,vo~~~~~~~v F= 9 __A Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Country Reports Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden PERSGA 2001 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ THE WORLD BANK 1818 H. Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Manufactured in the United States of America First Printing February 2001 These reports have been prepared by the members of the PERSGA Strategic Action Programme Task Force. The judgments expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the cooperating governments and organizations. The documentation for the Strategic Action Programme includes three complementary publications: (a) Strategic Action Programme Volume I - Main Report, published in 1998: and (b) Strategic Action Programme - Volumes 2 and 3 - Supporting Studies. This is Volume 2. the Country Reports, for Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, northern coast of Somalia, Sudan and Yemen. Volume 3 (in two parts) will contain the Navigation Risk Assessment and Management Plan and the Assessment and Status of Living Marine Resources and Their Management. The Strategic Action Programme has also prepared a wall map that shows major environmental features of the PERSGA Region. Cover Design by Beni Chibber-Rao Cover photographs by Jan C. Post OF Printed on Recycled Paper Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) P. O. Box 1358 Jeddah 21431, Saudi Arabia Tel./Fax. 011 -966-2-651-4472 Contents Preface .......................................... vii Abbreviations and Acronyms .......................................... ix Republic of Djibouti ........................................... ] Introduction ........................................... 1 Background ........................................... ] Coastal a nd Marine Resources .......................................... 3 Legal and Institutional Framework ...........................................8 Threats to the Environment .......................................... 12 Recent. Current and Planned Environmental Initiatives ........................................... .16 Priority Actions .......................................... ] 7 References .......................................... 20 Ackniowledgments .......................................... 2 1 Arab Republic of Egypt Introduction .......................................... 23 Background .........................23............... 23 Coastal and Marine Resources .......................................... 27 Legal and Institutional Framework .......................................... 33 Threats to the Environment .......................................... 37 Recent and Current Initiatives .......................................... 41 Priority Actions .......................................... 42 References .......................................... 47 Acknowledgments .......................................... 49 Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan Introduction .......................................... 51 Background .......................................... 51 Coastal and Marine Resources .......................................... 53 Legal and Institutional Framework .......................................... 57 Threats to the Environment .......................................... 64 Recent, Current and Planned Environmental Initiatives .......................................... 70 Priority Actions .......................................... 72 References .......................................... 78 Acknowledgments .......................................... 80 iii Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Introduction .............................................. 81 Background .............................................. 81 Coastal and Marine Resources .............................................. 83 Legal and Institutional Framework .............................................. 90 Threats to the Environment .............................................. 92 Recent, Current and Planned Environmental Initiatives .............................................. 97 Prioritv Actions .............................................. 98 References .............................................. 105 Acknowledgments .............................................. 106 Northern Coast of Somalia Introduction .............................................. 107 Background .............................................. 107 Coastal and Marine Resources ............................................... l10 Legal and Institutional Framework ............................................... 114 Threats to the Environment ...............................................1 16 Recent, Current and Planned Environmental Initiatives .............................................. 120 Priority Actions .............................................. 120 References .............................................. 123 Acknowledgments .............................................. 123 Republic of the Sudan Introduction .............................................. 125 Background .............................................. 125 Coastal and Marine Resources .............................................. 127 Legal and Institutional Framework .............................................. 132 Threats to the Environment .............................................. 135 Recent, Current and Planned Environmental Initiatives .............................................. 142 Prioritv Actions .............................................. 143 References .............................................. 145 Acknowledgments .............................................. 147 Republic of Yemen Introduction .............................................. 149 Background .............................................. 149 Coastal and Marine Resources ............................................... ]51 Legal and Institutional Framework .............................................. 166 Threats to the Environment .............................................. 169 Recent, Current and Planned Environmental Initiatives .............................................. 174 Priority Actions .............................................. 175 References .............................................. 179 Acknowledgments .............................................. 180 Abreviations .............................................. 182 Republique de Djibouti (French version) Contexte .............................................. 183 Introduction .............................................. 183 Ressources marines et 6conomie .............................................. 185 Cadre juridique et institutionnel .............................................. 191 Menaces pour l'environnement .............................................. 195 Initiatives environnementales recentes, en cours et planifiees ...................................... 200 Mesures prioritaires .............................................. 201 References bibliographiques .............................................. 204 Remerciements .............................................. 205 iv List of Maps Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (IBRD 29042R) Djibouti (IBRD 28744) Egypt (IBRD 29177) Jordan (IBRD 28859) Saudi Arabia (IBRD 29043) Somalia (IBRD 28745) Sudan (IBRD 28746) Yemen (IBRD 28747) v Preface The Strategic Action Programme for the dialogue. In 1995 and 1996 a series of na- Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (SAP) has been tional workshops was held to finalize the developed by the countries of the Region, Country Reports and to develop priority in cooperation with the Global Environ- actions required by each country to address ment Facility and its implementing agen- the environmental threats identified. As a cies. the United Nations Environlment Pro- result, these reports serve as the first diag- gramme, the United Nations Development nostic tool for the SAP in analyzing issues Programme, and the World Bank; a re- of regional, national and local significance, gional financial institution, the Islamic and in recommending actions to protect the Development Bank, and the Region's own Region's environment and natural re- environmenital organization, the Regional sources. The reports provide a foundation Organization for the Conservation of the of information for the SAP, and their pri- Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of orities and recommendations are being re- Aden-PERSGA. alized through SAP implementation. The documentation for the SAP in- The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden contain eludes three complementary publications: some of the world's most important coastal (a) Strategic Action Programme, Volume and marine environments and resources. I-Main Report, and (b) Strategic Action As part of the ongoing activities of Programme, Volumes 2 and 3-Supporting PERSGA, the status of all coastal and ma- Studies. This volume includes Country rine ecosystems of the Red Sea and Gulf of Reports for Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Aden will be updated periodically, along Arabia, northern coast of Somalia, Sudan with recommendations for their future and Yemen. Volume 3 contains a Naviga- management. tion Risk Assessment and Management Although the Red Sea is still one of Plan and the Assessment and Status of the least ecologically disturbed seas rela- Living Marine Resources and Their Man- tive to other enclosed water bodies, it is in agement. increasing jeopardy. Nowhere is this better Development of the SAP in general, exemplified than in the coral reef habitats and these supporting studies in particular, of the Region. There is a great variety of is the result of a collaborative process. dur- reef types in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ing which national experts have cooper- with unmatched biodiversity and structural ated through extensive consultations and complexity. The diversity of corals is vii greater than anywhere else in the Indian Ocean, and the number of species that are confined to the Red Sea and found no- where else is extremely high. In 1997 and 1998 the climate phe- nomenon known as the El Nifio/Southerin Oscillation (ENSO) caused a rise in sea surface temperatures in many areas of the world that was unprecedented in recorded history. As a result of this higih water tem- perature within tropical regions, many coral reefs of the world suffered coral bleaching-caused wheni coral colonies become stressed and expuilse their symbi- otic algae. Coral reefs of the Red Sea Re- giOln were also significantly affected. In the Gulf of Aden, extensive coral bleach- ing with high mortality was observed on reefs near the islands of Socotra in May 1998. In response to this series of environ- mental impacts, the Saudi Arabian Na- tional Commission for Wildlife Conserva- tion and Development, with co- sponsorship from PERSGA, hosted an In- ternational Symposium on the Extent of Coral Reef Bleaching in February 2000. The proceedings from this conference will be used to revise, where appropriate, prior- ity actions for the conservation of coral reefs and associated coastal and marine habitats in the Region. Future versions of these Country Reports will reflect such updates so that they may continue to serve as a solid information base for effective action. viii Abbreviations and Acronyms ABD Aden Bunkering Department (Yemen) ACPM Cooperative Association of Marine Fisheries (Associationi de Coope-ratives des Peches Maritimes) - Djibouti ARA Aqaba Region Authority (Jordan) CEO Chief Executive Officer CFC Coastal Fishing Corporation CFCL Canadian Fishery Consultants Ltd. CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CNE National Committee for the Environment (Coiiiite national de 'en vironnenmeno (Djibouti) CNS Comprehenisive National Strategy (Sudan) COOPI Cooperazione Internazionale (Italy) CZM Coastal Zone Management DAM Directorate of Maritime Affairs (Djibouti) DANIDA Danish International Development Assistance DAP diammonium phosphate DATE Directorate of Land Managemenit anid Environment (Djibouti) DEP Directorate of Stock-farming and Fisheries (Djibouti) DJF Djibouti Franc DGIS Directorate General for Intemational Cooperation (Netherlands) DNV Det Norske Veritas DWT Dry Weight Tonnage EAP Environmental Action Plan (Egypt) EEAA Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EFZ Economic Free Zone EGPC Egypt General Petroleum Company EIA Environmental Impact Assessment ENSO El Niiio/Southern Oscillation EPC Environment Protection Council (Yemen) EPCCOM Environmental Protection Coordinating Committee (Saudi Arabia) EU European Union Ix FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Fl Fisheries Investment Corporation (Yemen) FRC Fisheries Research Center (Sudan) FZA Free Zone Authority (Yemen) FZD Free Zones Department (Sudan) GAEAP Gulf of Aqaba Environmenital Action Plan, Jordan GAFRD General Authority for Fish Resources Development (Egypt) GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GIA General Investment Authority (Yemen) GIS Geographic Infonnationi System GMDSS Global Maritime Distress and Safety System GNP Gross National Product GOE Government of Egypt GRP Glass Reinforced Plastic GRT Gross Register Ton GTA General Tourism Autthority (Yemen) GTZ Gesellschaft fur Technischie Zusammenarbeit (German Technical Coopera- tion Agency) HCENR Higher Council for the Environment and Natural Resources (Sudan) hp horsepower HF-DSC High Frequency Distress and Safety Communication ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IMO International Maritime Organization of the United Nations INMARSAT International Mobile Satellite Organization ISERST Institut Superieur d'Etudes et de Recherches Scientifiques et Techniques (Djibouti) ITU International Tanker Union IUCN World Conservation Union JEA Jordan Electricity Authority JPMC Jordan Phosphate Mines Company JSS Jordan Standard Specifications LE Egyptian Pound MAH Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulics (Djibouti) MARPOL International Convention on the Prevention of Pollution from Ships MAW Ministry of Agriculture and Water (Saudi Arabia) MB Motor Boat MCTT Ministry of Commerce, Tourism and Transportation (Djibouti) MEMAC Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Center (Djibouti) MEN Ministry of National Education (Djibouti) MEPA Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration (Saudi Arabia) MFW Ministry of Fish Wealth (Yemen) MOFNE Ministry of Finance and the National Economy (Saudi Arabia) MOT Ministry of Tourism (Egypt) MP Marine Park MPA Marine Protected Area MPAM Ministry of Port and Maritimes Affairs (Djibouti) MSRRC Marine Science and Resources Research Center (Yemen) MSY Maximum Sustainable Yield mt metric tons x MTC Maritime Training Center (Yemen) MTT Ministry of Transports and Telecommunicationis (Djibouti) NCFM National Corporation for Fish Marketing (Yemen) NCICZM National Committee for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (Egypt) NCSFM National Corporation for Services and Fish Marketing (Yemen) NCWCD National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (Saudi Arabia) NEAP National Environmental Action Plan NECFISH Northeast Coast Fishinig Enterprise (Somalia) NFC National Forests Corporation (Sudan) NGO Nongoverinmenital Organization NIOF National Institute of Oceanograplhy and Fisheries (Egypt) N PK i itrogen-plhosplhorous-potassium fertilizer NWCFD Northwest Coastal Fishery Development Project (Somalia) ODA Office of Development Aid ONTA National Office of Tourism and Crafts (Office National du Tourisme et de P'Artisanat - Djibouti) PAID International Autonomous Port of Djibouti (Port Autonome International de Djibouti) PCMA Public Corporation of Maritime Affairs (Yemen) PDRY People's Democratic Republic of Yemen PERSGA Regional Organizationi for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden PPA Project Preparation Advance RCC Rescue Coordination Center (Sudan) RCC Rescue Coordination Center (Yemen) RCJY Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu (Saudi Arabia) REDWG Regional Economic Development Working Group (Jordan) RSU Red Sea University (Sudan) SAP Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden SCECO Saudi Consolidated Electricity Company SFZ Sudan Free Zone SIFP Sudan Integrated Fisheries Project SMCC Sudan Marine Conservation Committee SOFISCO Socotra Fisheries and Sea Foods Company (Yemen) SWCC Saline Water Conversion Corporation (Saudi Arabia) TDA Tourism Development Authority (Egypt) TEU Twenty-foot Equivalent Units TS Technical Secretariat (of the EPC - Yemen) UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme WAJ Water Authority of Jordan WRI World Resources Institute WTO World Tourism Organization YAR Yemen Arab Republic YFC Yemen Fishing Corporation YR Yemeni Riyal xi Country Report Republic of Djibouti Introduction member states, the Islamic Development Bank. the United Nations Development The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden represent a Programme (UNDP). the United Nations complex and unique tropical marine eco- . system with extraordinary biological di- Environment Programme (UNEP), and the versity and a remarkably high degree of World Bank. Financial support has been endemism This a nrearrkaband of wateree OT provided by the countries of the Regioni, endemism. This narrow band of water the Global Environment Facility (GEF) shared by a number of coastal states is also and selected donor organizations. The GEF an important shipping lane linking the world's major oceans. While large parts of ha APp support fomplementai . . . ~~of the SAP, which xvill be complemented the Region are still in a pristine state, envl- by funding from a variety of international ronimenital threats-notably from habitat and domestic resources. destruction, over-exploitationi and pollu- tion-are increasinig rapidly, requiring The present country report provides immediate action to protect the Region's background information to the SAP proc- coastal and marine environment. To this ess at the national level. It is based on in- end, a Strategic Action Programme (SAP) formation from publications and reports, has been prepared through a continuous, listed at the end of this document, and a consultative and cooperative process rapid assessment survey by the authors of among the coastal states, coordinated by this report. the Regional Organization for the Conser- vation of the Environment of the Red Sea Background and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA). Djibouti, at the juncture of the Red Sea The SAP is a programmatic approach and the Gulf of Aden. has a surface of to the development of country based re- 23,200 square kilometers and a coastline gional environmental projects, providing about 370 kilometers long. The northern and benefiting from linkages with ongoing coast between the Eritrean border and Ras regional seas initiatives and major interna- Bir faces the narrow Strait of Bab-al- tional waters projects. This will assure a Mandab. It is mainly shallow and sandy concerted approach to transboundary prob- with a few rocky outcrops such as Ras Si- lems, and the realization of regional and yyan and Kadda Gueini, and two large es- global benefits. The SAP has been pre- tuaries at Khor Angar and Godoriya that pared by a Task Force including PERSGA are fringed by mangroves. On a shallow l 2 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden IBRD 30698 where coral reefs are poorly de- EPTRIE veloped. The national marine ter- DJ!\5a\ ~ \ ritory covers a surface of ap- i \ 4 \ proximately 10.000 square kilo- meters, of whlichi 2,563 belong to the continental shielf whicli has a medium width of 8 kilometers. It is \ 3 relatively wide to die north and soutli but rather narrow in the Gulf of Tad- joura. For fishieries purposes, the con- Obokk tinental shelf is subdivided into five sectors, as sholvo in Figure I (KCinzel / Gulf Of and others. 