnr 1019.0 1a051 X X Y X X X X X X. X Gnece 110.0 95.1 101. 99.0 19 19X X X X X X X HRungary 0 995 1905 oo C, .15 X X X X X X X X Ieard 1001 1100 1001 '01.0 X X X X X X X X Ireland 100.0 10019 100.0 1o00 x x x x x x X x ntalyo 00 150. 0 1 019 o0 G X X X X X 1 X X LaMia Rep 1010 1199 1000 1519.0 X X X X X X X X L1nuana. Rap IG00 0199 130.0 iC3 X X X X X X X X Macedonia forrner Yugoslav Rep 100.0 X X X X X X X X X X X tEondone Pep 101.1 10o 00 101 100 0 X X X X X X X X 1roII1el2c19s 019.3 0191 00 0 00 0n X X X X X X X X Nonvay 19 00 10 on n 1 119 19.1 1 o X X X X X X X X Poland Rep 94 1 825 620 o22 0 0 X X X X X X X Pn8dwial 97.1 905 1 '0C 0 550 X X X X X x X X Rcmraira 11CO.0 91.0 100.0 55 0 X X X X X X X X RPssear Feeralior 1330 11C93 11930 0l9 Gr n,(C X X X X X X X X Slovak Rep 100 0 10n0 0 1 190.0 19.0 X X X X X X X X Olnuenlr. Rep 100. X X X X X X X X X X X Spa,, *on 0 oo 0 no wo X X Sna 01 1193 1190.0 1995 199199 5 0 Sxeden '0(, co Inn 0( roo.n X X X X X X X X SwnI1erlald 10190 11919. 1190.9 10o0. X X X X X X X X Uklrane i100.0 10190 C) 10 1190.0o 1 X X X X X X X X UtednK ng3om .9 1100IC lOCO 1000 C X X X X X x X X Yuoaolav,ia Fed Rep In o0C X X X X X X X X X X X 152 W'orldl Rcsorurcrs 1 996-97 Data Table A.2 continued Urban Household Access Urban Household Access to Accesstlo to SalleDikn ae ore Access to Sanitation Services Safe Di=kng Water Sanitation Semices (ecnofalhuhld (percent of all households) (percetj (percent) House or Public Borehole House to Septic Wet Urban Rural Urban Rural Yard Pipe Standpipe4 and Pump Other Sewer Systen, La4trine Other NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Belize 960 82 0 24 2 6889 X X X X 16.1 B I d 0 00 C'anada 100 0 too0 X X X X X X X X X X Cosla Rico 88 0 99.0 99 4 98 2 83 r 0 0 0 1 4 96 0 0 Q 0 0 3 4 C"lO 88 0 99.0 713 51 3 X X X X X X X X Domnmmcan Rep 74 0 67.0 93 0 7 0 X X X X X X X X E Salvador 78 0 37 0 920 59.0 67 9 '10 On 00 Ea 0 50) 0J0 260 Guatema a 92 0 43 0 72 0 52.0 X X X X X X X X Haiti 37 0 230 418 162 X X X X X X X X Ho,duras 81 o 530C 882 532 53 0 67 18 3 00 495 00 00 38 7 J.a,nlc 980 460 14 0 X X X X X X X X X Ve=io 91 ° 62 0 85 5 25 0 X X X X x X X X Nicaragua 81 0 27 0 32 0 X X X X X X X X X P-a,iarl 100 0 t000 10' 0 73 2 98.6 00 00 1 4 50 0 18I OD0 31 9 T-sdad aid Tobago 100 0 880( 1000( 92 0 X X X X X X X X U,,,1ed States X X X X X X X X X X X X SOUTH AMERICA A,gen,l,a 73 0 170 100.0 29 0 X X X X X X X X Bol,,,a 78 0 22 0 62 9 175 390C 340 00( 00 '36.2 127 X 139 Planl 85 0 31.0 84 0 32 0 X X X X 362 12 7 0.0 00 Ch:le 94 0 370 84 8 60 940 00 00 00 84 3 00 00 oo Co o,,b,. 88 0 48 0 _ 73 2 36.8 74 7 0 0 n o) 13 7 73 2' 00 0 0 0 0 Ecuado. 820C 550 86 0 34.2 76- 4.5 00 13 609 a OGC 16 5 8 7 Guvara go00 510 1°° 0 84 0 83C ~ 00 00r 70 o0) 380 00C 64 0 Paragi,av 6t10 90 31 C, 60 0 X X X X X X X X Pen, 74 4 2386 62 0 93 74 4 00 00 00. 620( 00 00 00 Sur,nnae 82 0 56 0 64 0 36 0 X X X X X X X X Uruguay 100 0 5 0 60 0 65 0 X X X X X X X X Venez,,el. 8030 75 0 970 72 0 86.1 00 00 00 X X X X ASIA Atghal11sla,n Islam c Stale