1996). Along much of the Tadjoura coastline, the continlental slope is gen- emily steep and descends rapidly several hundred meters. No peren- Dii inial freshwater stream reaches the sea, but some temporary wadis may discharge large amounts of freshwater M-1,d 2000 after torrential rains. Figure 1. Schematic outline of continental shelf sectors. Sector 1 corresponds to the southern shore of the Gulf of Tadjoura; Djibouti lies in a hot and Sector 2 corresponds to the northern shore of the Gulf of Tadjoura; semi-arid zone. Mean air tempera- Sector 3 extends from the north of Sector 2 to Ras Siyyanb tures vary between 25°C in winiter Sector 4 extends from the north of Sector 3 to the Eritrean border; ad30 nsme.Ana an Sector 5 corresponds to the Ghoubbet al-Kharab region. and 35°C in summer. Annual rain- (From Konzel and others, 1996). fall is between 50 and 215 milli- rocky platform east of Ras Siyyan, the meters, averaging 130 millime- Sept Freres archipelago is surrounded by ters. Hydrographic conditions are influ- coral reefs. Most of the coastline of Dji- enced by the monsoon. During the summer bouti lies along the narrow Gulf of Tad- months, northerly winds prevail and the joura. an east-west oriented trench with a southwest monsoon moves surface waters maximum depth of 883 meters (Laughton of the Gulf of Aden into the Arabian Sea: and others, 1970). A shallow, narrow these are replaced by outflowing waters opening separates it from the semi- from the Red Sea. During the northeast enclosed basin of Ghoubbet al-Kharab, monsoon, between October and May, this which has high salinity rates and coral current is reversed and surface water flows reefs of low species diversity. Ghoubbet in the opposite direction. For most of the al-Kharab is 200 meters deep. Both the year, surface salinity is about 36.5 ppt, but Gulf of Tadjoura and Ghoubbet al-Kharab when the surface water flows out from the basin are fringed by mountains and cliffs, Red Sea, it may increase to 38-39 ppt interspersed with sand and cobble beaches. (Edwards, 1987). Mean surface water tem- At the entrance of the Gulf of Tadjoura, peratures vary between 25°C and 29°C. In north of the town of Djibouti, a vast reef March, a thermocline lies at depths of 60- plateau forms the base of the islands of 85 meters. During the hot season, this ther- Musha and Maskali, which are surrounded mocline ascends, followed by an explosive by extensive coral reefs. The southeastern increase in primary productivity. Relatively coast between the capital and Loyada at high turbidity generally limits coral growth to the Somali border is rather shallow and the upper 15 to 25 meters, although corals sandy with several estuaries (see Map of Djibouti at end of volume). This area lies in a zone of upwelling nutrient-rich water, Cointri' Report - Djibouti 3 have been reported below 35 meters (Anon., The small boats do one-day trips while the 1985). larger boats usually go out to sea for four In 1993. Djibouti ladanestimat days. The number of departures varies sea- In 193.Djibutihadan etimted sonally, with a maximum of 438 depar- 557,000 inhabitants, 75 per-cent of whlom .' . . live in the capital. The average aninual tures in May and a minimum of 187 in February. There are generally no profes- growth rate Is 4.9 percent. The expatriate sinlfhemnmotihngaivis sional fishernnen, most flslsiillc activities communitv varies between 10,000 and .. are carried out at the subsistence level and 15.000 people. In addition to the capital, effort is generally low. there are two towrns in the coastal area: Tadjoura and Obock. Fifty-one percent of The majority of fish is caught by hook the population is below the age of 20, and anid line. To a lesser extent gill nets and average life expectancy is 49 vears. The throwinig nets are used. Lobsters. of minor gross national product (GNP) in 1993 was importance. are collected by divers. USD448 million, and in 1991 the gross Landed catches consist almost entirely of domestic product (GDP) was DJF67,078 large fish that fetch high prices on the million (=USD379 million). Owing to pre- market. Fish is marketed fresh and there is vailing ecological conditions in the Sa- no processing of any relevance. An esti- haro-Sahelian zone, the importance of re- mated 1,000 to 1.500 people are employed newable resources in the local economy is in the fisheries sector. Some 75 percent of very minor. Agriculture, animal breeding all catches are landed at Boulaos in the and fisheries contribute onlv some 2.2 to capital area. There are a few other small 2.4 percent to the national income. With an landing sites, of lesser importance: Escale average annual income of about USD15 (5 percent), Tadjoura (5 percent) and million, the international port of Djibouti Obock (10 percent). The landing site at the contributes significanitly to the nationial Club Nautique is used entirely' by' sport economy. Coastal and marine tourism is fishermen. accounting for 3 percent of the still in its infancy. landings. The remaining 2 percent are used by the fishermen for their own consump- Coastal and Marine Resources tion. A new fish collecting system was set up in the 1980s. During this period, 90 The major economic sectors in the coastal percent of the fishermen landed their catch zone are maritime transport and port- on the premises of the "Association related activities. Fisheries and tourism Coop.rative des Peches Maritimes" plav a limited role, although subsistence I (AC PM, Cooperative Association of Ma- fisheries are locally important, and their potential is yet to be fully exploited. rineF helus Theofishia (23 pr- per, Eprinephelus chlorostig7nia (23 per- LIVING RESOURCES cent), Spanish mackerel, Scombero-nmoruis comn7erson ( 14 percent), red snapper, At present, there are about ninety artisanal Lerso n (13 percent), anakpor fislhing boats operating in Djiboutian wa- Lethi-iniis lentjan (13 percent), antak or fishing boat operating in jiboutianwa- crimson jobfish, Pristipomnides sp. ters (Kunzei, 1996). Most of them are ( . b small, open boats of 6 to 8 meters in (5 percent) andjc, Carang s bajad length. powered by outboard engines, with (4 percent). Oe spcis, Carenofdess ia- three crew members. Some 15 percent of (4 percent). Other species are of lesser im- thre crw mmber. Sme 5 pecen of portance. Once a significant number of the boats are equipped with inboard en- fsrmens e usingct ACm ln , ~~~~~~~~fishermen stopped using the ACPM land- gines. Those boats are 10 to 14 meters ing site (see below), the statistical data long and carry' a crew of five fishermen. gathering system then in use was no longer representative. A new system was estab- I For updated descriptions and impacts to the coral reefs lished by a project of the German Agency and associated habitats for Djibouti. refer to Wilkinson. for Technical Cooperation (GTZ). Scales 2000, pp 35-54. 4 Strategic Action Programnmefor the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden 500 est in February 450 (25,110 kg). 400 - --The main 350 - ||species inihaabiting 300- the waters of Dji- bouti have been 250 - the subject of sev- 200 eral studies 150 - (FAO, 1 984, 100 - Boulhel, 1 988, 50 Abbes, 1 989. 0 - 1 T Beurier, 1 992, ,s91 9# 9 9 0 b 9F0 9 90 9 9 95 9> 99<) TDarar, 1996). N-' q N, N NO q N' NN 'qN'bNq Nq lq ll~The most recenit and by far the Figure 2. Estimated national fish production between 1980 and 1995, in mt most extensive Sources: 1980-1984 landings at ACPM: 1985-1994 FAO 1994: 1995 Kunzel and others one was coin- 1996 ducted within the were set up at the principal landing sites framework of a project titled "Evalua- for statistical purposes. tion of Fisheries Resources and Exploit- National fisheries production increased able Yields in Djibouti" which was fuided by from 236 metric tons in 1980 to 409 metric the Federal Republic of Germany and jointly tons in 1984 and 454 metric tons in 1988. executed by the Directorate of Animal Hus- Between 1988 and 1991 the rate of in- bandrv and Fishieries and the GTZ. A total of crease slowed. A weak marketing structure 192 fish species were recorded during this for fisheries products created a bottleneck project which estimated the biomass and for the entire sector. From 1991 to 1994, the potential Maximum Sustainable Yield production decreased dramatically. In (MSY) of commercially exploitable fish 1991. due to unrest in the north of the species in the continental shelf areas of countrv, it was as low as 252 metric tons Djibouti (Table 1). The data were used to (see Figure 2). Monthly production is assess the optimal exploitation rates of highest in May, June and September. Be- fisheries resources and to set the annual tween 1986 and 1990, when production production at such levels as to promote was fairly stable, the highest yields were maximum fish stock bioproductivity (Table 2). recorded in May (44,522 kg) and the low- Following experimental trawls, it was de- termined that the mean annual biomass of Table 1: Summary of Biomass of Demersal Fish Resources of the Diiboutian Continental Shelf (in mt) Groups of demersal Sector 1 Sector 2 Sector 3 Sector 4 Sector 5 Sector 6 species Small demersal SecieS 1,860 375 865 195 450 3,744 Small demersal species 11 8,566 50 6 3 0 8,625 (Leioanathidae) Large demersal SDecieS I 515 225 3,897 2,197 206 7,039 Large demersal species 11 186 66 2,249 1,222 0 3,724 Rays and sharks 475 337 634 279 106 1,832 Other demersal species 1,307 844 618 297 63 3,129 Total for each sector 12,909 1,897 8,269 4,193 825 28,093 Couentrv Report - Djibouti 5 and banracuda Table 2: Maximum Sustained Yield (Yopt) of Djiboutian Fish Resources, (Sph,raena spp.). calculated according to biomass and natural mortality (M) P to Group of demersal and pe- Biomass M Yopt Accordn t lagic species (Binf, in mt) (per year) (in mt) c o n s e rv at i v e Small demersal species I 3,744 1.0 1,872 estimates the Small demersal species 11 8,625 2.0 8,625 potential mean (Leio,Rnathidae.,) __ annual vield of Large demersal species 1 7,039 0.5 1,760 lagi fish is Large demersal species 11 3,724 1.0 1,862 about 32,000 (BalistidaeL~metric tons, of Other demersal species 3,129 0.7 1,095 wswoxw woww> w awW w4tww sowow wl<¢w www -w ww FW woowW w>OWw DwXww ww<<> w hichl about Total demersal species 26261 15,214 Small pplagic seecies 56,000 1.0 28,000 *ll Lar9e !elaqic sp ecies 18,500 0.5 4,625 merciay Total pelac secies 74500 32;625 portant species. GRAND TOTAL 100,761 47,839 The Indo- Sources:Knzelandothers, 1996:Anon. 1981:Sandersand Morgan, 1989 Pacific sailfishi demersal fishes was 28,000 metric tons. This Istiophorus pla- results in a potential annual vield of 1 5.000 tpterus, whose length can exceed 3 me- metric tons. However. 1 0,000 metric tons ters, is common in the area. It is not landed are species of the families Leiognathidae by the artisanal fishermen, but is much (ponyfishes) and Balistidae (triggerfishes), sought after by sport fishing enthusiasts. which are of little economic use. Of those These data will allow Djibouti to man- species which are economically important, age fisheries appropriately and to take ad- the annual yield could be increased from a vantage of this resource in order to meet present level of 200 metric tons to ap- the country's nutritionial and economic proximately 1,300 metric tons. There are needs. An increase in fishing efforts. both significant differences in the spatial distri- in quality and quantitv, will be necessary, bution of demersal fishes: Sector I is including greater numbers of fishing boats largely inhabited by small demersals, of and the use of more advanced fishing which 67 percent are Leiognathidae. Sec- technology. The present ban on the use of tors 3 and 4 are dominated by large demer- trawls. however, should continue. Table 3 sals, of which 50 percent are of commer- shows the development plan for the period cial value and the remaining 50 percent are from 1996 to 2000, during which total an- Balistidae. nual catches of large demersals and large Stocks of small pelagic fish were esti- pelagics could increase from 400 to 4,500 mated based on the results of a cruise of metric tons. the RV Fridtjof Nansen in the Gulf of Boulhel (1986) estimated the Maxi- Aden in 1981. The assessment of large mum Sustainable Yield of sharks at 70 pelagics is based on samples taken by' metric tons and lobsters at 10 metric tons. FAO on the continental shelf of Soma- Shrimp, crabs, oysters and cephalopods are lia, Yemen and Oman. The biomass of exploited sporadically, while various mol- small pelagics, which include important lusks, sea cucumbers and seaweed are cur- food fish such as sardines (Sardinella rentiv not exploited at all. longiceps), anchovies (Thrvssa baelania). and mackerel (Scomber japonicits), is Barratt and Medley (1988) studied the about 56,000 metric tons. Stocks of large potential of exploiting tropical marine fish pelagics are estimated at 18,000 to 19,000 in Djibouti for the aquarium trade. They metric tons. the most important species be- concluded that there is a substantial market ingSpahmackerel (Sconberonors for good quality Red Sea and Western In- coiing ersoni), tuna (Thunniis tonggol) dian Ocean fish. The USA, Hong Kong, 6 Strategic Action Progranmnmefbr the Red Sea and GzidfofAden Table 3: Development Plan for 1996-2000. Summary of annual production (in mt) envisaged for the exploitation of demersal and pelagic fish resources Fish Resources Potential 1995: Current Projected Projected Total Pro- Maximum small-scale production production duction Sustainable fisheries pro- for food con- for export Yield duction sumption Large demersal 1,800 + 30% 200 500 800 1,300 species Large pelagic spe- 4600 ± 30% 200 500 2,700 3,200 cies__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Total 400 1,000 3,500 4,500 Germany, Japan and other European couII- opment of the sector. To this end, a train- tries were identified as the main export ing center for professional fishermen was markets. created in 1991 with support from the In- Ani operationi licenlse was gyranted in teniational Fulid for Agricultural Devel- t . ~opment (IFAD). Ilnfortuniatelv, extra- 1992 to a private companv, despite the .opm en haD e intfrt edly tet | r X r + . 0 ~~~~sectoral events have mnterfered withl the lack of a legal framework regulating this successful implementation of training ac- type of fishing activity. With the help of sivites.fA rehabilitation ro traineni ac- eri Lankan wresi ol perta tivities. A reliabilitatioin programme is cur- Sri Lankan workers, it would appear that g 150 to 300 aquarium fishes are collected rently underway. with a view to revitaliz- weekly to be exported to Japan and the ing fishing activities in the northerin areas United States. It is difficult, under current of the country. conditions, to assess the impact of this or- The majority of fishermen ply the namental fish collection activity on the same fishing areas and their range of op- coral reef ecosystems. eration is very limited, although the winter Technical and Socio-econo77liC Organiza- monsoon extends the range of larger boats. Technical an Soc .o-ecoomic Orgaia- During the period from November to tion qf the Fisheries Sector C March, they exploit resources in the waters Traditionally, only subsistence fisheries next to the Somali border. But no matter existed in Djibouti. The introduction of the where the fishing takes place. 90 percent Programme for the Development of Ar- of the catches are landed in Djibouti town, tisanal Fisheries, initiated in 1980, resulted because of the lack of markets in other in a substantial growth of this sector. Be- coastal towns. fore 1980 there were only fifty fishermen, mainlyof Yemni oriin. Thy usedFishermen in Djibouti do not have any mainly of Yemeni origin. They used alternative employment opportunities. This wooden boats 4 to 6 meters in length with is the result on the one hand of the conser- very limited loading capacity. These boats, vative attiude do this omut h and o n which had no engines, allowed only for I subsistence fishing. the other hand the limited possibilities ex- isting in the agricultural sector. Fishing is In the framework of the development their only available activity. The fishermen programme, fishermen were supplied with do not have access to formal credit. Infor- fishing gear, outboard engines and fibre- mal credit from fish traders or from the glass boats. Ten years after the completion fisherman's family is a possible source of of the programme, in 1990, the number of financing. Fishing strategy adapts to the active fishermen had increased signifi- requirements of the market, which means cantly. However, the average age of fish- they catch those fish species which sell lo- ermen used to range between 40 and 55 cally. Unfortunately, consumers in Dji- years, and a rejuvenation of the production bouti largely restrict their consumption to crews became an imperative for the devel- three species: Spanish mackerel (season- Country; Report - Djibouti 7 ally), blackspot snapper and jack. As far as salt and brine of Lake Assal which, in the- the fishermen's income is concerned, the ory, can be exploited. There are no natural figure varies according to the number of gas or oil exploration activities in the na- each fishermanl's departures to sea and his tional maritime area of Djibouti. social status, that is. whethier he is a Table 4: Comparison of Fishing Operations of Two Types of Boats boat ownier or a (7-meter and 10-meter boats go out to sea for I and 4 days_respectivet) crevA member. Seven-meter Boat Ten-meter Boat The fiserme Fuel expenses DJF 6,000 DJF 6,800 whlo participated D , JF 1,000 DJF 4,000 in the programme Foepes DJF 3,666 DJF 12,000 were able * Total catch wei ht 300 k 950 kc wNere able to in- >Q3.-O ..~vW WV.% vwow_ cno:o:P * Total catch value DJF 45,000 DJF 142,000 crease their in- '. Net catch value DJF 35,334 DJF 119,700 come sightly. tv However, none of the fishermen kept accountiigo records MT Table 4 was compiled from their verbal Maritime transport is a major commer- statements. All fishermen interviewed re- cial sector in Djibouti. Slince the re- garding social issues stated that they would opening of the Suez Canal, activities at like to benefit from social security and Djibouti Port have developed rapidly. The pension. port offers container handling facilities at The other operators working in the two berths of a total length of 400 meters sector are fish traders and retail dealers. It with a depth of 12 meters alongside the should be noted that these operators did quay. It handled 65.000 TEU (Twenty-foot Equivalent Units) in 1993 and 70,000 in not receive any' assistance from the pro- 195 Beie cotie adig h gramme. This accounts for a weakness in the marketing structure, which has been a port's activities include merchandise im- the marketincg structure, whilch has beeni a port and export, oil tanker traffic and trans- major obstacle to the development of the majoeris ostacltorin thecn dvelpMentiof t shipment. During the last decade, the Port Authorities have undertaken important should be made of the gradually increasing investment programmes to upgrade presence of Djiboutian women in fish facilities at Djibouti port in order to in- marketing. Their activities are focused on cres ativees.urh port gets m- crease competitiveness. 'The port gets di- the sale of fresh fish in disadvantaged rect calls by ships coming from Europe neighborhoods. and East Asia. Containers from Djibouti The primary tasks of the ACPM were are transshipped to the Southern Red Sea, fish marketing and the sale of ice and fuel the Gulf of Aden and East Africa. A 780- to the fishermen (Bjoerklund and Walter- kilometer railway links Djibouti with Ad- Dahnert, 1983). It was regarded as a state- dis Ababa and goods to and from Ethiopia owned organization and was managed by are shipped via Djibouti. The income of civil servants. At the time of this writing, the International Autonomous Port of Dji- the ACPM no longer exists and the mar- bouti ranges between USD14,124,300 and keting activities at the landing site of Bou- 16,949,200, which is a very important con- laos were entrusted to a private operator. tribution to the national economy. Table 5 NON-LIVING RESOURCES provides more detailed data on the extent of maritime transport activities in Dji- Included in this category is the sea sand boutian waters. from the supra-littoral zone as well as the 8 Strategic Action Progranne for the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden Table 5: Total Vessel Stops (number and tonnage) at PAID between 1991 and 1994 Class of vessel 1991 1992 193 1994 No GRT No GRT No GRT No GRT Conventional 325 2,709,415 333 2,650,801 311 1,941,289 309 2,236,970 Multi-purpose 13 196,493 5 66,973 ~ ~~1 9,844 0 0 Container ship 171 1,881,018 248 2,914,677 320 3.736,546 275 3,486,208 Roro 130 1,832,360 76 998,645 69 721.767 61 639568 Barge-carrier 17 445,864 11 285,861 ~1 7 430,238 14 372,937 Bulk carrier 1 30,249 0 0 0 0 0 0 ilstanker 98 2,186,154 78 1,301,509 82 1,142,841 85 1,241,985 LPG tanker 42 368,052 38 326,446 4 31,098 4 30,2 a,ssenge rsh ip ~8 60.74 1 7986 9 83,234 1 7 101,596 _Fishinj essel 6 54,466 68 69,403 68 47.612 74 36,9 WarshiD 224 700,544 136 594,186 98 393,955 92 511,385 Other 67 113,550 90 206,220 68 141,694 45 53,137 Coaster - 44 20,383 30 13,926- 21 10,629 27 12.440 Total 1,208 10,579,295 1,123 9,508,453 1,068 8,690,747 1,003 8,723.745 MARINE AND COASTAI TOUJRISM (approved by Law 94/AN/89 2/ L of Marine tourism is still at an embryonic 7 November 1989). stage in Djibouti, although in the past . The London Convention of 1973, European tourists visited Djibouti from amended in 1978, and its four annexes October to March, mainly to dive at the (approved by Law 94/AN/89 2/ L of Sept Fr&res Islands. The contributioni of 7 November 1989). marine tourism to the national economy is insignificant. The National Office for * The Brussels Convention of 1969 on Tourism and Crafts offers some sixtv huts Interventions on the High Sea ap- for rent and the private sector provides proved by Law 94/AN/89 2/ L of 7 transportation for tourists. The reefs near November 1989). the capital are frequently visited by local . The United Nations Convention on the tourists, above all by members of the expa- Law of the Sea (approved by the Law triate community. There is no monitoring of 11 June 1985). of their activities and the resulting pressure on the reefs is high. . The Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Con- Legal and Institutional Framework trol of Transboundary Movement of all Forms of Hazardous Wastes within Conscious of the importance of protecting Africa (1991). the marine environment and fighting all forms of pollution, Djibouti adheres to a forms of ~~~~~~~~~Biological Diversity (1 992). number of international conventions: . The Convention on International Trade Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna Oil (London Convention) of 1954 and Flora (I 992). (amended), made applicable through . The United Nations Framework Con- Law no. 64/83 of 25 August 1983, ap- vention on Climate Change (1992) proving the four international conven- At the regional level, an agreement tions on maritime navigation. was signed by Yemen, Djibouti and Soma- * The London Convention of 1971 on lia on 27 March 1990 concerning the es- the international compensation fund tablishment of a sub-regional center to combat oil pollution in the Gulf of Aden. Cout; ;vh Report - Djibouti 9 The Marine EmergencY Mutual Aid Cen- general provisions whichl are part of the ter, witlh oil spill response facilities, is Code of the Maritime Administrationi. based in Djibouti. Yemen and Djibouti are These are, among others, articles 148. 149 currently negotiating a bilateral agreement and 220 to 225 enacted by Law regarding the use of the equipment. On 20 212/AN/82, and articles 16 to 19 of Law January 1986, Djibouti and Somalia signed 52/AN/78 of 18 January 1979. According a bilateral fishing agreement. to these regulations! certain fishing tech- Th1e economic and social orientation i niques, such as the use of explosives and law of 1990-2000 (Law 150/AN/91 20 L of pOiSOnS, are prohibited. They determine the conditions for the exploitationi of fish- 10 Februarv 199 1 ) aind th1e orientationi plaii ii ore, icuigfsiiazie n for economic and social development pro- i r jects of 1991-1995 (Law 207/AN/92 2' L closed seasons. They also include sanc- jects of 1991-1995 (Law ~~tions for violationis. of 14 May 1992) demonstrate the govern- ment's commitment to malie the protection The national regulations on the protec- of the environment one of its priorities. In tion of the marine environment include addition, Djibouti adopted a set of legal provisions on marine pollution., protection texts regulating exploitation and providing of endangered species and the creation of for protection of the marine environment. protected areas. Regulations on the preven- tion of and fight against marine pollution The present fislheries legislation was l 6 drafted before independence, withi the ex- (Table 6) Include ception of some useful but insufficient Table 6: National Laws and Regulations pertaining to Coastal and Marine Resources and Environments Legal Text Effective Institution date concerned Order 72-1363/SG/CG establishing Musha Territorial Park 1972 DAM La-w76-599 on pollution caused by ships 1976 DAM Law 76-600 on pollution caused by combustion 1976 DAM Order 77-038/PR on reqistration of pleasure boats 1977 DAM Law 52/AN/78 article 16-19 regulating fisheries 1979 6AM Decree 80-062/PR/MCTT on the protection of the marine fauna and sea- 1980 MCTT bottom and establishing the South Maskali Islands Integral Reserve Law 9/AN/82 on oil pollution 1982 DAM Law 212/AN/82 regulating fisheries 1982 DAM Law 64/AN/83 approving four international conventions regarding mari- 1983 DAM time navigation Law 137/AN/85 on oil pollution 1985 DAM Regulation 84-0969/PR/PM on pleasure boating safety 1984 DAM Decree 85/103/PR/AG on Marine Protected Areas 1985 DAM Ordinance 86-042PR/PM regulating abandonment of ships 1986 DAM Regulation 86/0717/PR/MCTT on camping huts on the beaches and is- 1986 ONTA lands Decree 88-013/PR/PM on the organization and coordination of actions 1988 DAM at sea taken by the State Law 65/AN/89 banning the import of toxic, radioactive and polluting 1989 DAM waste Decree 89-085/PR/PM on passaqe of foreiqn vessels 1989 DAM Law 941ANf89 approving adherence to four international conventions on 1989 DAM marine water pollution Decree 90-0105PR/AE establishing a Contingency Plan in the event of 1990 DAM accidental marine pollution Decree 89-085/PR/AE on actions in the event of oil spills 1990 DAM Order 90-0534/MPAM regulating navigation in order to prevent acciden- 1990 DAM tal marine pollution events Order 90-0534/MPAM on the passage of foreign vessels 1990 DAM Decree 91-018/PR/MPAM establishinaa Directorate of Maritime Affairs 1991 MTT 1( Strategic Action Programme_ior the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Law 76-599 of 7 July 1976, enacted by . Decree 89-085/PR/PM of 29 June order 675/SELAG of 21 Julv 1976 on1 1989 and order 90-0534/MPAM of 11 pollution by ship and aircraft, as well June 1990 concerning passage of for- as accidental marine pollution. eign ships through territorial waters in * Law 76-600 of 7 July 1976, enacted by order to prevenit pollution and dump- order 676/SELAG of 21 July 1976 re- ing of hazardous wastes. garding pollution by incinierationi op- . Decree 90-0105PR/AE of 29 Septem- erations. ber 1990 concerninig the Continigenlcy Law 52/AN/78 of 9 January 1979 on1 Plan applicable in the event of a criti- cal situation caused by accidental ma- the territorial sea, the contiguous zone. the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), rine pollution in Djibouti. maritime borders and fishing excise. . Order 90-0534/MPAM of II Junle * Laws 9/AN/82 of 15 September 1982 1990 regulating navigation in Dji- boutian waters in order to prevent ac- anid 137/AN/85 10 L of 27 July 1985 cidenital marinie pollution. on oil pollution. * Law 64/AN/83/1 L of 25 August 1983 . Order 90-0534/PR of 10 June 1990 approving the four international con- regulating navigation in Djiboutian apentions thefordintenmartimea co- waters ini order to prevenit accidental ventions regardillg maritime naviga- tioli. marine pollution. Law 137/AN/85/1 L of 27 June 1985 D Decree 91-018/PR/MPAM of 10 Feb- .. . . . ........ ~ruary 1991 creating- a Directorate of prohibiting illegal oil discharge b y c t ships under Djiboutia* flag outside the Maritime Affairs and establishing the respective competencies of its depart- territorial waters. mns ments. * Ordinance 86-042/PR/PM of 6 May 1986 containing regulations on actions With regars t protiecs signatorv to to be taken in case of abandonment of g CITES, the Convention on International ships. which poses a threat to the envi- CTrad in EndangeSie of Wild ronment within territorial waters. Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Decree 80-62/PRIMCTT I Decree 88-013/PR/PM of 14 February of 25 May 1980 provides for protection of 1988 concerning the organization and the sea bottom and marine fauna. The cap- coordination of actions at sea taken by ture of marine mammals and turtles is ille- the State. gal, as is the trade in or export of these * Law 65/AN/89 2/L of 3 April 1989 animals, the collection of turtle eggs, and banning the import into national terri- spearfishing. tory of toxic, radioactive or polluting Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are industrial wastes or residues. currently restricted to the Territorial Park * Lawz 94/AN/89/1 2/L of 7 November of Musha and the "Integral Reserve of 1989Law pro/An/8g 2/Leren to 7 e N ovbr South Maskali". The Park of Musha was 1989 approving adherence to the four first established by Order 72-1363/SG/CG international conventions regarding the fis esalse-yOde 216/GC international of nventiegr of 20 September 1972, which prohibits the pollution of marine waters. collection of corals and mollusks. Subse- * Decree 89-085/PR/AE of 29 Septem- quently, Decree 80/062/PR/MCTT of 25 ber 1990 providing for the implemen- May 1980 extended the protection to the tation of a Contingency Plan in the Maskali Reserve: this decree was amended event of accidental pollution by oil by Decree 85/103/PR/AG of 28 October spills. 1985 to strengthen the conservation ap- proach applied in these areas. Only ar- Coun1trv Report - Djibouti II tisanal fishinlg of edible species is allowed fight against oil pollution. It consists in these zones. See Table 7. of two Directorates: Table 7: Coastal and Marine Protected Areas in Dibouti_ Protected Area Surface Year Major habitats and Manage- Global Rec- significant species ment ognition Musha Territorial ca 1972 Coral reefs and rich reef Low None Park 10 km2 associated fish and inver- tebrate fauna, mangqroves Integral Reserve ca 1980 Coral reefs and rich reef Low None of South Maskali 3 km2 associated fish and inver- lslands tebrate fauna Sept Freres TBD Proposed Group of 6 rocky islets and None None Islands and Ras cove with mangroves at Siyyan junction of Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, coral reefs and rich reef associated fish and invertebrate fauna, sea bird nestina sites Godoriya TBD Proposed Large-size mangroves, None None Mangrove Avicennia and Rhizophora, rich fauna The following regulations provide for 0 Directorate of the International the protection of the coastal zonie: Autonomous Port of Djibouti: in * Order 86-0717/PR/MCTT of 14 June charge of managing the PAID. 1986 concerning waste from camping 0 Directorate of Maritime Affairs activities on the islands and beaches. (DAM): in charge of prevention ( Ordinance 77-038/PR of 8 October and prohibition of all violations of 1977 requiring registration of all national and international legisla- pleasure boats. tion concerning marine pollution and maritime traffic, as well as - Order 84-0969/PR/PM of 7 July 1984 protection of territorial waters and on the safety of pleasure boating and shores. A Commission on Fauna beach activities. and Flora has also been estab- The following institutions are directly lished under this Directorate. The involved in the use and management of Commission is in charge of marine coastal and marine areas and resources: biodiversity conservation. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and . Ministry of Commerce and Tourism: the Sea: 0 National Office for Tourism, Arts 0 Directorate of Stock-farming and and Crafts (ONTA): in charge of Fisheries (DEP): in charge of pro- protection of sites and the envi- tection of marine fauna and flora ronment. as well as conservation of the sea . Presidency of the Republic: bottom in Djiboutian waters. 0 Institute of Higher Studies, Scien- Ministry of Transport and Equipment. tific and Technical Research This Ministry is responsible for the (ISERST): in charge of conducting management of port affairs, the man- environmental assessment studies agement of the International Autono- and safeguarding sea fauna and the mous Port of Djibouti (PAID). mari- sea bottom. time navigation, safety at sea and the 12 Strategic Action Progranmme for the Red Sea and GCa/fofAden Prime Minister: by the Director of the Maritime 0 Direction de l'Am6nagement du Administration. Territoire et de l Environnement 0 National Council of the Sea: ac- (DATE, Directorate of Land Man- cording to a decree of 5 July, this agement and Environment); in Council is presided by the Prime clharge of elaborating national eni- Minister. vironmental policy and ensuring its implementation. including Threats to the Environment adoptioni of a National Environi- A number of comprehenisive scientific mental Action Pla" (NEAP): also studies of the coastal and marine environ- provides the Secretariat for the Comite technique de l'environnemenit ment are undervay. Although parts of the coasts and territorial waters are still in a enient). largely pristine state, the few studies that ihave been completed show that in several * Interministerial Coordination: areas there are alarming signs of degrada- 0 Commissioni on the Protectioni of tion and threats are increasinig rapidly (Ta- Marine Fauna and the Sea Bottom: ble 8). Anthropogenic pressure is particu- larlv high in the vicinity of the capital. accordiiig to a decree of 5 March 1983, this Commission is presided Table 8: Threats to the Coastal and Marine Environment and Resources Issue Symptoms I Im- Immediate Root Causes Extent Severity Habitat Destruction Coastal devel- Dredging and fill- Urban, industrial Inadequate environ- Localized, Severe opment ing, destruction of and port devel- mental planning, near capital coral reefs opment limited use of environ- area mental assessment Mangrove de- Deterioration of Grazing by cam- Lack of management Most man- Moderate struction mangrove habitat, els, wood collec- and awareness, lack of grove areas, to severe decreased fish tion, enforcement of regula- especially and shrimp tions, lack of alternative those in the catches, reduced fuel, damming of wadis vicinity of capi- water quality ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~tal Damage to Loss of coral habi- Anchor damage, Poor navigational con- Localized, Low to coral reefs tat and decline in ship grounding, trol systems, lack of throughout the moderate reef associated moorings, area, fauna Damage to Coral breakage, Trampling of shal- Lack of management Localized, es- Moderate coral reefs by decline in reef low reef flats, and law enforcement, pecially reefs to severe visitors associated fauna breaking of corals, lack of environmental near Djibouti collecting of ma- awareness Port and rine souvenirs, Musha and anchor damage Maskali areas Living Marine Resources Potential over- Decrease in aver- Fishing efforts Lack of surveillance Localized, es- Severe fishing of game age size beyond MSY, use and enforcement of pecially in fish of spearguns existing regulations capital area, and MPAs Illegal shark Decline in shark Increasing fishing Lack of surveillance Throughout Severe fisheries for stocks, bycatch of effort, use of nets and law enforcement the area foreign shark fin turtles, dolphins in shark fisheries, market, by for- and finfish, dam- high profits eign vessels age to reefs from nets Country Report - Djibouti 13 Issue Symptoms I Jm- Immediate Root Causes Extent Severity pacts Causes ._ _ _ _ Catches of tur- Decrease in nest- Need for subsidi- Lack of public aware- Throughout Severe tles and collec- ing populations ary food supply, ness, lack of alternative the area tion of turtle sales to restau- food sources, lack of eggs rants and sales of enforcement turtle shells to tourists _________ Nawisafion and Maritime Risks Navigation risks Risks of ship colli- Limited naviga- Complex navigational Throughout Moderate sions and ground- tional devices and hazards, heavy mari- the area, par- ing poorly separated time traffic ticularly near traffic the port , Marine vessel Localized marine Discharge from Inadequate on-board Throughout Moderate sewage and beach pollu- ships treatment, lack of port the area tion reception facilities Ship discharge Solid waste on Discharge of solid Inadequate disposal Throughout Moderate of solid waste shoreline, in man- waste from ships facilities, inadequate the area grove areas and surveillance and en- coral reefs forcement, lack of port reception facilities Petro-le'um, Development and Transport Small oil spills Beach contamina- Discharge of bal- Lack of reception facili- Localized, Moderate (< 20 mt) tion, damage to last and bilge wa- ties at the port, inade- throughout the coastal and ma- ter, discharge of quate control, lack of area rine biota waste oil, bunker enforcement Medium oil Beach contamina- Discharges from Inadequate control and Localized, Moderate spills tion, damage to terminals, small monitoring of proce- throughout the to Severe (20-100 mt) coastal and ma- accidents at sea dures, equipment and area rine biota personnel, inadequate training Potential large Destruction of Rupture of oil Insufficient tanker Localized, Severe oil spills and coastal and ma- tanks in collision safety specifications, throughout the disasters rine habitats and or wreckage poor navigation aids area (> 100 mt) biota, devastation of beaches Urban Development n_ __ Surface and Excessive exploi- Excessive pump- Allocation of water re- Localized, Moderate groundwater tation of surface ing of groundwa- sources with inade- capital area to severe use and groundwater ter quate concern for water for municipal use, conservation, inade- saltwater intrusion quate maintenance of into coastal aqui- distribution systems fers Discharge of Groundwater im- Lack of sewage Inadequate pollution Localized, Severe untreated or pacts, eutrophica- treatment plants, control regulations, capital area insufficiently tion and alteration lack of mainte- monitoring and en- treated sewage of marine envi- nance of existing forcement ronment, threats plants to public health ____ Disposal of Damage to Improper garbage Lack of adequate Localized, Low to solid waste coastal and ma- disposal waste disposal regula- capital area moderate rine life, deteriora- tions and enforcement, tion of aesthetics lack of a waste man- agement system, in- adequate public awareness Surface and Excessive exploi- Excessive pump- Poor regulation of wa- Localized, in- Low to groundwater tation of surface ing, inadequate ter resource exploita- dustrial areas moderate use and groundwater concern for water tion conservation Disposal of Soil and ground- Improper disposal Lack of proper oil dis- Localized Low waste oil water pollution of used motor oil posal and recovery options, lack of effec- tive regulations and enforcement 14 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gtilf ofAden HABITAT DEGRADATION AND lection of corals and reef associated inver- DESTRUCTION tebrates and the use of spear guns, al- Habitat destruction as a result of coastal though illegal, continue on a large scale. development remains rather localized. Signs of reef degradation in the Bab-al- Manidab have also been reported. which concentrated in the capital area. The con- 'bly be reported . shiip struction and expansion of the port instal- may possi lations resulted in severe pressure on coral traffic (see also commenits in Sheppard and reefs. Wells, 1988). Kinner (1987) visited Mangroves are deteriorating rap- , BR- \ ID 30699 idly along much of the coast of Dji- ERITREA \ bouti, resulting in reduced water qual- X ...'. ity and a decline in fish and shrimp . X'R/sSiyan catches. In the absence of alternative K .ri * iAngGr affordable energy sources, mangrove 2 wood is used as fuel. Mangrove foli- age is also collected by animal breed- *Dorra Gdoriyro ers to be used as forage. As a result of DJI BOUT I several years of drought, an increas- /, ing number of nomads together with their camels moved into the coastal i anda zone. In some areas, the camels are browsing heavily on mangroves. West of the capital, where there used to be K Asmi 40us0 n/M ai very extensive mangroves, some A0 5 3GarMaon stands have been completely de- 7 i stroved and the remaining ones are 6 *Aria 9 severely threatened. In this area man- M and Coastal grove destruction must be considered . lLittoral Communities: a priority issue. Of eight mangrove I lDegraded areas investigated in a recent study, 3 2 PartGoly dteelectdve exploitadon 4. Good state two were classified in good condition; 5Dkhd Good state 6. Unknown two in good condition but locally ex- , 7. Good state, selective exploitation ploited; one as partially degraded; two .9 . Degroded 0 as degraded; and the one at Gaan ETHIOPIA' Mairch 2000 Maan as severely degraded (see Fig- Figure 3. General condition of mangroves along the ure 3 for details). shorelines and on islands Source: Rapport national Environnement, Djibouti 91 Physical damage to coral reefs, resulting in a loss of coral habitat and twenty-three reef areas throughout the decline of reef associated fauna, is very country and assessed their ecological severe near the capital and in the Marine status. He classified nine as satisfactory, Protected Areas of Musha and Maskali. all in the western part of the country, three Reefs in other areas are affected to a lesser as medium, four as bad, and eight as disas- extent. Reefs near the port of Djibouti, trous (see Figure 4). In some reef forma- which were once flourishing, are being tions, there are signs of coral die-off with- rapidly degraded from siltation. In popular out obvious reason and this phenomenon recreational areas, such as the reserves of needs urgent investigation. It should be Musha and Maskali and near Khor Am- noted that increased occurrence of Acan- bado, corals are severely damaged by visi- thaster planci is reported to have been ob- tors. Anchor damage is obvious. The col- served in 1992 in some areas. Country Report - Djibouti 15 50km k IBRD030700 nets, damaging coral reefs. The fins are O >. km ~ RED3 SEA cut off, often while the shark is still alive, RED SEA and the carcass is thrown back into the sea. Bycatch, including turtles, dolphins and finfish. are discarded, almost invaria- D J I B O U TI t bly dead. The extent of illegal shark fish- ing activities in Djiboutian waters is not I /2 kniowni. 3, 7 GofAen lIllegal capture of marine turtles and ,. - the collection of turtle eggs is rather , f 4AX1 ZIP widespread. Turtle meat. oil and eggs are - f1 i;;>i 9 5 an important source of subsidiary food i 5 - ~ Djibouti\- a for artisanial fishermeni and the shells are ': 20~ sold to tourists. Cetaceans and dugongs /- tn gMrch 2000 are also present in D.jiboutian waters Principal coral reefs and banks 1. Sept-freres (Robineau and Rose, 1982, 1984) anid are .Z. Frequent anchoring 2 Ras Bir i 3 Ras Duan occasionialiv captured accidentally in Hydrocarbon pollution 4 Ros Ali >- Excessive collection 5 Ghoubbet al -Khorab fishing nets. T$ Aconthasfer planci 6 Ile Maskali 51~ Acanhster p/and7. Ilie Moucha A Heavy sedimentation 8. Binc Dankali NAVIGATION AND MARITIME RISKS 9. Djibouti Reefs (Armbouli, Pingoulr, MWt4ore, Pointe Noire, The extensive coral reef formations at the Salines, Heron) entrance to the port pose problems to 4 . navigation. These navigational hazards Figure 4. Djibouti coral reefs: General status and cominetith heavymatimtaf and locally degraded sites identified in 1989-90 combined with heavy maritime traffic and Source. Rapport national Environnement, Djibouti 91 limited navigational devices result in in- creased risks of ship collisions and OVER-EXPLOITATION OF LIVING MARINE grounding. Marine vessel sewage and RESOURCES ship discharge of solid waste pose addi- tional threats. Because of the limited waste As explained above, fisheries play a minor reception facilities at the port, ships dis- role in Djibouti and the living marine re- pose of their waste offshore. sources are largely under-exploited. Dji- IMPACT OF PETROLEUm DEVELOPMENT bouti is the only country in the Region that ACTR ORT has reliable data on its fish stocks and Maximum Sustainable Yields (MSY), al- There is a constant threat of oil spills along lowing for sound fisheries management. the entire coastline of Djibouti. Oil may Still, there are certain areas near the capital leak from oil terminals and tankers, caus- where over-exploitation does occur. They ing chronic pollution in the intertidal zone. are located near Dorale, Khor Ambado, Considering the prevailing currents and Arta Plage and the islands of Musha. winds, oil pollution may occur in almost Maskali and Waramous. The pressure on any part of the coast, at least at certain these areas is due to a combination of ex- times of the year. Tar balls originating tensive sport fishing and artisanal fishing from passing ships are often found on the activities. These are at the same time the beaches of Djibouti. The port area is par- areas where reef destruction is most severe ticularly threatened by oil spills. A spill of (see above). 20 to 25 metric tons was reported by the Shark resources are being depleted be- port in 1980 and two minor spills of 2 to 3 cause of illegal shark fishing by foreign cubic meters occurred in 1981 and 1985. fishermen for the foreign shark fin market. The Sept Freres islands are at risk because Sharks are caught by hook and line, or of their proximity to major shipping lanes. 16 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gllf of Aden The construction of a refinery is planned at stallations to treat the runoff from the Dorale/Saline-Ouest. If implemented, this household waste dump site in Douda. In project will pose a major threat to the rich Djibouti, these problems are largely re- coastal and marine habitats and biota of stricted to the capital area. the area. A conflict of interest with fisher- ies development in the area would also Recent, Current and Planned arise. Environmental Initiatives IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAI. ACTIVITIES At present the number of enviromnenital Allocation of limited freshwater resources initiatives in Djibouti is rather limited. The with inadequate regard for water coniserva- mllost importanit ones are summarized in tion and water supply systems affects sur- Table 9: face and groundwater reserves. The deep . In 1990 a sub-regional Contingency aquifer supplying water to the city of Dji- Plan for the Gulf of Aden was devel- bouti is being over-exploited, resulting in oped (Anon., 1990). An Oil Spill Re- the intruIsioll of saltwater into coastal aqui- sponse Center, MEMAC. was estab- fers. In an arid zone with constanit short- lished for Djibouti, Yemen and Soma- ages of freshwater, suchi problems are seri- lia. ous. Industrial activities, however limited. are concentrated in the capital area where . In 1992 the Maritime Administration the chronic release of industrial pollutants, issued rules for the management of most of which reach the sea untreated, re- Marine Protected Areas. The exploita- sults in a decline in water quality. Out- tion of reef associated species was dated, inadequate technology and equip- strictly regulated. ment and a lack of enforcement of existing . New fisheries regulations were intro- regulations are the main reasons for this duced in 1994 with a view to ensuring situation. At present, these problems are the sustainable development of this re- localized. source. IMPACT OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT . In 1996 Djibouti became a signatory to (SEWAGE AND HOUSEHOLD WASTE) the Convention on Biological Diver- At present, only one sewage treatment sity. plant is operational; all others are broken . Between 1993 and 1996, UNDP con- down. The discharge of untreated or insuf- ducted a series of seminars on envi- ficientlv treated sewage from households, ronmental management and sustain- industry, slaughterhouses and hospitals re- able development. sults in chronic pollution. Constant pollu- tion is also caused bv discharge from coBetwe ajn 199, wthe DEP rainwater collectors, effluents from the completed a joint project with GTZ to poinwater plant and cole einustr pumping assess fishing resources and determine povver plant and oil Industry, and pumping utial rdcinlvl nDi of sewage from septic tanks directly into sustainable production levels in Dji- the sea. These activities create risks for bouti. water resources, alter the marine environ- . In September 1996, the DATE elabo- ment and pose a serious threat to human rated the National Environmental Ac- health. Solid waste is dumped on the tion Plan. shore, causing damage to coastal and ma- . In 1997-1998 the GFM will formulate rine life and deteriorating aesthetics. The a .'in9-8 theGMill formulate main cause is a lack of efficient waste col- a National Biodiversity Strategy. lection and disposal systems. A general . The Ministry of National Education is lack of public awareness is compounding expected to introduce a component for the problem. In addition, there are no in- "Environmental education and Country Report - Djiboutti 17 Table 9: Recent, Current and Planned Environmental Initiatives, Programmes and Projects Programme I Project Period Budget (in Implementing USD'OOO) Agencv Sub-regional Contingency Plan for the 1990 DAM Gulf of Aden Establishment of a sub-regional oil spill 1990 702 DAM response mutual aid centre for Djibouti, Yemen and Somalia Development of regulations on Marine 1992 20 MAH, FAO and GTZ Protected Areas Development of regulations on the ex- 1992 20 MAH, FAQ and GTZ ploitation of reef associated species Development of regulations on fisheries 1994 MAH activities Accession to Convention on Biological 1996 MAH Diversity Seminar on environmental management 1993-1996 20 UNDP and sustainable development Project for the evaluation of isheries 1993-1996 200 MAH and GTZ resourcesavnd exploitable x~lds National Environmental Action Plan 1997 442 DATE and UNDP Environmental education and aware- 1997 MEN ness raisina National Bioloqical Diversity Strateg 1997-1998 560 GFM awareness" in primary and secondary included in the UNESCO Programme school curricula. A public awareness on Man and the Biosphere. was conducted in 1997 and an envi- A N A National Integrated Coastal Zone ronmental education manual will be Management Plan is urgently needed. produced. Institutions involved in the manage- ment of coastal and marine resources and law enforcement entities need The priority actions identified for Djibouti strengthening. are summarized below (see Table 10): - It is recommended to launch an initia- = It is recommended to develop a na- tive to rehabilitate damaged coral reefs tional maritime law, revise existing and mangroves. Monitoring, protection legislation and strengthen mechanisms and management programmes should to enforce applicable regulations relat- be developed for these habitats. ing to the management of coastal and A regulatory framework and a pro- muarine areas and resources.v marine areasandesourcgramme for visitors to coral reef areas A management programme should be should be developed, including guide- developed for the existing Marine Pro- lines and moorings for boats. tected Areas (Parc Territorial de * A comprehensive fisheries manage- Musha, Reserve Integrale de Maskali- ment plan should be developed and Sud). A feasibility study for the estab- should also consider darketing issues lishment and management of addi- tional MPAs should be conducted. * A turtle protection and management These additional protected areas might programme should be developed and include the Sept Fr&res Islands. Ras implemented. Bir and the mangrove of Godoriya. . A stock assessment of the reef fish The Sept Freres Archipelago should be population should be made and a man- 18 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden agement programme developed and (including training of the contracting implemented for collection of orna- parties' staff, together with drills). mental fish. * A feasibility study should be under- * A programme for development of the taken for development of port recep- fishing community should be initiated, tion facilities. including a poverty alleviation pro- i a Installations for collection and treat- grarnme. ment of wastewaters should be ur- * A review should be made of current gently upgraded. navigation clharts, hlydrographic re- navigatio charts hydrograpSolid waste managemenit and disposal surveys should be undertaken and up- in coastal areas should be upgraded. dated charts prepared for key areas i along shipping routes and in the vicinl- * Establishmelint of a marine biology de- ity of key ports. partment and training of Djiboutian personnel in marine biology are rec- . Improvements should be made to strengthen monitoring of vessels pass- ommended. ing through the territorial waters of * An environmenital database containinig Djibouti, communicationi with vessels information on living resources should and maritime communication systems, be established and a risk assessment in particular at Bab-al-Mandab. on major pollutants threatening Dji- * A regional response plan to fight oil boutian marine ecosystems should be pollution in the Gulf of Aden should conducted. be developed; the sub-regional anti- pollution center should be reactivated Table 10: Priority Actions Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Legislation Development of national maritime National Legal framework ** law and revision of related laws Environmental Strengthened enforcement of legisla- National Capacity building ... management tion related to management of Technical development coastal and marine areas Environmental Development and implementation of Local Legal framework ... management management plan for Marine Pro- Management information tected Areas (Parc Territorial de Management programme Musha, Reserve Integrale de Maskali-Sud) Environmental Feasibility study for conservation and National Legal framework *^ management management of additional Marine Local Management information Protected Areas (including lies des Technical development Sept Freres, Ras Bir, Mangrove de Godoriya) Environmental Preparation and implementation of a National Legal framework ** management Coastal Zone Management Plan, Capacity building mangrove management plan and Planning framework coral reef management plan Habitat Rehabilitation of coral reefs from National Legal framework conservation damage by visitors Local Management information Management programme Public awareness Habitat Rehabilitation of mangroves from National Legal framework ** conservation damages caused by landfilling and Local Management information camel grazing; identification of alter- Management programme native sources of fuel Country Report - Djibouiti 19 Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Tourism Development of a framework and National Legal framework management programme for visitors to coral reef Local Management programme areas, including guidelines for boats Technical development and moorings Public awareness Living marine Development and implementation of National Management information ** resources fisheries production and marketing Production programme plan, based on results of recent stock assessments Living marine Development and implementation of National Enforcement ** resources turtle protection and management Local Management information programme Management programme Public awareness Living marine Stock assessment of reef fish popu- Local Legal framework * resources lation, development and implementa- Management information tion of management programme for Management programme collection of ornamental fish Community Development and implementation of National Feasibility studies development poverty alleviation programmes in Local Technical assistance fishing communities, including provi- Technical development sion of basic fishing gear Navigation risk Review of current navigation charts, Regional Capacity building ** conduct of hydrographic re-surveys National Technical development and preparation of updated charts for Local Management information key areas along shipping routes and in vicinity of key ports Navigation risk Improved navigational aids and radio National Capacity building communication, especially along ma- Local Technical development jor shipping lanes Petroleum Revision and implementation of Oil National Capacity building ** development and Spill Response Contingency Plan in Local Technical development transport the framework of the Marine Emer- gency Mutual Aid Center (MEMAC) in Djibouti Industrial Preparation of feasibility study and Local Feasibility study ** development development of port reception facili- Capacity building ties Technical development Urban Upgrading of wastewater collection Local Feasibility studies development and treatment in coastal areas, es- Capacity building pecially Djibouti town Technical development- Urban Upgrading of solid waste manage- Local Feasibility studies development ment and disposal in coastal areas, Capacity building especially in the vicinity of Djibouti Technical development town Institutional Establishment of a marine biology National Capacity building strengthening department and training of marine Technical development biologists and marine ecologists Applied research Development of database for biologi- National Management information cal resources and environmental in- formation; establishment of a moni- toring programme to support opera- tions and enforcement activities * important / ** very important / *** = extremely important 20 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gidf ofAden References FAO. 1984. Developpemzent du Secteur des Abb&s, R. 1989. Rapport de nmission eni Peches, Djibouti. Rapport de Mission. Republique de Djibouti (10-24 fevrier FI:TCP/DJI/2304. Rome. 41 pp. 1989). FAO document de travail, FAO. 1994. Fishery statistics. Catches and FI:TCP/DJI/7851(A). Rome. 18 pp. Landings. Vol. 78. Rome. 700 pp. Anon. 1981. The small pelagic and demer- Kinner, B. 1987. Presentation du Go/fe de sal fish resources of the north-wvest Tadjoutra et localisation gaio- Arabian Sea-surveys 19175-1976. lnsti- graphique de qluelques formations tute of Marine Research. Bergen. 55 coralliennes. ISERST. Djibouti. 8 pp. PP. Kiinzel T.. A. Darar and J.M. Vakily. Anoni. 1988. Plan cl 'urgence souis-regional 1996. C0omiposition, Biomnasses et Pos- pour le gol4fr d'Aden. Djibouti. 49 pp., sibilites d'Exploitation des Ressources 1O aniexes. Halieutiques Djiboutienniies. Minist&re Barratt L. anid P. Medley. 1988. Report of de lAgriculture et de I'Hydraulique et .irritttL. an P. Medlet. 1988.lRepr qf Deutsche Geselischaft fur Techniscihe Mission to DjiboutiAssessmentftheZusammenarbeit. Djibouti. 2 volumes. Aqquarium Reef-Fishery in Djibouti (3 November - 12 December 1987). FAO Laughton, A.S., R.B. Whitmarshi, and M.T. FI:TCP/DJI/6755 (A). Rome. 114 pp. Jones. 1970. The evolution of the Gulf Beurier J.P. 1992. Textes re,glementant of Aden. Philosophical Transactions Beurie , J.P.19.Txe egeet of the Royal Societ., of London (A) I exploitation des poissons recifaux. 267: 227-266. FAO. TCP/DJI/0052- 1992. Bjoerklund, I. and G. Walter-Dehnert. Robineau, D., and J.-M. Rose. 1982. "Le 1983. Baseline Socio-Economic and dugong (Dugong dugong [Muller 1983 o 7 r . . . 1776] Sirenia, Dugongidae) en Repub- Marketing Study, ofArtisanal Fisheries _ Marketing Rpublic of Artisanai Fisheries lique de Djibouti." Biological Conser- in the Repuiblic of Djibouti. FAO, vation 24: 233-23 8. GCP/DJI/001/USA. Rome. 11 pp. Robineau, D. and J.-M. Rose. 1984. "Les BoalhesM 1986.s Iomnventiairedes princi- cetaces de Djibouti. Bilan des connais- pales. epcscm rcaies3iDisances actuelles sur la faune c6ta- logique de la mer Rouge et du golfe Boulhel, M. 1988. Poissons de Djibouti. d'Aden." Bulletin du Museum national RDA, International. Placerville. 417 d'Histoire naturelle (4) 6, A 1: PP. 219-249. CNE. 1991. Rapport National Environne- Sanders, M.J. and G.R. Morgan. 1989. Re- mnent, Djibouti 91. 105 pp. view of the Fisheries Resources of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. FAO Fish- Darar, A. 1994. ~An account of fisheries eries Technical Paper 304. Rome. 138 development in the Republic of Dji- er. bouti with notes on the growth and mortality of three species of groupers." Sheppard, C.R.C. and S. Wells. 1988. Di- Naga. the IC'LARM Quarterly 1994/2: rectory of Coral Reefs of International 30-32. Importance. Vol. 2: Indian Ocean Re- Edwards, F.J. 1987. "Climate and Ocean- gion. IUCN, Gland and UNEP, Nai- ography." In: Key Environments: Red robi. 389 pp. Sea. Edwards, J.A. and S.M. Head. Wilkinson, C.R., ed. 1998. Status of Coral (eds). Pergamon Press. Oxford: 45-69. Reefs of the World: 1998. Australian Colwiiti- Report - Djiboiuti 21 Institute of Marine Science. Towns- ville, Queensland. 184pp. Wilkinson, C.R. 2000. Status of Coral Reefs o/the World& 2000. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and Austra- lian Institute of Marine Science. Townsville, Queensland. 363 p. Acknowledgments The authors wishl to express their gratitude to the following persons for extendinig their efficient help in support of the preparation of this report: the Commissioners of the Republic for the Districts of Tadjoura and Obock; Mr. Assowe Ahmned, Director, Sept Freres Islands Diving Center: Dr. Nabil M. Ahmed. Head of the Department of Bioscience at ISERST; Mr. Taoufik Ben Amara. UNDP Resident Representative; Mrs. Fawzia A. El Hag. UNDP Programme Administrator; Mrs. Souad 1. Farah, Head of the Control and Market Service at EPH; Mr. Stephane Gallet, Operations Engineer. Directorate of Public Works; Mr. Ali Hassan, UNDP Programme Administrator. M. Abdoulkarim Houssein, Head of the PAID Commercial Department; Dr. Ibrahim Houssein, Head of Geochemistry Department at ISERST; Mr. Mohamed Houssein, Director of ONTA; Mr. Anis A. Karma, Director of ISERST; Mr. Thomas Kuinzel, Project Manager, GTZ; Mr. C1lm Mohamed, Port Commander; Mr. Mohamed A. Moumin, DATE; Mr. Ahmed 0. Omar, Director of Maritime Affairs; Mr. Hassan 1. Oubeche, Technical Counsellor to the Minister of Transportation and Tourism: Mr. Uwe Zajonz, Senckenberg Research Institute. Frankfurt. Germany. This document was prepared by: Guedda Mohamed Ahmed, Socio- economist, ISERST. National Coordinator. Ahmed Darar Djibril, Ichthyobiologist, Fisheries Services. Friedhelm Krupp, Marine Biologist, UNDP/SAP Chief Technical Consultant. Country Report Arab Republic of Egypt Introduction member states. the Islamic Development Bank. the United Nations Development The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden represent a Programme (UNDP), the United Nations complex and unique tropical marine eco- P system with extraordinary biological di- Environment Programme (UNEP), and the versity and a remarkably high degree of World Bank. Financial support has been vers.ty a .id a remarkably high degreeof provided by the countries of the Region, enidemism. This narrow band of water the Global Environment Facility (GEF) shared by a number of coastal states is also and selected donor organizations. The GEF an important shipping lane linking the has approved support for implementation world's major oceans. While large parts of Of the SAP which will be complemented the Region are still in a pristine state. envi- by funding. from a viete ofpintentin ronmental threats-notably from habitat and domestic resources. destruction, over-exploitation and pollu- tion-are increasing rapidly, requiring The present country report provides immediate action to protect the Region's background information to the SAP proc- coastal and marine environment. To this ess at the national level. It is based on in- end, a Strategic Action Programme (SAP) formation from publications and reports, has been prepared through a continuous, listed at the end of this document. and a consultative and cooperative process rapid assessment survey by the authors of among the coastal states, coordinated by this report. the Regional Organization for the Conser- vation of the Environment of the Red Sea Background and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA). Egypt is a large country with a relatively The SAP is a programmatic approach long portion of Red Sea coastline (about to the development of country based re- 1,800 kilometers, see Map of Egypt at end gional environmental projects, providing of volume). The estimated annual popula- and benefiting from linkages with ongoing tion growth rate is about 2.3 percent, regional seas initiatives and major interna- which means that the population will dou- tional waters projects. This will assure a ble in about 32 years (DANIDA, 1995). concerted approach to transboundary prob- Population growth is propelling the Egyp- lems, and the realization of regional and tian government to take measures to re- global benefits. The SAP has been pre- duce pressures on the country's limited pared by a Task Force including PERSGA natural resources. 23 24 Strategic .4ction Programme for the Red Sea and GulfofAden The Red Sea has a surface area of where the depth is more than 2.000 meters, about 44.000 square kilometers. It extends water temperatures can reach up to 600C. southeast-northwest between 12'N, 43°E Salinity is greater than 300 parts per thou- and 30°N and 32°E. It. Near latitude 28°N sand, and the water is rich in trace metals. the Red Sea branches to form two gulfs, Twenty hot brines have been discovered to the shallow Gulf of Suez and the deep Gulf date, ten of whiclh face the Egyptian coast- of Aqaba. The Gulf of Suez extends about line. 255 kilometers with a width of 17-45 kilometers and a maximum depth of about iti 83 meters (Admiralty Charts, 1985). The part of the Red Sea ranges between 6°C to bottoi-n~~~~~~ i.opilg fteGIfO uzi 39'C in thie northi anid between ]3.5°C to bottom morphology of the Gulf of Suez Is 42 na h uaes odr(ocs smooth in general, soft sediments liave re- 42C near the Sudanese border (Morcos, stricted development of coral reef in al- 1970). The northern part of the Red Sea mnost all thle GuIlf. The Gulf of Aqaba by' receives about 25 millimneters of rain per a ' ~year during the six monthas between Sep- contrast is shorter (200 kilometers) but temr and the ret ofth much deeper, reaching about 1,850 meters tember and March, while the rest of the in the cenitral basin (Friedmani. 1985). Its coast is virtually rainiless, receiving an oc- widtlrangsfo 25 km'ts in t casional shower of a few millimeters every width ranges from 25 kilometers in the south to 16 kilometers in the northern several years. Such low rainfall is accom- panied bv low humlditv for m-ost of the parts. On almost the entire coastline of this i b gulf, the coastal fringing reef grows luxu- year, except for periods in winter when it guf th cosa frnigre.rw uu reaches about 70 percent in the south. riously, varying in width from 10 to 100 meters depending on the slope gradients at Given the very high evaporation rates the shelf edge. (200 centimeters per year in the Gulf of Aqaba and 235 centimeters per vear in the Theai Egyptia cast of .te Gulfiof south) and the lack of freshwater input, the Aqabcorais forlowed maiy of uplifedy fosl- Red Sea could be considered the most sa- ized corals followed by a sandy area vary- ln ae oyi ietcnatwt ing in widthi and surrounded in most cases bv mountains. In contrast, the Gulf of Suez world oceans. Salinity ranges from 38 parts per thousand to 42 parts per thousand coast iS maiiily sandy, interrupted In cer- fo ot onrh n ecisaot4 tain areas by small rocky formations. The from south to north, and reaches about 43 parts per thousand in the Gulf of Suez due rest of the Egyptian coast of the Red Sea Is to high evaporation rates and the extensive similar to that of the Gulf of Aqaba. It runs parallel to the chain of mountains from salt layersbelowthe bottom. Suez in the north to Halaib in the south. The tide range on the Egyptian coast- The Egyptian Red Sea coastline frequently line varies between 0.6 meters near the protrudes in the form of rocky headlands mouth of the Gulf of Suez to about 0.9 me- referred to along the whole region as Ras. ters in the south (Edwards, 1987). The The coastline and outlying fringing reefs mean sea water level amplitudes are are incised at irregular intervals by creeks greater in the northern Red Sea than the (drowned stream valleys) known as south, reaching about 12 centimeters at Sharms. Suez during winter months (Morcos, The greatest developed corals on the 1970). Detailed descriptions of Red Sea currents have proven to be difficult (Ed- Egyptian Red Sea coast occur at the tip of wards 197) butvin ge te fundamen- Sina pennsua atRas ohamed,and wards, 1987), but in general the fundamen- Sinai peninsula at Ras Mohammed, and tal movements follow the winds, such that between Ghardaqah and Safaga. The deep betweeno Ghardaqah Maindafaga T heug t d the northerly wind in summer drives sur- water of the Main Trough (about 1,000 meters) extends right up tothesoutface water south for about four months at a meters) extends right up to the southern tip vlctmf1-0cnieesprscn of the Sinai peninsula and continues to the velocity of 12-50 centimeters per second south to 5N. In the Hot Brines Region,wter the flow Is reversed, push- Cowan Report - Eet 25 ing water into the Red Sea from the Gulf The population inhabiting the coastal of Aden. area of the Egyptian Red Sea is concen- Tlle situation at the Suez Canal is dif- trated in a niumber of cities on the coastline Thrent, situation athanal isnnects dim- and a few scattered villages in between ferent, since the canal connects two com-.. pletelv different water bodies (Red Sea and these cities. In the past most of the inhabi- Mediterranean Sea).Duringmosof the tants of the Red Sea coast were originally Mediterraniean Sea). During most oftofrbe knwts bbd ndBs year, the water current flows from the Red Sea into the Mediterranean through the ca- haria). while the rest of the population be- * ~~~~~~~loi,ged to thie upper Ecrypt emiarants who nal wvhereas during August and September,. lyt rat Mediterranean- water reaches the Red Sea moved there via the few roads connecting Medierraieai watr raclis th RedSea the coast withi the Nile valley. as a surface current. The saliniity in tile ca- nal results less from the gradual mixing of Fishing and sea trading were histori- wvater from both seas thani from the effects cally the two major activities in the area. of the Nile water inflow into canal lakes Sinice exploitation of new resources and and the high evaporation rates in the - 3 IBRD 30703 Bitter Lakes (Solimani anid Morcos, M2l`Sra . 1 990). .- :. ISRAEL ~ The Egyptian Red Sea coast in >- .. - I JORDAN general has very limited freshwater resources due to its geographiical o&Uz-. location in the arid sub-tropical re- E64 EtAqab5 -/ gion. Groundwater resources along - .. the coast depend mainly on rainfall in certain areas (20-160 millimeters RAlMiy RGharib 2T t T per year). Such areas are character- -28 ized by coastal palm groves (Fouda. - SAUDI ARABIA 1992). Many of the flat coastal - ..- plains receive water through wadis during the rainy season in summer 26- but a considerable amount of this ARAB REP water goes to the sea and the rest is OF EGYPT stored underground. On the north- ern part of the Egyptian Red Sea .- coast at the Gulf of Aqaba, most of 24a . . Aswcn Ba 24t the population depends on desalina- tion plants (UNEP. 1985). Nasser The coastline of the Egyptian - km -7 Red Sea extends about 1,805 kilo- 2 ° -1. meters. The longest part of the coast S U D A N 36' belongs to the Red Sea Governorate R N (about 1,080 kilometers) and the I DAGAHIL!YA 9 SHARGYAH 2 REHE)RA '0 PORT SAJD smallest to the Suez Governorate 3 GHARBIYA II DAMETTA 4 SUEZ .2 AL ALA)-, (220 kilometers). The South Sinai s ISMAIA 6 ALNFAYOOM Governorate includes about 225 7 ACA)O t5 AL MINYA . BNSI kilometers on the Gulf of Aqaba and 280 kilometers on the Gulf of Figure 1. Map showing the Egyptian coast of the Red Sea and the boundaries of the different Governorates Suez. The map in Figure I shows the Egyptian coast of the Red Sea and the activities such as oil, ports and tourism be- boundaries of the different Governorates. gan in the early 1960s, many new settle- 26 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden ments have appeared on the coast. There percent and 7.5 percent. The main eco- now exist more than tventy-five urban nomic sectors are agriculture (20 percent centers scattered along the coast; they vary of GDP); indus-try (28 percent); trade, fi- from a small town with limited harbor fa- nance and insurance (35 percent). cilities to very sophisticated areas such as The population is growing at the rate Aqaba, Suez, Ghardaqah and Sharm El of 2.4 percent per year (DANIDA, 1995). Sheikh. Most of these urban centers are Projected population by the year 2025 connected via a road network along the Projec populato by the yerE02 coast and have adequate accessibility to r988)o the interior. In addition to land travel, Egypt relies on sea transport to connect it Relevant economic activities include: witil adjacent countries (for example Jed- . Agriculture (restricted to Suez Canal dah-Suez). There are several airports, region) some of whiichi provide international travel in support of the tourist industry (for ex- * Industry (also along Suez Canal. Gulf ample Sharm El Sheikh, Ghardaqah and of Suez where oil is the main source, the proposed Marsas-Alam). phosphate mining in Safaga and El The level of industrialization in most Hamrawan). of the coastal area is relatively low (with . Fisheries/aquaculture (Suez, Sharm El specialized facilities that include an oil re- Sheikh and Ghardaqah and Shalateen). finery at Suez, fishing, phosphate mining e Tourism/recreation (Gulf of Aqaba, at Safaga, etc.). Thus the coastal region is Am Sukhna, Ghardaqah. and Safaga). a focal point of development and construc- tion for commer- cial, fishing and Table 1: Population and Settlements on Egyptian Red Sea Coast recreation activi- Governorate City Population Major Activities ties. If growth con- South Sinai Nuweiba 15,000 Port, Tourism tinues, the popus Dahab 10,000 Tourism tirues. the popu- Sharm El Sheikh 20,000 Tourism, Port, Fishing lation of the ur- El Tur 30,800 Tourism, Port, Fishing ban centers is ex- Abu Rudees 7,000 Oil Fields pected to double Total of South Sinai Govemorate 82 800 approximately Suez Ras Sudr 5,000 Tourism every I 0 years, Suez 440,000 Port, Fishing Industry and with it the Sukhna 500 Tourism problem of urban Zaafrana 1,200 Tourism waste disposal Total of Suez Govemorate 446,700 will grow as well. Red Sea Ras Ghareb 5,300 Oil Fields Industry Table I summa- Ghardagah 46,050 Oil , Fishing Tourism Port rizes the popula- Safaga 1 MnP,s tion and settle- El Quseir 22,000 Fishina, Minina, trade ment data of the Marsa Alam Egyptian Red Sea Abu Ghsoon Shalateen 1,000 fishing cameltrade coast. Total of Red Sea Govemorate 89,050 As of 1995, Grand Total 618,550 Egypt's GDP was Source: Govemorate information centers about USD29 bil- lion or about 98 billion LE. It had a total population of 59 million, with a GDP per capita of 1500 LE. The growth rate of GDP was between 6 CoutrIt7'1 Report - Etpt 7 Coastal and Marine Resources are always present. The algal lawns in some reefs have standing stocks of ap- The marine resources of the Egyptian Red rome 25 gamest dry weight ape Sea coast can be classified under three sec- prexmately 25 a droduct it p tors-livino resources, non-living re- square meter, with a production rate of up LI to 20 grams dry weight per square meter sources and human activity. The following per day. These rates are highily affected by section summarizes the various types of both temperature and depth. Seaweed is an resources foulid along thie Egyptian coast of thle Red Sea. important source of food for many manne organisms: recently many species have LIVIN(, RESOU.RCES been proven to have a pharmaceutical C oral Ree'ft value as well (BhakuLni, 1990, Salah El- Din. 1994). The coastal fringing reef protects coastal Mangroves areas against wave action and storms, helps to prevent erosion and contributes to The mangroves on1 the Egyptian coast of the formation of sandy beaches and shel- the Red Sea are represented by two species tered harbors. The distribution and devel- Avicennia marina and Rhizophor^a 7inucro- opment of reef building corals are re- nata. The forner is the most common. stricted by several parameters. in particular while the second species is only recorded water temperature, sediment load. salinity, near the Egyptian-Sudanese boarder (Kas- and light intensity. Such factors combined sas and Zahran, 1967, Zahran, 1977). In make the Gulf of Aqaba more suitable general the mangroves of the Red Sea re- habitat than the Gulf of Suez for coral reef ceive less attention than any other habitat growth (Ormond and others, 1984). despite the fact that they represent the northernmost limits for mangroves in the LSealgrasses Iido-Pacific area (280 N). Although seagrass distribution on the The productivity of the Red Sea man- Egyptian Red Sea coast has not been groves is generally low, although few mapped there have been some studies (Den quantitative studies have been attempted Hartog, 1970: Lipkin, 1975-77; Aleem, (Por, 1975: Dor and Levy, 1984, Crossland 1979). The size of the seagrass bed in- anid others, 1987). Gross productivity of creases southward along the coast, which the poorly developed stands in the North- is attributed principally to the wider and ern Red Sea is probably less than 1 kilo- shallower shelf, as well as the greater gram carbon per square meter per year, prevalence of unconsolidated sediment. while in the southern areas of the Egyptian Seaweed coast it may be at or below 5 kilograms carbon per square meter per year (Ormond Several areas with hard substrate are adohr,18,Sepr n tes dominated not by corals but by macroalgae and others, 1986; Sheppard and others. (seaweed). This may also occur in areas of 1992). shallow corals. forming what is known as Fishes an "algal lawn" comprised mainly of small The distribution of fishes in the Red Sea is green and brown or red algae. The sea- niot homogeneous; many species are found weed in the Red Sea shows a strong sea- oniv in the north and central part including sonal pattem of growth, but given the large numerous endemic ones, particularly number of species recorded (500 species, amons dotbc raes andcdaml- Papenfaus, 186) a considrable numbe amongst dottybacks, wrasses and damsel- Papenfaus. 1986) a considerable number fishes (Sheppard and others, 1992). At pre- sent most of the Egyptian Red Sea coast is I For updated descriptions and impacts to the coral reefs probably under-fished, a function more of and associated habitats for Ernpt. refer to Wilkinson. 2000. low human population density and poor pp 35-54. 28 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden communications than deliberate conserva- side of Sinai and the large area at Wadi tion. Kid in the Gulf of Aqaba which extends Other Animials about 15 kilometers. In the south there are a few scattered mud flats especially at the The Egyptian Red Sea coast is occupied by openings of large Wadis such as Wadi El a large and diverse number of marine ani- Jimal. These mud flats provide shelter, mals that share resources and space, al- feeding and breeding grounds for many thouglh their harmony may be affected by species., such as crustaceans. which in turn human initerference during exploration of serve as food for birds. the coastal plains. The marine mammals in the Red Sea include two main classes: the dugong. whiclh occurs in rather low densi- Inity and temperature. low oxygen con- tent, and fine particle soft bottorm are geni- ties throughout the area, and the cetaceans. tenand fo ie partacl sofabttm are. gen Ote mrn maml rc rddfoth erally found in bay and sharm areas. They Otlner marinie mammals recorded from the ca baslresahudd ntrsSci Red Sea include the Killer whiale. False can be as large as a hundred meters. Such pools are considered a nursery for fish fry. Kliller whiale, Risso s dolphin, Plumbeous lihetrdungigitdeadspidte ,,, . , ,,, . ~~~~~which enter during highl tide and spend the dolphin, Spotted dolphin, Bottle-nosed low tide feeding on plankton. dolphin and Rough toothed dolphin. Salt marshes are commonlv found in Marine turtles are prominent among lo-yn arsnertehr,wee Red Sea fauna; all four pan-tropical spe- slwatris closneat the surfe These cies have been recorded from the area saltwater is close to the surface. These cieshavebeenrecrdedfromthe rea marshes are dominated by three or four (Frazier and others, 1987). They include the hawksbill turtle, green turtle, Leather- plant species (for example Halocnemoni back turtle and Loggerhead turtle (Frazier strabilace 'ni, Zygophyll.m albun). Reed and Salas. 1984). The hawksbill turtle is swamps are limited to areas with freshwa- the most common species in Egyptiani wa- ter sources (for example Wadi El Jimal, r . . ~~~~~Ain Mossah). They are dominated by ters followed by the green turtle. The areas on shore where the turtles choose to nest Phragnmites autstralis and Typha donin- are limited to a small number of sites in gensis. Both types of coastal vegetation are used bv migratory as well as resident birds Southi Sinai and a few spots on the south g Red Sea coast. Many turtles are reported to as resting and nesting sites. lay their eggs on offshore islands. NON- LIVING RESOURCES The Red Sea is an important route for This section investigates development the Palearctic bird migration and a winter- trends which, if uncontrolled, may lead to ing ground for shore and water birds. . Among the most commonly seen birds on degradation of marine and coastal biodi- the coast of the Egyptian Red Sea are the versity. The main issues are oil and natural Gulls, Tems, Herons, Osprey and Boobies, gas exploration; and coastal energy devel- who feed in the more productive shore wa- opment. ter and nest in offshore bays and on small Oil and Natural Gas islands. Some of the bird populations are large~~ ~ enug tob*fglblsgnfcne Extraction of oil and natural gas may pose large enough tobeofglobalsignificaa threat to the Red Sea coast. Although but with the increase in human activities Egypt's oil industry is concentrated on on shore breeding populations may be in both sides of the Gulf of Suez, oil explora- danger of disturbance. tion is now moving out into the Red Sea. Wetlands The Egypt General Petroleum Corporation The most common type of wetlands on the ((EGPC) is in the process of leasing major R a i m f blocks of the sea for oil and gas explora- R ed Sea coast are Intertidal m ud riats f the which can be found on the Gulf of Suez t7n foli xrctd e ik o h Countriy Report - Et'p 29 marine environment and new demands for HUMAN ACTIVITIES development sites along the coast will Fishei-ies arise. The poteitially' disastrous impact on Today large population centers have sprung up along the coasts, and the fishing the tourism industry of oil spills from a industrv is alog ito an the yshisi- major leak or accumulationi of small leaks s moving into a more sophisti duringc,operatiois is a thireat to bothi touirist cated phase. raising the need for scientific oro n assessment and management of limited developments and to marine ecosystems. fish stocks (Head. 1987). This issue calls for development of a na- tional Contingenicy Plan bv the Egyptian Total fish production in Egypt Environmenltal Affairs Agency (EEAA) amounts to 407.000 metric tons annually, for the protection of the coastal area from covering 74.1 percent of the country's an- the threats of oil pollution, which wvill be nual consumption. In terms of value, do- discussed in more detail later in this report. mestic fish production contributes 10 per- Disputes over land ownership led the cent of the total agriculture production of Tourism Development Authority (TDA) the country. Of the gross national work and EGPC to negotiate an agreement to force of Egypt. 5 percent are involved in allocate the coastline betweeni the two or- fisheries. ganizations and to establish rigorous re- Sea fisheries contribute 22.4 percent of quirements for environmental assessment I of all projects. ~~~the total annual production. The Red Sea fisheries are the major source of marine Vews Types oqfC'oastcal Energy fish in Egypt. The recorded fish catch of the Red Sea for 1995 was 47,300 metric The only station for use of coastal energy tos Represenin 19 .6 percen o etota on the Egyptiaii Rd Sea is located i tons, representing 11.6 percent of the total on te Ey'ptan ed Sa i loctedj'~ fish production (including aquaculture) Ghardaqah. This station beloings to the filprdcoi(nlungaautre Ghrdqh.ThsstavofElectrcioand b wels to th and 13.7 percent of total fisheries. The sale MII inistry o value of the landed catch in Red Sea ports still n a pilot phase. It is a first attempt to was 161.3 million LE in 1995. use wind power to generate electricity. In a coastal area that is growing as fast as The main fisheries activity in the Ghardaqah such a station would solve Egyptian Red Sea takes place in the Gulf many problems. In the near future this ex- of Suez. In 1995, 24.331 metric tons. rep- perimental station could generate sufficient resenting 51.44 percent of the total fish electricity for desalination, tourism vil- landed by the Egyptian Red Sea fleet, were lages and other activities along the coast. caught in the Gulf of Suez. The catch of the Egyptian Red Sea proper comes next, The other source of coastal energy of with a total landing of 17,806 metric tons. considerable economic importance is the coasal sbkh-evaorat. A ancent These together add up to 42,140 metric coastal sabkha.evaporate. An , , , lltons and 89.09 percent of the landed fish. source of principal salts, the sabkhas of the The rest of the landed crop is recorded Red Sea coasts contain halite, sylvite, Ghardaqthe laibad theport of polyhalites. ypsum, anhydide, dolomit from Ghardaqah, Halaib and the ports of polyhahites. gypsum, anhydnide, dolomite and other carbonates. The production of the Gulf of Aqaba. such salts depends not only' on evaporation Commercial fishes of the Red Sea in- but also on many biological processes by clude 27 species. Out of these, five species microorganisms. The development of such constitute 48.23 percent of the catch, with an energy system along the coast of the a total of 22.79 thousand metric tons annu- Red Sea could be of great benefit to the ally. Crustaceans (shrimp and crabs) country, but very little information is cur- amount to 10,812 metric tons annually, rently' available about this subject, making representing 22.87 percent of the total this source of energy almost invisible. landing. Major pelagic and demersal fish 30 Strategic .4ction Programme for the Red Se aand Gulf of clen represent 23.84 percent and 24.05 percent Iine units of the Gulf of Suez represent of the landed fish respectively. 70.4 percent of the total number of hook Statistics for the total fish catch of the and liners in the Red Sea and the motor- Red Sea over the last five vears show a ized group represents 9.92 percent of the sharp increase inl 1993 followed by a grad- total hiorsepower of the Red Sea fleet. The ual drop in 1994 and 1995 (Table 2). The rest of the units are registered in Ghar- recorded peak in 1993 is known to liave daqah (162), El Quseir (107) and Dahab been the result of a dramatic increase in ) the catch of Inidiain mackerel, mackerel and Trawlers are second in number (234 sardine that took place that year. vessels) and are mostly equipped with en- Table 2: Variations in Red Sea Fish Catch gines witlh a minimum horsepower of 150 1991-1995 and a maximum of 1500. The majoritv of Year Catch in metric tons trawlers (69 percent) are equipped witlh 1991 41,935 400-600 horsepower engines and 10.3 per- 1992 43,349 cent have more than 1 000 horsepower. To- 1993 50,900 tal horsepower of the registered trawlers is 1994 48,342 1117.730, representing 73.8 percent of the 1995 47,257 total horse power of the Red Sea fleet. All Source: GAFRD informnation center the Red Sea trawlers are registered in Fish production activities of Egypt in- Suez, but only 78 are allowed to fish in the cluding those of the Red Sea are regulated Gulf of Suez and the rest in the southern by the General Authority for Fish Re- Red Sea. sources Development (GAFRD) of the Purse seiners are all registered in Suez Ministrv of Agriculture. The fishing fleet exce semessel isterd fo a the~ - except a single vessel in Ghardaqah. fora of the Red Sea consists of 606 motorized total of 83 units. The horsepower of these units and 932 sail and oaring boats. These units ranges from 150 to 800 with 59 per- are registered in six fishing ports in the cent of the units at 300 to 500 horsepower. Gulf of Suez, Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea Th nubr of mtrzd RedSe The total horsepower of purse seiners Is Sea. The number of motorized Red Sea 29,025 representing 18.1 percent of the to- fishing vessels decreased gradually over t the last five years to 76 percent of that re- corded in 1990. The power of the fleet, on Approximately 17,000 people are em- the other hand, has increased over the ployed in the fisheries sector in the area. same period to a total of 160 thousand The majority works in hook and line fish- horsepower (212 percent increase). This eries, followed by trawling and purse sein- was mainly to allow fishing in more dis- ers, with the remainder involved in other tant waters, especially in the southern Red activities. About 79.1 percent of fishermen Sea. are registered in Suez. Ghardaqah comes second, followed by El Quseir, El Tur, Gear used in Red Sea fisheries in- Dhbadohrtws cludes trawling, purse seine, hook and line and gill nets. The hook and line boats are The GAFRD strategy for 1997-2017 the most numerous, with a total of 896 has a targeted increase in fish catch of 70 vessels of which 289 are motorized. The thousand metric tons. It is hoped that this motorized boats are generally equipped goal can be reached assisted by stock sur- with medium to small horse powered en- veys to assess resources using two research gines and more than 63 percent are below vessels supplied through the Japanese for- 50 horsepower. The majority of hook and eign assistance program. Two potentially line boats are registered to work in the serious problems facing countries border- Gulf of Suez, for a total of 631 units, of ing the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are in- which 230 are motorized. The hook and creasing pollution (mainly in the Gulf of Coutntn- Report- Etypt 31 Suez) and degradation or loss of nursery Twenty years ago, the Red Sea coast began areas. Both could cause declines in yield. to attract international attention among Tourism SCUBA divers due to the quality of coral reefs and underwater life. The all-year Tourism, generally concentrated in the pleasant climate, the rich marine environ- coastal areas, plays a major role in Egypt's ment and the proximity to tourism markets economic activities. The main tourist at- of Europe have provided incentives to de- tractions are national parks (for example velop the Red Sea coast for mass tourism. Ras Mohammed). sand beaches at the Market demands studies for the South Si- Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba and the warm nai where facilities have become only re- coastal climate from Ghardaqah southl- cently available, have revealed a dramatic ward. At present tourism is somewhat af- rate of groweth in foreign tourism of 42 fected by marine pollution and occasional percent per year. accidental oil spills such as one in 1982. However, th prm rr efet rfosa The past twenty years have also wit- toueeri , tine primaryticlr inad ten nessed a major shift in the tourism industr' tourism include, 111 partCLIular. inadvert lit coral breakage by divers ( Hawkins and towards private sector development. The Roberts, 996)I other types of habitat Ministry of Tourism had a special interest damage, anid collection of souveiiir spe- in developing the Red Sea coast anid Sinai cies. Secondary effects include a ranige of and declared both as high priority areas for s from hl s ad o r coastal tourism development. At the same Impacts from hotels and other infrastruc- tm h e e oenrt dpe ture needed to support an expanding tourist time the Red Sea Governorate adopted a industrv ( p amaster plan for Ghardaqah that vastly ex- indutIy(Shppad ad oher, 192) tended the uses proposed for tourism. es- After oil and foreign remittances, tour- pecially tourist villages along the coast ism represents Egypt's most important (about 40 kilometers). source of revenue. It has and will continue The South Sinai Governorate had a to be a key' contributor to national income plan for development of coastal cities in- growth. foreign exchange earnings, em- cluding Sharm El Sheikh, Dahab and Nu- ployment generation, regional develop- weiba cities. Development was concen- ment and populatiosn redistributions (TDA, trated on Sharm El Sheikh, where almost 1995). Tourism has been the fastest grow- all the coast has been used for tourist vil- ing sector of the Egyptian economy over the last five years, reaching its peak during lages. the first half of 1992. Between 1985 and Rapid and loosely controlled devel- 1996, the number of international arrivals opment around the towns of Ghardaqah grew on average by 13.2 percent per year, and Sharm El Sheikh has been undertaken from 1.3 million in 1985 to 3.4 million in with minimum land use planning. Land 1996. Over the same period, tourism was subdivided into relatively small, nar- growth throughout the world increased at row-fronted lots and allocated for tourism an average annual rate of 5.9 percent development in an almost continuous belt (TDA, 1996). along the coast. Such continuous develop- The development of the tourist indus- ment has literally made the beaches inac- Tryhin degy loptmaent actively enouragndu- cessible to the general public. It also dras- by the Government of Egypt (GOE) in the tically changed these coastal cities from bysthe Goveadent AlthofuEgypt i n iona tour- nice, calm and secluded places to semi- last decades. Although interational tour- urban, intensively developed areas. To- ism has been almost exclusively oriented g toward Egyptian antiquities, concentrated gether with limited knowledge of coastal in Ciro uxoror uper gypt coatal and coral reef ecological systems, lack of in Cairo, Luxor or upper Egypt, coastal poltogoto yn nocmetpoe tourism first developed on the Mediterra- pollution control and enforcement proce- nean coast for the domestic market. dures. uncontrolled development has led to 32 StrategZicA.ction Pr .ramnmefor the Red Sea and Gulf ofA4den rapid deterioration of coral reefs and loss Nuweiba, Suez, and Safaga, and a number of the natural tourist attraction of the area. of minor ports at Sharm El Sheikh, El Tur, The Egyptian tourism sector has been Ras Gharib, Ghardaqah and El Quseir. reconstructed to improve its efficiency and Several minor marsas located along the ability to provide guidance and assistance coast are suitable only for small and me- dium size boats such as Marsa Breaka to investors to make their participation Marsa Abo El Darag, Marsa Om Ghaig, successful and profitable. Accordingly, a MarsaAlam and Abou Ghossoun in addi- national strategy for Egypt's tourism de- velopment programme has been formu- tion to the military base at Baranis Ras lated. and priority areas and projects iden- Banas. tified. Among thiese, several areas on the Nuweiba is the major port of South Si- coast of the Red Sea and southi Sinai Pen- nai, located near the far end of the Gulf of insula have been selected, for development Aqaba. The city is relatively small (2000 as major tourist centers and preliminar inhiiabitanits, mostly fishermen) but since planning aiid feasibility analyses have the opening of the port a gradual increase been prepared for them (Sultan, 1992). in population has been noted, most of Large scale development will be required, whom are working in the port and tourism. not only in terms of basic physical infra- Suez City is one of the major ports of structure, but also In terms of new settle- Egypt, it includes a transportation port in ments and the attendant social services addition to a fisheries port (Ataka) and a needed to house and service new popula- petroleum port at El Zitaiah. Suez is the tion clusters. The tourist related work force major link between Egypt and South Asia emnployed in South Sinai, for instance will and is considered the eastemn gate to Egypt. be approximately 30,000 of which 50 per- be-aproximtely 0.000 of whiIt is also the major source of Red Sea fish cent wvill be in direct services (for example for the countrv. In addition, the petroleum catering, reservations, recreation, shop- i d o ' ' m~~~~idustr-y depends oni the Suez ports for ex- ping, etc.). A total of about 40,000 beds port of Gulf production. are planned to accommodate projected tourist developments by the year 2005, Safaga is a town of 1 1,000, linked to when the number of tourists is expected to El Quseir and to Qena in the Nile valley by reach five million per year. The estimated road and rail transportation. The Safaga cost of tourist establishments (hotels and port is mainly used for export of phos- tourist villages) for the Red Sea and South phates produced at the El Hamrawan plant Sinai is expected to be within the range of some 50 kilometers further south. It is also 3 billion LE, most of which will be spent used for import of raw materials for the on infrastructure. In addition, a compre- Aluminum Complex at Naga Hamadi. The hensive master plan for the establishment port is therefore a considerable source of of a chain of marinas, serving sea yachts, marine pollution, as is the site of the El pleasure boats and floating hotels is being Hamrawan plant and settlement. studied in conjunction with international El Quseir is the next town south and firms (TDA, 1995). The facilities are to be has a population of 21,000. Its port is established along the Red Sea coast and smaller than that of Safaga and is used for the estimated development for Phase I of export of El Hamrawan phosphates to a the marinas is in the magnitude of USD50 lesser extent and also for fishing and million. transporting potable water to Marsa Alam Transport and Settlements and southern coastal settlements. To the Ports and settlements are another potential south of El Quseir there is Marsa Om sourc ofpollution. From northtosout Ghaig, and Marsa Jebel El Russas, which source of pollution. From north to south isuefowarstagtnkfrMrs the coast of the Red Sea has major ports at is 15 kometersto the sou Marsa Alam, 15 kilometers to the south. Marsa Coutntrv Report - Ezypt 33 Alam itself is a settlemenit of some 1000 to technical expertise in support of a private 2000 persons, connected by road to ldfu in sector-led tourism development strategy, the Nile valley and having a minor marsa to be competitive with neighboring coun- for fishing and tourist boats. Althouglh its tries and to protect the unique cultural and activities are currently limited. Marsa natural resources in Egypt from environ- Alam has potential for future growthl. Fur- mental degradation. The first step was the ther south by 70 kilometers. Abou Ghos- creation of the TDA in September 1991. soun containis some mining activities, a The TDA draws principally on private sec- minor settlement of 2000 and a small fish- tor and academic expertise to assist MOT ing marsa. The military base of Baranis in planning for the development of Egypt's Ras Banas has a naval base at the Baranis tourism resources and guiding and promot- bay as well as an air base at Ras Banas. ing increased private investmiients in the whiclh can potentially be used as a civil sector. These changes are expected to pro- airport. Between Baranis and Halaib at the vide a stronger institutionial framework for Sudanese border there are a few small fish- coherent, private sector oriented and envi- ing settlements (1 00 to 200 persons) living ronmentallv sound tourism development. in shacks away from the coast. TDA was established with a Board of It should be noted that the growth of Directors chaired by MOT and 16 other port activities as well as settlements sup- members representing the public and pri- porting the increasing population endan- vate sectors, and a Managing Director. The gers marine life and tourist activities. Board of Directors is the supreme author- Proper planninig and control procedures are itv for setting policies concerning TDA's needed to regulate these activities and to activities, for approval of TDA's work minimize conflicts. programme and annual operating and capi- tal budgets, for making decisions on allo- Legal and Institutional Framework cating land and giving development rights This part of the report encompasses tlhe in- to private sector developers in areas desig- stitutioins concerned with management of nated as tourism zones, for approving cost recovery policies for tourism related ser- the coastal and marine environment and vices, and for contracting loans for TDA. resources. The initial by-laws of TDA have been ap- MINISTRY OF TOURISM AND ToUJRISM proved. As TDA activities grow, it is ex- DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY pected that these by-laws would be suita- The Ministry of Tourism (MOT) is the bly amended and enlarged to reflect grow- main authoritv dealing with tourism inl ing environmental concerns and experi- Egypt. MOT is divided in four parts deal- ence gained in the implementation of its ing with planning and development: regu- policies. lation of tourism services, administration, The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of and financial and legal affairs. Like many TDA is appointed by Presidential decree. other ministries, MOT suffers from over- At this stage of TDA's operations the CEO staffing, low motivation and inadequate is assisted by an Adviser with broad based technical capacity. MOT operates in an ad experience in tourism and a Financial Ad- hoc and bureaucratic manner. The decision viser. The TDA is organized into a number making process is highly centralized, not of functional departments. The Technical only because of the system, but also be- Department has three units: Planning and cause of the lack of technical capacity in Project Preparation, Environment, and Pro- the various management levels. ject Implementation. The Environment In recognition of these deficiencies. Unit consists of two well-qualified univer- MOT is being streamlined to strengthen its sity based consultants. TDA is a small or- ganization and intends to remain so with a 34 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and GiifolfAden small number of high caliber staff on a on the National Environmental Action permanent basis and will contract out spe- Plan (NEAP) and related policy and pro- cific tasks to outside consultants as much ject implications. as possible. In order to effectively implement the EGYPTIAN ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS EAP, further strengthening of EEAA's role AGENCY is needed, and should focus on1 the follow- ing: effective powers to coordinate envi- According to the Law of the Environment et i f (Law No. 4 for the year 1994) the EEAA cies; developmenit of an integrated moni- was established withini the Prime Minis- toring and information systemrn ke role in ter's Cabinet, and replaced the Agenicv es- tablished by, Presidential Decree No ElAs: expansion of the protected areas sys- tablished bv Presidenitial Decree No. 63 1/1982 in all rights and obligations. The tem including management capability: and EEAA has a public juridical personality enforcemnenit of environimental standards and is affiliated withl the competent Minis- and reqLlirements. To ensure that the above ter for Environmental Affairs. transpires, the GOE intends to provide stroIng political backing an1d increased hiu- The Agency formulates the general man and financial resources. policy and prepares the necessary plans for The NEAP was prepared in early 199] protection and promotion of the environ- ment. Also. it follows up the implementa- in coordination with the mental affairs in Egypt. and was presented tion of such plans n coordtatoon wath tDe C competent administrative authorities. The Cairo in 1992 in cooperation with the Agency is the competent national authority World Bn At th ouetit was te for strengthening environmental relations World Bank. At the outset, it was recog- between Egypt and other countries, and the nized that environmental management is regional and international organizations. complex and multi-sectoral in nature. Therefore it was considered important to Also, the Agency recommends the neces- involve sectoral ministries, research and sary legal procedures to join regional and educational institutions, as well as NGOs international conventions related to the en- in a trulv national effort to prepare an ac- vironment, and prepares the necessary ' draft legislation and decrees required for tion plan for improved management of implementation of these conventions. Egypt's environment. ICZM, protection of water environment. RED SEA COASTAL GOVERNORATES Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), The Egyptian coast of the Red Sea is under environmental monitoring networks, man- the supervision of three Govemorates, the agement and supervision of natural protec- Red Sea, Suez and South Sinai. Although torates are among the areas regulated and responsibilities and powers are centralized addressed in the different articles of the in sectoral ministries, the Red Sea coastal Law of the Environment. This represents a ' significant strengthening for EEAA and Governorates have a budget for admini- reflects the government's determination to stration and social and economic develop- ment at the provincial level. The Governor give environmental protection much more controls the local administrations in the serious attention than in the past. The law Municipalities of the major cities, and has establishes an environmental branch in rsnsibility or coorditing activi- each Gvernoate fr whih EEA will the responsibility for coordinating activi- each Governorate for which EEAA will tie of dfentmisrswthnheGv provide technical supervision. Recruitment esofdfer of significant numbers of additional staff is ernorate intended for EEAA, along with establish- However, the Governorates have lim- ment of the International Cooperation Unit ited technical staff and are therefore weak to assist EEAA in negotiations with donors on implementation and particularly enforc- Countryt Reporf - Evpt 35 ing regulations. It is necessary to ration and exploitation have no adverse strengthen the capacity of the Gover- impacts on the marine environment. norates in planning and management of D . THE NATION AL COMMI r IEE FOR development along the coast. An environ- INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE mental unit is being establisied in each Governorate to work ulider the guidance of EEAA as a branch office of the Agency. Directly after the Law of the Environment This local level of environmental monitor- was issued in 1994. the EEAA initiated ac- ing and control and enforcement must be tion for establishmilent of a National Com- made effective if coastal zone management mittee for Integrated Coastal Zone Man- goals are to be realized. Professional and agement (NCICZM). The ministerial de- technical staff must be attracted to work in cree establishing the committee was issued the Governorates by defining increased re- in 1994 and amended in 1996. It included sponsibilities and clear procedures for the 16 members representinig EEAA (2), Min- work of the local environmental offices. istry of Public Works and Water resources (1). Ministry of Housing (2), Miniistry of CORPORATION Agriculture (]) Ministry of Maritime Transportation (1), Ministry of Tourism The EGPC is the government agency re- (1), Ministry of Planning (1), Ministry of sponsible for oil and gas exploration and Scientific Research and Technology (1), controls the activities of international oil Ministry of Defense (I), Ministry of Local companies. New exploration licenses for a Government (1), Milistry of Electricity large number of offshore blocks are due to and Energy (1), National Water Research be issued soon. It is anticipated that gas is Center (I). and NGO representatives (2). more likely to be found than oil. The The main objectives of this committee are EGPC has developed an oil spill response Tof capability in Ras Ghareb on the Gulf of Suez, approximately 100 kilometers north . Draft and approve general guidelines of Ghardaqah, and is also considering es- for all activities, including the EIA. tablishing another oil spill response station * Coordinate all coastal activities among in Ghardaqah to be tested during October the competent authorities in order to 1996. Petroleum exploration and operation put integrated coastal zone manage- companies operating in the Gulf of Suez ment into effect. are required to have oil-combating capabil- ity. But contingency planning, decisional * Ensure that all activities in the coastal hierarchy and communication networks are area have contingency arrangements. inadequate to provide a rapid and inte- * Find a balance between the proposed grated response capability. The available d n d~~~~~~~~~~~evelopment activity and the carrying equipment is only suitable for tackling capacity of the ecosvstem, with a view small spills in relatively good weather. to sustainable use of available re- TDA and the EGPC have reached an sources. agreement on allocating parts of the Red Ensure active participation in drafting Sea coast for development of either oil or and preparing the ICZM plan. tourism and some areas for mixed use. The agreement places requirements on oil ex- * Approve programmes and plans aim- ploration companies to carry out ElAs and ing at restoring and rehabilitation of respect the environment. Although not in- coastal ecosystem under stress. volved in the agreement, EEAA supports . Study and evaluate all major projects the arrangements and has ultimate respon- to be executed in the coastal zone. sibility for ensuring that oil and gas explo- 36 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Coordinate and specify mandates for Ministry of Scientific Research and has different authorities in the coastal area. been investigating fish and corals around One of the most promising products of Ghardaqalh for more thani 70 years. This One of the most promising products of institute is also concerned with fisheries this committee is the framework for an research in the Red Sea area. Egyptian ICZM programme. which pro- duced the first document in December A number of Universities have estab- 1996 with the help of DANIDA (Den- lished research centers with teaching fa- mark) and DGIS (Netherlands). This cilities and laboratories for the marine and document included an identification of the coastal environment. For example. the coastal zone, a complete description of Suez Canal University has a research cen- Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts of ter in Sharm El Sheikh doing research on Egypt and the results of the Ghardaqalh different aspects of marine life in the Red Workshop held during May 1995. Sea. The University Campus at Assiut has OTHER AGENCIES AND INSTITU'TIIONS plans to establish a marine research center at El Quseir on the coast. Such centers are A number of other government agencies a potential resource for undertakinig survey are responsible for the protection of the and monitorinlg work during the next marine environment. In addition to the years, but lack of proper equipment and EEAA, the following are identified in the financial support is the main obstacle to Environmental Law as being involved in carrying out their research. the management of the Red Sea and Egypt's coast line: Port and Light House AGREEMENTS, LAWS AND LEGISLATION Authority, Suez Canal Authoritv, Suez FOR PRIN AN MENT Port Authority, GAFRD and the General THEMARINE ENVIRONMENT Organization for Coastal Protection. The Red Sea is under the legal stipulations Other agencies may be identified by of: Ministerial decree as having powers and . Regional Convention for the Conser- responsibilities for marine environmental vation of the Red Sea and Gulf of matters. Concerned agencies are responsi- Aden Environment and its Protocol ble for carrying out enforcement under concerning Regional Co-operation in their own jurisdictions. No structure cur- Combating Pollution by Oil and other rently exists to connect these agencies to- Harmful Substances in Cases of Emer- gether to deal with problems. Laws and gency (1982). regulations are overlapping, unclear, lack- The Interational Convention for the ing detail, or absent. Fines are too low and Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by resources for monitoring and enforcement are inadequate to provide an effective de- O,nd 4s terrent against pollution by ships, or activi- ments. ties of other public and private interests * Convention on Wetlands of Interna- that cause damage or destruction to marine tional Importance Especially as Water- ecosystems. Each agency has its own pri- fowl Habitat, Ramsar 1971. orities determined within the organization, Convention on Interational Trade in rather than according to an integrated Endangered Species of Wild Fauna strategy for conservation of Red Sea natu- and Flora, CITES, Washington 1973. ral resources. Convention on Biological Diversity The National Institute of Oceanogra- 1992. phy and Fisheries (NIOF) has a major re- search center in Suez and another research station at Ghardaqah. It belongs to the Coz,ntrv Report - Egvpt 37 United Nations Convention on the master plans for environmental manage- Law of the Sea, that Egypt has ratified ment in cooperation with other relevant by Presidential Decree. authorities, establishing a national moni- The International Convention1 for the toring network, implementing pilot pro- Prevention of Pollution from Shlips jects anid compiling and disseminating en- (1973 and 1978). Egypt adhered tothe vironmenital infonnationi. Thiis law also Conlvenltion by Presidential Decree. specifies legal and economic enforcement No. 152/1986. instruments including permitting proce- diires and the establishment of environi- * The international Agreement on the mental funds. Civic Responsibility on Oil Pollution, signed in Brussels in 1969, to which Threats to the Environment Eg ypt lias adliered by Presidential De- eg.No.ha8aderd.y Egypt has recently established important cree. No. 478/1988. interests along the Red Sea. Egypt earns * The African Agreement for the Con- about USDI billion annually from ap- servation of Nature and Natural Re- proximately 20,000 merchant ships and sources (Algiers 1988), ratified by smaller tankers sailing through the Suez Egypt. Canal and the Egyptian economy has bene- * Public Law No. 72/1968 on the Protec- fited recently from oil and tourism reve- tion of Sea Water against Oil Pollu- nues along the Gulf of Aqaba as well as tion. the rest of the Red Sea coast. * The Ministry of Defense's Decree No. The current exploitation of natural re- 56/1962 on the Cleanliness of Ports sources is causing great economic and eco- and Territorial Waters, in compliance logical changes. The coastal zone in Egypt with the Public Law No. 280/1960 is undergoing, rapid and uncontrolled eco- regulating Ports and Territorial Wa- nomic development, which results in in- ters. tensified environmental problems. Con- flicting human interests are taking a toll of * Presidential Decree No.1948/1965, es- the region's natural resources. In particu- tablishing a standing committee for tle lar, the oil and tourism industries are a Prevention of Marine Pollution with source of environmental problems that Oil, amended by the Decree No. pose a serious threat to achieving sustain- 691/1972. able development. In 1983, the Egyptian Conservation The nature and magnitude of pollution Law No. 102 set up the legislative frame- problems in the Red Sea do not necessarily work for establishment of protectorates. follow trends elsewhere in the world. In There are two protected areas that include particular, the enclosed nature of the Red coral reefs and mangrove stands along the Sea in conjunction with the limited water coast-Ras Mohammed Marine National exchange with the Indian Ocean consid- Park (including Tiran and Sinafir Natural erably reduces the potential for dispersion Reserves) and Jebel Elba Conservation of pollutants. Much of the input of con- Area. taminants is to geographically localized The first unified Egyptian Law of the areas around urban and industrial devel- Environment was passed in February 1994 opments. More widespread and general (Law No. 4/1994). This law defines the contamination may be expected from the role of EEAA as an overall coordinating considerable and probably increasing ship authority with specific responsibilities for traffic through the Red Sea to and from the setting environmental standards. ensuring Suez Canal, or from super tanker traffic to compliance with these standards, preparing and from oil terminals. 38 Strateglic Action Programme for tie Red Sea and Gilf ofAden OIL AND GAS the Red Sea coast at the Gulf of Suez and Oil and gas exploration on the Egyptian the coasts of Sinai was about 88.8 percent coast of the Red Sea is concentrated in the of total oil production (39,31s metric Gulf of Suez area. The construction of the tons). This represents a considerable per- Trans-Suez pipeline with a terminal at Ain centage of the Egyptian economy throughi Sukhrna contributed significantly to pollu- export (USD2.35 billion per year). Current Sukhna conthnribLthed significailt the G lle investment in oil productioni is about LE tioni in the northerni part of the Gulf. The 5,854,308,000. withi an interest rate of 14.3 main souirces of offshore oil are the oil fields in the central Gulf of Suez at Ras percent. A very small amount of this Gstmonev could be used to construct monitor- Gliarib anid Ras ShIoLkeir on the westerm I coast and Abu Rudees and Abu Zenimah ing stations along the coast, and/or for coast and Abu Rudees anal Abu Zemimaii L earlv warninii uniits. which would benefit on tile eastern coast of the Gulf. Largelv as g other industries threatened by such pollu- a result of ineffective and inefficient tion as well. operation of equipment, illegal discharge of dirty ballast water from tankers and lack SEWAGE AND SOLID WASTE of supervision, small spills may occur on a The greatest single input from urban con- monthly basis, allowing small quantities of tributions to the sea is sewage. Sewage oil to drift to shore in this area and the ad- the (treated and untreated) is usually dis- jacent waters thexpansionbofoilt expoimaj chiarged to. or just below, the intertidal tion inicreases the possibility of major zone via pipelines, and is thus mostly a spills such as that of 1982 when 75 percent coastal problem. The composition of sew- of the Egyptian Red Sea coast was blan- keted withi oil, affecting the intertidal and age varies considerably, but major effects ,_1 ., . .--reported in the scientific literature result sub-tidal marine habitat. from increased nutrient and suspended Tlhe other oil related threats to the ma- solid loading or from human health prob- rine environment are the seismic explo- lems associated with coliform bacteria on sions during oil exploration. This type of recreational beaches. More widespread al- test causes a great deal of damage to the though less significant contributions of reef in the area, and with the extension of sewage result from ship traffic and off- oil exploration activities further to the shore platforms. south the danger will spread to the reefs of n a In addition to sewage, considerable the areas (Fouda, 1983). amounts of garbage (especially plastic The number of oil fields in the main containers) also enter the sea from urban production area at the Gulf of Suez has in- and recreational areas and from ship traffic creased during the last few years to about and offshore platforms. When combined thirty-seven fields. In addition, twenty- with oil pollution, solid waste can seri- three separate oil wells are operational. ously inhibit clean-up operations. During Each of these fields can be considered a the last year the problem of solid waste possible source of oil pollution at any disposal has attracted the attention of some given time. Monitoring for leaks and spills organizations, for example in Ghardaqah from these fields is lacking. Due to the during the last flooding. The study of this shallow nature of the Gulf and to the cur- problem will take several months and it rents, the spread of any major spill in this may be years before a solution is found area will have an enormous effect on ma- due to lack of proper funding and experi- rine habitats. ence in this field. The total production of oil fields in INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS Egypt is about 44,226 metric tons as of the last year reported (General Petroleum Cor- On theE ptea castafete Red Sauin- poration report, 1994). The production on puts of phosphate, manganese and bauxite Coiuntry Report - Egypt 39 minerals, through loading onto ships, are cause loss in diversity, and small boat us- major pollutants. In the Safaga area and at age. which can degrade corals through im- shipping ports in the Gulf of Aqaba. death proper anchoring (Fouda, 1990). of corals was observed to be four to five SEDIMENTATION times greater in the area of phosphate spillage than in a control area (Walher and Sedimentation is the settling out onto the Onrond. 1982). This type of pollution is seabed or shore of significant quantities of not taken into consideration by Egyptian silt, sand or other materials put into sus- authorities and its effect on the marine pension in the marine environment by environmenit has never been evaluated. various agents including humani activities. Among the industrial wastewater inputs It is possibly the major cause of damage to are desalinationi effluent, fertilizer plant marine habitats throughiout the tropics. Un- effluenit, such as urea in Suez, and refinery fortLiuately, because sedimentation is not and other industrial effluent containing readily perceived as a form of pollution, heavv metals. Elevated concentrations of and because silt and sand are major natural lead. mercury and copper in bivalves and constituents of the seabed and shore, the fish have been reported around some in- damage that sedimentation can and is caus- dustrial areas. ing in the marine environment is rarely ap- LANDFILLING preciated, by developers, government offi- cials or the general public. Land reclamation, landfilling and coastal Sedimentation problems are quite ob- road construction also affect shore zones vious in the Ghardaqah area. where many and nearshore waters. Apart from loss of t sea area, sediment loading affects coastal the shorelieathough fanilliage habitats in a similar manner to dredging. cannel chn .'et though dredgingi At least part of a motorway construction rarel ruired, the Actiof dredging on the Red Sea coast from Suez to Ha]aib rarely required, the practice of landfilling fonlowstheRed shea,coastfr Suen tome Hamb along the coast is becoming more preva- follows the shoreline, causing some dam- X r M X - A r ] ~lent, and this damages or destrovs coral age to the reef flat lagoons. Any further le and seagrass communities. construction of this type could cause seri- ous losses to coastal habitats. Tourism may COASTAL CONSTRUCTION WORK also produce both direct and indirect ef- Coastal construction work can include the fects on coastal resources and is currently construction of harbors, jetties, and resi- growing rapidlv on Red Sea coasts, in par- - # ~~~~~~~~~~~dential or industrial sites on the intertidal ticular around the Gulf of Aqaba and . . or immediate supratidal zone. These activi- Ghardaqah. Construction of coastal hotels ties can result in direct destruction of coral and roads may result in similar problems communities, seagrass beds, mangrove to those noted Immediately above. The in- sad,mdfas aohteeaino 1 1 r 1 s ~~~~~stands, mud flats, halophyte vegetation or creased numbers of people produce moreI crewase numrispof apeopl pducemre other natural habitats. Such damage is not sewvage requiring disposal, and discharges vet extensive in the Red Sea area, but it is diminish the quality of the very amenities r w i fqn that attract tourism in the first place, that mainly around the major towns. is, the clean beaches and spectacular un- derwater reefs. Dredging, land reclama- In addition to major municipal and in- tion, blasting and jetty construction may dustrial projects, it is becoming common all cause localized effects, and subse- for individual landowners to construct pri- quently during operation the discharge of vate jetties and to dredge small boat chan- effluents may cause local or more wide- nels through the fringing reef. Jetties not spread problems. Two other activities with only damage reefs, they also can cause the impact on marine life are collection of ma- area downstream to become stagnant. Ma- rine organisms. which in the long run will rine life then succumbs to the sedimenta- 40 Stratezic Action Programme for the Red Sea and GulfofAden tion and raised temperatures that occur in ters without passing through local immi- suc1h enclosed shallow water areas. gration controls. Perhaps the most serious aspect of the There is also direct exploitation of current expansion of urban regions is the other natural resources of the Red Sea. strong tendency for development to occur These include turtles, nesting birds, shell- in strip-like fashioni along the coast. There fish, sea cucumber, black coral and man- is an expanding need for ports and docking grove wood. On the whole, the level of ex- facilities, and residences with access to the ploitation has been low and sustainable. shore are sought after. Industries often pre- While the use of such resources in the past fer to locate major plants along the coast- has had little or no environmental effect, Iine wvhere cooling water and private dock- this ma' no longer be the case. The coastal ing facilities are available and in order to populations in some areas are now much facilitate waste disposal. Development greater, access to the coast is much easier, along the coastline inevitably leads to a and people are becoming equipped with slow degradation of the littoral and sub- modern diving gear, guns and engine- littoral environment. The problem of powered boats. Few local iniabitants have coastal constructionv work is clear all over been educated to have any concern for the the coast from Ain Sukhna at the northern long-term health of the environment, but Gulf of Suez to the Ghardaqah-Safaga most wish to acquire material possessions area. Construction materials are stored on and are becoming more aware of the eco- the shore and some are lost with the tides. nomic potential of Red Sea resources. In addition, insufficient impact assessment studies supplied by landowners for their projects often allow many environmentally While recreation and tourism present ma- hazardous activities to take place in coastal jor reasons for protecting the coastal and areas. marine environment, uncontrolled use by visitors can itself result in serious impacts. EISHING AND OTO ER FORMS OF Extensive collection of corals, shells and EXPL OITATION other reef animals, spear fishing, damage Uncontrolled fishing or certain types fish- to corals by swimmers and anchors, de- ing may lead to deterioration or complete struction of coastal vegetation by tram- loss of fish resources. In Egypt, intense ef- pling and vehicles, and proliferation of forts have been made in the last ten years waste and garbage, are the types of dam- to modernize and expand the fisheries, and age that may be caused by visitors and it seems likely that increasingly careful tourists. fisheries management will be needed to In countries where diving tourism is ensure that sustainable vields are not ex- In chnas eg e main notice- ceeded. important, such as Egypt, the I-nain notice- able impacts have been due to anchor dam- Spear fishing is most commonly done age, coral collection, spear and hand line by visitors with no personal interest in fishing at the most popular diving sites, "sustainable vields" and is therefore in and collection of corals, shells and other competition with local fishermen. It also souvenirs by fishermen and merchants for tends to be conducted on the more accessi- sale to tourists. ble and attractive reefs most valuable for The uncontrolled use of the reef recreation and tourism. Spear fishing rap- around Ghardaqah area may be a problem idly leads to the elimination of favored in the near future. The number of diving food species such as grouper and snapper; sites (reefs) visited by boats in a single day Spear fishing is theoretically banned in Egypt, but it is hard to control fishing by divers from yachts that enter territorial wa- Countri Re ort - F r 41 reef. Controlling the number of divers is a GlJIDELINE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT priority in this area. ASSESSMENT In Egypt especially, there may be a This guideline was issued by the EEAA in threat resulting from the demand for dried October 1996. Its main goal is to clarify and inflated puffer fish as souvenirs. In various aspects of EIA in accordance with particular many specimens of the puffer Law No. 4/1994. It also includes the dif- Ar0othron hiispidus are made into lamp- ferent categories of projects and the EIA shades. This fish is a major predator of the procedures EIA for each category. In addi- Crown-of-Thlorins Starfish and of the nee- tion, the guidelinie summarizes the sections dle-spined sea urchini DicidemLci selosimiii. of Law No. 4/1994 that regulate environ- both of which can cause extensive damage mental impact assessment studies. to corals. There is evidence that reef dam- age near Ghardaqalh by abuLindant urchinis ENVIRONMENTAL GUIDELINES FOR may be related to the eliminationl of their predators in this way. This booklet was issued by EEAA in March 1996. It summarizes the main Recent and Current Initiatives guidelines concerninlg development of Most of the rcnancoastal zone areas, which fall into 13 cate- Most of the recent and current initiatives in gois Ths r sflos the coastal area of the Red Sea have the EEAA as a common feature. * Fundamental principles. THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY * Identification of the setback line. PROJECT , Identification of coastal building front The Egyptian Red Sea Coastal and Marine line (CBFL). Resource Management Project (GEF) is a * Identification of reef protection line World Bank funded project, witlh three (RPL). Egyptian partners, the Red Sea Gover- norate, TDA and EEAA. The project area . Erosion and sedimentation. covers the Egyptiani coast of the Red Sea . Establishment of marinas, embank- proper. extending from about 40 kilome- ments andjetties. ters north of the city of Ghardaqah to the Egyptian Sudanese border at northern lati- * Rules for mooring and anchoring in tude 220. the Red Sea. According to World Bank documenta- . Regulation of diving and water sports. tion, the project duration is 36 months; it . Regulation of public beaches. has 6 main components and a preparatory phase. The components include: . Hotel ships. * Coastal Zone Management. . Aquaculture. * Environmental Assessment Capability. . Establishment of oil and gas installa- tions. Marine Pollution Control. Establishment of infrastructure com- • Reef Recreation Management. ponents. * Marine Protected Areas Programme. In addition, the guideline identifies * CZM Monitoring and Evaluation. conditions for tourism development area planning and the components for environ- mental impact assessment of different pro- jects on the shoreline. 42 Strate gic .4ction Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden THE ENVIRONMENTALIY SUSTAINABLE tions which could be summarized as fol- TOURISM PROJECT lows: The ECO-TOURISM project is funded by . National CZM workshop and Seminar the United States Agency for International (1995) DANIDA (USD0.1 million) / Development and is one of the activities Netherlands (USD0.1 million)/ Gov- being sponsored by the US/Egyptian Part- ernment of Egypt to support the inter- nership for Economic Growth and Devel- ministerial committee in preparing a opment (Gore-Mubarak Initiatives). The national CZM plan. project is being carried out by Winrock In- Technical Assistance to the Shore Pro- ternational. Environmental Qualitv Inter- tection Auhity (9 997) national and George Washington Univer- DANIDA (USDi.0 m 6illion) / SPA sitv. The first document issued by this pro- ject concerning the policy framework was (Minstry of Public Works and Water in January 1997. The main objectives of Resources), which included strengthi- ening of SPA capacity in coastal engi- this project are to assess the current status ningo PA an physial impac of protected area resource management neerilg, planning and p.ysical impact propose measures for remediation of envi- assessment. ronmenital degradation, and increase the . National Oil Spill Continigenicy Plan role of the private sector in handling envi- (1996-1998) DANIDA (USD1.6 mil- ronmental problems. lion)/EEAA/Ministry of Marine Transport. This included updating and The second document issued b~' the revision of the National Oil Spill Con- project included the Mid-Project status up- tencyPln and the Stal of date. This document indicated the achieve- tingency Plan and the establishment of ments of the project during the first year, a command center for oil spill re- among them the installation of 250 sponse. mooring buoys from Ghardaqah to Safaga, which contribute to protection of the reefs Priority Actions in these areas. An action plan for the marine and coastal DANISH-EGYPTIAN DEVELOPMENT area of the Egyptian Red Sea should be COOPERATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT formulated according to the needs of the SECTOR region as perceived by the Governorates concerned (Red Sea, Suez and South Si- During the UN Conference on Environ- nai) and must be coordinated with the ac- ment and Development (UNCED) held in tivities of the GEF project, the TDA plan Rio in 1992, Egypt embarked on the for- for the coastal areas, EEAA guidelines for mulation of a NEAP, supported by the coastal zone management and other rele- World Bank in association with bilateral vant activities in the coastal area. donors including DANIDA. The pro- The nature of environmental problems gramme of cooperation signed by the two will differ to some extent among the Gov- countries included a list of 27 potential co- eotes as e have prong that operation projects to be studied and prne- ernorates, as each have problems that opearefor projectssib imlemntatio. among p could be selected as top priority for certain pared for possible implementation. Among arsbyteGvmnCoci.Ath these projects was development of a Na- areas by the Governing Council. At the tional Coastal Zone Management Plan that same time some problems are regional and can best be resolved through a cooperative was supported bv DANIDA in both a Ghardaqah workshop and a Cairo Seminar. program Under the umbrella of coastal zone During the workshop held in Cairo, management, there are several projects and following communication between the running in coordination with Egyptian different Govemorates a number of issues organizations which could be summarized were identified as the main environmental Couintra Report - E t 43 problems in the Egyptian Red Sea coastal . Preparatory Phase: This will include area. These are: data collection about the present situa- tion, revision of all available materials and identification of gaps in informa- • Urbanization and irrational land use. tion. This should be carried out at the * Pollution. national level with the help of local experts and interinationial consultanits * Deterioration of natural resources and as needed. habitat. . Adaptation of the Action Plan: This The action plan, originally designed phase would include organization of for protection and enhancemenit of regionial seminars and worklisops on the local bodies of water and adjacent coastal areas, and regional levels in addition to an in- xvill need to address organizational issues ter-Governorate meetinl,g in order to on the national, regional (governorate) and adapt suggested actions to the needs of local levels. The flowchart (Figure 2) the different Governorates. The na- shows the proposed organizationial struc- tional committee should nominate an ture and liiks betveeni the different levels. expert or consultation group to resolve It should be noted that at the national level differences between participating re- the need to establish a newz organization gional groups. could be avoided if the NCICZM, whicih already exists in the EEAA structure were . Operational Phase: This will include slightly' modified to assist in addressing implementationeof the action plan at governorate and local needs in implemen- the local and regional level. Durig gation ofthe plan. this phase the National Committee should supervise implementation and Including the three concemed Gover- organize meetings between the differ- norates will help in linking the planning ent Governorates to ensure sharing of and implementation processes. Each Gov- information and experiences. ernorate should determine the criteria by There are two types of priority actions which its region is to be defined in order to neede ar twottypes of prioasty areas ensure that the action plan is responsive to ne for ptection of The coastaluaes those particular characteristics. This will fth require cooperation among diverse sectors regional problems that call for short-term and interests, including coastal settlements, actionis at the local and regional level, witi industrv, agriculture, fisheries, human national supervision as needed. The second health, transportation, science, and indeed type includes problems of a national nature nealth,~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~ta requireaton lon-e tend acio o al evl the full range of human activities in the re- that require long term action on all levels gion. and national implementation with possible gion* international assistance. Table 3 summa- The action plan for protection of the rizes some of the main priority actions. marine and coastal area of the Egyptian The flowchart in Figure 3 shows the pro- Red Sea coast should be carried out in posed plan of action for Egyptian Red Sea three main phases: coastal area. 44 .Strate ic .4etion P-or anmmefor tlheRed Sea and Guel~fo Aden Table 3: The Proposed Priority Actions Needed for the Red Sea Area Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Legislation Review and update of existing National Legislative framework regulations for protection of natu- Local ral resources Legislation Review and update of existing National Legislative framework pollution control regulations Local Institutional Training programmes for strength- National Capacity building ** strengthening ening institutional capacities of Local agencies involved in management of Red Sea coastal areas Institutional Establishment of water pollution National Management information strengthening monitoring units for Red Sea Local Capacity building linked to the national level Technical development Environmental Development of National Coastal National Legal framework ... Management Zone Management Plan for Red Local Management information Sea coast, including the Gulfs of Management programme Aqaba and Suez Environmental Strengthened enforcement capac- National Capacity building management ity of Egyptian Environmental Af- Local fairs Agency Habitat Effective enforcement of Law 4/94 National; Capacity building conservation for protected areas Local Enforcement Living marine Review and update of current National Legal framework resources fishery legislation Local Living marine Establishment of a stock assess- Regional Management information ** resources ment database National Capacity building Living marine Development and adoption of im- National Capacity building ** resources proved fishing techniques Local Technical development Living marine Establishment of Marine Protected Regional Preventive action resources Areas at priority sites National Capacity building Local Technical development Navigation risk Development and implementation Sub- Preventive action of sub-regional vessel traffic sys- Regional Capacity building tems for the Gulf of Aqaba and National Technical development Gulf of Suez Local Navigation risk Establishment of a Regional Regional Preventive action ** and pollution Emergency Aid Center in Ghar- Sub- Capacity building control daqah, with Egypt providing the Regional Technical development land and infrastructure National Local Navigation risk Provision of adequate reception Sub- Preventive action ... and pollution facilities for oily wastes in Egyptian Regional Capacity building control Red Sea ports consistent with National Technical development MARPOL (1973-1978) Local Petroleum Development of an Oil Spill Con- National Preventive action development and tingency Plan Local Capacity building transportation Management information Technicadeelomen Petroleum Preparation of guidelines for the National Technical development ** development and use of dispersants for use in oil Local transportation spills given the ecological vulner- ability of the Red Sea Urban and Development of an evaluation of National Environmental information ** industrial point source pollution from urban Local Capacity building development and industrial sites Urban Development of a National Plan National Planning studies development for Solid Waste Management in Local Capacity building coastal cities in the Red Sea Technical development Urban Public awareness programme for National Feasibility studies ** development recycling of wastes in coastal ar- Local Capacity building eas Technical development Urban Shoreline profiling programme Local Technical studies ** development and identification of "hot spots" Countr: Report- Egy t 45 Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Urban Evaluation and implementation of Local Management information ** development flood control measures to protect Capacity building coastal zone and marine environ- Technical development ment Urban Establishment of flood prediction Regional Capacity building ** development and warning centers Local Technical development Urban Support for the expanded use of Local Capacity building ** development flood water in agriculture Technical development Environmental Creation of an inventory of land Nation al M1ana ge-me'nt information ** information resources of the coastal areas as Local Capacity building an element of a national GIS da- Technical development tabase National Committee on Integrated Coastal Zone Management \ \ ~~National > ~~level EEAA/Environmental Management Sector Figre2.Flwchrtshwig he roosd rgaiztinasRucuegiofnth Red Sea Coasa lve difn lDepartmentsv Red Sea Suez South Sinai Governorate GovernoraeD Goverorate \ Ghardaqah Suez l El Tur _ \ level Safaga Ain Sharm/ El Quseir Sukhna El Sheikh Zafranah Dahab Figure 2. Flowchart showing the proposed organizational structure of the action plan institutional arrangement and the interrelations between the different levels 46 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden Development Development Establishment Development Assessment of institutional of EIA of regional of adequate and technical capabilities pollution port reception development capacities monitoring facilities of fish'ing centers techniques \ ~~~Short-Term Objectives/ < Regional level > Egyptian Red Sea Action Plan National level Support Law _//_\Help Red Sea 4/94 Enforce- /\countries to ment by EEMA/A review NOSC Development / evelopment plans of Land-Use of monitoring Plan of Egypt capabilities in Red Sea Establishment of Regional Exchange Aid Center in Hurgada Figure 3. Flowchart Showing Proposed Plan of Action for Egyptian Red Sea Coastal Area Counriv Report- E 47 References Res. Cairo. Ain Shams University. 25 Aleem. A.A. 1988. "Case studies of recent PP environmental hazards in the Eastern Fouda, M.M. 1983. "Oil Pollution in the Mediterranean and Red Sea." In: Red Sea." Cairo Todav: 33-34 Natural and Man-Made Haards). El Frazier, J.G., G.C. Bertam, and G.H. Ev- Sabh, M.L. and T.S. Murty (eds). D.as197"Tresndmiema- ans. 1987. "Turtles anid mariine mam- Reidel. mals.d In: Kev Enviro7nents: Red Sea. Aleem, A.A. 1979. "A contribution to the Edwards, A.J. and S.M. Head (eds). study of seagrasses along the Red Sea Pergamon Press, Oxford: 288-314. coast of Saudi Arabia."' Aquatic Bot- Frazier, J. and S. Salas. 1984. "The status anyv 7:71-78. of marine turtles in the Egyptian Red Crossland, C.J., S.A. Dawsonl, S.M. Staf- Sea." Biol. Cons. 30:41-67. ford, and J.1. Marshall Crossland. Friedmani. G.M. 1985. "Gulf of Elat 1987. Habitats of the Saudi Arabia (Aqaba) Geological and Sedimen- Red Sea: an ecosystemn assessmient. tological Framework." In: Hypersaline Saudi Arabia Marine Conservation Ecosvstems. G.M. Fridman and W.E. Program. Synoptic Report. Krumbein (eds). Springer-Verlag. Ber- DANIDA. 1995. Danish-Egyptian Devel- lin: 9-71. opmnent Cooperation in Environment General Petroleum Corporation. 1994. An- Sector, a Backgrou7nd Paper. Ministry nual Report. Egypt. of Foreign Affairs, Ref.#104.P.3. Egypt. Hawkins, J. and C. Roberts.1996. "Esti- mating the carrving capacity of coral Den Hartog, C. 1970. "Structure, Function reefs for SCUBA diving." Coral Reef and Classificationi in Seagrass Com- Symposium. munities." In: Seagrass Ecosystems. McRoy, C.P. and C. Helfferich (eds). Head, S.M. 1987. "Red Sea Fisheries." In: Dekker. New York: 89-121. Kev Environments. Red Sea. Edwards. A.J. and S.M. Head (eds). Pergamon Dor, I., and 1. Levy. 1984. "Primary pro- Press. Oxford: 363-382. ductivitv of the benthic algae in the hard-bottom mangal of Sinai." In: Kassas, M. and M.A. Zahran. 1967. "On Hvdrobiology of the Mangal. Por, F.D. the ecology of the Red Sea littoral slat and I. Dor (eds). The Hague. Dr. W. march, Egypt." Ecological m1onograph Junk Publishers: 179-191. 37:297-316. Edwards, A.J. and S.M. Head (eds). 1987. Lipkin, Y. 1977. "Seagrass Vegetation of Kev Environments: Red Sea. Perga- Sinai and Israel." In Seagrass Ecosvs- mon Press. Oxford. 441 pp. tem1s, McRoy, C.P. and C. Helfferich Fouda, M.M. 1992. Global Clinmatic (eds). Nekken, N.Y. pp. 263-93. Change and Coral Reefs: Implications Lipkin, Y. 1975. "Food of the Red Sea du- for People and Reefs. IUCN. Gland. gong (Mammalia: Sirenia from Si- Fouda, M.M. 1990. Biological and phvsio- nai)."lsr. J Zool. 24:81-89. logical studies on gob fish front Timim- Morcos, S.A. 1970. "Physical and chemi- sah Lake, Suez Canal. Ph.D. Thesis. cal oceanography of the Red Sea." Ain Shams University. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann1. Rev. 16:73- 202. Fouda, M.M. 1990. "Conservation of bio- logical resources of marine protected. Morcos, S.A. and A. Varely.1990. Red areas in Egypt." 3rd Environ. Stud. Sea. Gulf of Adeni, and Suez Canal. A 48 Strategic Action Prograninie for tie Red Sea and Gulf ol Aden Bibliograpkv on Oceanographic and Sheppard, C.R.C., A.R.G. Price, and C.M. Marine Environmental Research. Roberts. 1992. Marine Ecology of the UNESCO. Paris. 198pp. Arabian Region. Patterns and Proc- Ormond. R.F.G. 1981. "Report on the need esses in Extreme Tropical Environ- for management and marine parks in nients. Academic Press, London. the Egyptian Red Sea." Oceanogr. Soliman, G.F. and S.A. Morcos. 1990. FishAcad. Scl. Cairo. "The exchange of water between the Oriond. R.F.G. and A.J. Edwards. 1987. Mediterranean and the Red Sea Ormond. R.F.G. and A.J. Edwards. 1987. through the Suez Canal." Btil. Inst. "Red Sea rFishes." In: Kev Environi- *~RedSea FshesIn: Ky Envron-Oceanogr. Fish A.R.E. 14:205-223. ments. Red Sea. Edwards, A.J. and S.M. Head (eds). Pergaimon Press. Ox- Sultan, F. 1992. "Tourism development in ford: 252-287. the Gulf of Aqaba Coast: an Egyptian Ormond, R.F.G., A. Price, and D. Shep- Perspective." Speech presented to herd. 1986. "¢Distribution and cliarac- tourist industry. ters of mangroves in the Red Sea, Ara- TDA. 1995. Investmient Prospective - An- bian Gulf and Saudi Arabia." Symp. nual Report. Ministry of Tourism, Res. Mang. Mangrove Ecosystem. Co- Tourism Development Authority. 12 lombo. PP. Ormond, R.F.G.. D. Shepherd, A. Price TDA. 1996. Investment Prospective - An- and J.R. Pitts. 1985. Management of nual Report. Ministry of Tourism, Red Sea Coastal Resources. Recomi- Tourism Development Authority. 12 mendations for Protected Areas. pp. IUCN-MEPA. Saudi Arabia. 151 pp. UNEP. 1988. Report of the Joint Meeting Ormond, R.F.G., D. Shepherd, A. Price of the Task Team on Itnplications of and J.R. Pitts. 1984. Distribution qf Clinmatic Changes. UNEP (OCA) habitat and species of Saudi Arabia WG2/25. Red Sea. IUCN-MEPA. Saudi Arabia. UNEP. 1985. Management and Conserva- 123pp. tion of Renewable Marine Resources Papenfaus, G.E. 1986. "A history cata- in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Re- logue and bibliography of the benthic gion. UNEP Regional Sea Reports and Red Sea Algae." Isr. J. Botany 17:1 - Studies. No. 62. UNEP. 118. Walher, D.I. and R.F.G. Ormond. 1982. PERSGA. 1995. Regional Programnme of "Coral death from Sewage and Phos- Action for Protection of the Marine phate Pollution at Aqaba, Red Sea." Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf Mar. Poll. 13:21-25. of Aden from Land-Based Sources of Wilkinson, CR. 2000. Status of Coral Pollution. 30pp. Reefs of the World: 2000. Global Coral Por, F.D. 1975. "The hard bottom man- Reef Monitoring Network and Austra- groves of Sinai, Red Sea." Rapp p-v lian Institute of Marine Science. Reun Common. in Explor. Scient. Mer. Townsville, Queensland. 363 p. Mediter. 23:145-147. Zahran, M.A. 1977. "Africa: A Wet For- Salah El-Din, R.A. 1994. Biological and mation of the African Red Sea Coast." Phvtochemnical Contribution on the In Ecosystems of the World, Vol. 1. Marine Algal Vegetation on the Coast Goodall, D.W. (ed). Elsevier Scientific of the Red Sea and Suez Canal. Ph.D. Publ. Co.: 215-231. Thesis. Al-Azhar University. Co07n1tl- Report - Egpt 49 Acknowledgments This document was based on informationi provided by the International Center for Environment and Development, Cairo, M.K. Tolba, President. Country Report Hashiemite Kingdom of Jordan Introduction member states, the Islamic Development Bank. the United Nations Development The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden represent a PamkD the United Natio ns complex and unique tropical marine eco- Programme (UN eP). andoth Environment Programmi-e (UNEP). and the system with extraordinary biological di- World Bank. Financial support has been versitv and a remarkably high degree of p ded by the countries of the Region. . . ~~~~~~~~~provlddb h onrlso h eln endemism. This narrow band of water the Global Environment Facility (GEF) shared by a number of coastal states is also and selected donor organizations. The GEF ani important shipping lane linking the has approved support for implementation world's major oceans. While large parts of of the SAP, which will be complemented the Region are still in a pristine state, envi- by funding from a variety of international ronmental threats-notably from habitat a es destruction, over-exploitation and pollu- tioIn-are increasing rapidly, requiring The present counltry report provides immediate action to protect the Region's background information to the SAP proc- coastal and marine environment. To this ess at the national level. It is based on in- end, a Strategic Action Programme (SAP) formation from publications and reports, has been prepared through a continuous, listed at the end of this document, and a consultative and cooperative process rapid assessment survey by the authors of among the coastal states, coordinated by this report. the Regional Organization for the Conser- vation of the Environment of the Red Sea Background and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA). Jordan's Gulf of Aqaba coastline is 26.5 The SAP is a programmatic approach kilometers long. Within this small area are to the development of country based re- the country's only port, industrial facilities gional environmental projects, providing vital to the national economy, a growing and benefiting from linkages with ongoing tourism industry, and a delicate marine regional seas initiatives and major interna- ecosystem which is increasingly threat- tional waters projects. This will assure a ened. See the Map at end of volume for concerted approach to transboundary prob- current and planned land uses in the Aqaba lems, and the realization of regional and region of Jordan. The coast can be divided global benefits. The SAP has been pre- into five zones, with different land uses. pared by a Task Force including PERSGA The town of Aqaba is at the northeastern 51 52 Strategic,4ction Progranln2e for the Red Seaoand Gl~f of .4den tip of the Gulf This is the region's resi- Aqaba is one to two years, and three years dential and commercial center and the cur- for deeper waters. Due to the long resi- rent location of hotels and tourist accom- dence time, oil and other pollutants that modations. To the south of the town of enter the Gulf of Aqaba have a particularly Aqaba is the main port, which includes detrimental effect since they are slow to phosphate loading, grain and general cargo disperse. The Gulf of Aqaba's distinctive facilities, rice and cement-handling facili- conditions-low siltation, high tempera- ties, a containier port and passenger ferry ture, and high dissolved oxygen content- terminal. Immediately south of the ferry result in a highly complex coral reef eco- terninal is Jordan's Marine Science Sta- system. An estimated 50 percent of the tion. which includes an enclosed stretch of shoreline is fringed with coral reefs. Ac- beach front and coastal waters along 500 cording to conservative accounts, 268 spe- meters of shoreline, soon to be extended to cies of tropical and semi-tropical fish are 800 meters. Stretching along 6 kilometers found in the Gulf of Aqaba but the actual of shorelinie soutil of the Marine Science number could be as high as 1,000 species. Station is the South Coast Tourism Zone, Most species find their habitats in reef or where major tourist and residential devel- sea grass areas. However, blacktip, ham- opment is planned for the next twenty merhead and whiale sharks as well as pe- years. This stretch of coastline is included lagic fish species including skipjack tuna in the planned Red Sea Marine Park, and bonito can be found in the Gulf of which will extend from 50 meters inland Aqaba's open waters. of the high water mark to the 70 meter iso- bath depth. Finallv, in the south along the In addition to its important marine Saudi Arabian border is the industrial port ecosystem, the Gulf of Aqaba is part of the and South Coast Industrial Zone. This is a Jordan Rift Valley, which serves as a fly- newer industrial area and the site of the way for millions of birds migrating from Jordan Electricitv Authority's power geni- Europe and Asia to Africa anid back. Over erating facilities. In future years, the South 200 bird species have been observed trav- Croast Industrial Zone may become the pre- eling this route. In the Gulf-fringing lhigh- ferred location for loading and unloading lands, falcons and ospreys are among the industrial cargon thereby decreasing the predatory birds commonly sighted. A wide volume of ship tr trafi ahe main port. variety of gulls, terns, ducks, herons, Approximately' 30 percent of Jordan's egrets, sandpipers, plovers, wagtails, war- Approxslnately 30 pently occupied byord s blers, finches and swallows inhabit the coastline is currently occupied by' port- Gulf of Aqaba's coastal areas. related facilities. COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT DEMOGRAPHY AND EcoNoMics The Gulf of Aqaba, one of two northern The Gulf of Aqaba offers Jordan its only maritime access and is therefore of critical extensions of the Red Sea, is 180 kilome- economic importance to the country. Dur- ters long and 5-26 kilometers wide with an inomic p ortades, the JorDur- average water depth of 800 meters. The ing the past two decades, the Jordanian climate in the Gulf of Aqaba region is arid Gulf of Aqaba coastline has been trans- with average annual rainfall of 25-30 mil- formed by a variety of developments asso- limeters and mean daily air temperatures ciated with economic growth. These in- from 14°C (January) to 32°C (August). clude the construction of port and storage The Gulf of Aqaba is semi-enclosed and facilities, power generation stations, fertil- water circulation, which is caused mainly izer production industries, hotels, restau- by evaporation rather than tidal action, is very" slow. Based on preliminary observa- I For updated descriptions and impacts to the coral reefs tions in the Strait of Tiran, the residence and associated habitats for Jordan, refer to Wilkinson. time for shallow water in the Gulf of 2000, pp 35-54. CountrY Report - Jordan 53 promoting environmentally sus- 160- tainable development in the 140- Aqaba Region. This effort has in- volved key Aqaba industries as 1 20 well as leading government insti- 100- tutions, and has been facilitated 80- by the master planninig efforts of the Aqaba Region Authority. 60- 40 Coastal and Marine Re- sources 20- 0_Alom - The three major economic sectors 1972 1996 2020 in Jordai's Aqaba region are manufacturing and power genera- Figure 1: Aqaba Population (in thousands) tion; port-related activities includ- Source: Gulf ofAqaba Environmental Action Plan, 1996 maritime shipping and associ- ing marltlme shlpplng and assol_ ated land transportation; and tour- rants, beachside concessions and roads. ise. En ic information ated to ism. Economic iniformatioii related to Aqaba's economic growth has been ac- commercial fishin- is also discussed be- companied by a parallel growth in its populationi. As illustrated in Figure I, since cause it has a direct impact on the marine populAqatio has illustratedwn figure 1a siwnc environment. Figure 2. comparing em- 1972, Aqab. has g plovment distribution in the Aqaba Region 10,000 to Its curreint population of 65,000. . . The pro ected population in the year 6020 and the entire Kingdom, illustrates the cen- The pjt p t tral role of transportation in the Aqaba la- is 150,000. bor market. Aqaba's major local economic sectors are the Ports Corporation and related MANUFATIN transportation service, manufacturing, power generation and tourism. Specific in- Industrial production is the largest revenue formation on the national economic impor- generator in the Aqaba region, with annual tance of port activities, manufacturing and revenues from fertilizer and mineral proc- tourism is included in the section below. essing currently exceeding JD200 million CONCLUSION (USD360 million). It is the second largest employer with approximately 1,700 work- The main challenge for environmental pro- ers. Aqaba's main manufacturing facility is tection in the Gulf of Aqaba is in limiting the fertilizer factory of the Jordan Phos- negative impacts on coastal and marine phate Mines Company (JPMC), located in ecosystems from industry, maritime activi- the South Coast Industrial Zone, which ties, development and tourism. Jordan's produces 740,000 metric tons of diammo- Aqaba region has grown rapidly over the nium phosphate (DAP) and 432.000 metric last several decades and will continue to tons of phosphoric acid annually. The fac- grow based on increasing tourism, port and tory is made up of five separate but inte- industrial activities. Effective environ- grated processing plants including a sulfu- mental protection is essential to preserve ric acid plant of two units, each producing the ecology of the Jordanian coast which is 2,225 metric tons per day of 98.5 percent of intrinsic ecological value, as well as H,S04 from 750 metric tons of powdered economically vital as a basis for the coun- sulfur; a phosphoric acid plant: the DAP try's tourism industry. Major strides have plant; a 20,000 ton per year aluminum been taken in recent years to develop regu- fluoride plant that recovers fluoride; and a latory and institutional mechanisms for 44 MW steam-powered electricity generat- 54 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden 60% Jordan m Aqaba 60% 5000O 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% * Industrx & Transportationi & Trade. hotels & Construction General services Other minlin1g communicationi restaurants Figure 2: Employment Distribution for Aqaba Region and Kingdom of Jordan, 1991 Source: Towards 2020 Jordan Regional Planning Seminar, Aqaba Region Authonty ing plant that uses steam generated from Modernization of the JPMC factory in the exothermic reaction in the manufacture 1994 resulted in increased production, as of H,S04. The power station is capable of illustrated in Figure 4. Further expansion producing all the electrical power needed of fertilizer production will result from an by the company, though make up fuel oil additional fertilizer plant, now being built is also bumed. Figure 3, which compares by the Nippon Jordan Fertilizer Company. export revenues of major industries, illus- Wheni operational, this plant will produce trates that fertilizer accounted for 300,000 metric tons per year of nitrogen- approximately 10 percent of Jordan's total phosphorous-potassium (NPK) fertilizer, export revenues between 1990 and 1995. mainly for the Japanese market. 60% 50% 40% 30% Ii-.. 20% 10% 0% 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 IM Phosphate Fertilizer Potash M Rock Phosphate Cement Figure 3: Export Revenue from Major Industries as a Percent of Total Domestic Export Revenues Source: Central Bank of Jordan Monthly Statistical Bulletin Vol. 31 No. 12, December 1995 Countrn Report- Jordan 55 2000o 1500 T 1000/ 0% 1 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 mW Phosphate Fertilizer Potash M Rock Phosphate Cement lime and plaster Figure 4: Industrial Production Levels Compared to 1988 Levels Source: Central Bank of Jordan Monthly Statistical Bulletin Vol. 31 No. 12, December 1995 The Jordan Electricity Authority (JEA) scribed above. To facilitate the exchange currently operates two power stations. The of regional surplus electricity, future pro- main station (Aqaba Thermal Power jects will include regional networking to Plant), with a capacity of 260 megawatts, connect the Jordanian National Grid with is located in Jordan's South Coast Indus- the regional power grid in the Egyptian Si- trial Zone. The other station (Aqaba Cen- nai. In addition, a third stage may be added tral Power Station) consists of four diesel to the power station in the South Coast In- engines with a total capacity of 14 mega- dustrial Zone. There is a possibility that watts. JEA has already begun construction natural gas may be substituted for fuel oil of a second station with three 130- at the Aqaba power stations, depending on megawatt units near the main station in availability. Jordan's South Coast Industrial Zone. This PORT-RELATED ACTIVITIES expansion is only a partial response to the steady increase in energy consumption and As Jordan's only outlet to the sea, Aqaba is of crucial importance to the 14Q- national economy. The Port of Aqaba has emerged in the last 12(_ two decades as a major re- o0 _ - - gional slhipping center, now ranking as the third largest 80 - - - - - - Red Sea port after Suez. in Egypt, and Jeddah, in Saudi 6a- Arabia. Between 1989 and 40, * * * * * *1993, the Port of Aqaba re- ceived an annual average of 20 t - - - * * 2.332 vessels handling 11.6 to 18.7 million metric tons of 01 1 _ _ _ , 1995 cargo each year. At its 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 peak, twenty million metric Figure 5: Electrical Energy Consumption in Aqaba (Gwh) tons passed through the port, Source: Jordan Electricity Authority Annual Report, 1994 and 1995 and current capacity is 30 mil- lion metric tons annually. projected demand in Aqaba, as illustrated Plans are now being prepared in Figure 5, and the projected population to double the port's current capacity, to 60 increase and industrial expansion de- million metric tons per year. The Ports 56 Strategic Action Programnn2ejfr tle Red Sea and Gulf ofAden Corporation, which operates the port, is the cement exports ranged from 367,000 to 1.4 largest single employer in Aqaba, with million metric tons: and phosphate fertil- over 5,000 workers on the payroll and izer exports were 412,000 to 668,000 met- revenues totaling JD41 million (USD60 ric tons. During this period, revenue from million) in 1993. Revenues generated by the four major export industries constituted the Ports Corporation between 1989 and 45 to 55 percent of Jordaifs total domestic 1995 are shown in Figure 6. export revenues as illustrated in Figure 3 above. 50 All of these industries, with the 40 exception of phosphate. hiave in- creased their production levels since 30 * - * * * * 1988. These chaniges are illustrated *0 * - * * * *in Figure 4 above. 20 | | | | | * * TOURISM 10 I Tourism is an important sector in 0 1989 * * * * *Jordan's economy. In recent vears, 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 both the number of tourist arrivals and the relative contribution of Figure 6: Ports Corporation Revenues (in millions of JD) tourist revenues to Jordan's GNP Sources: The Ports Corporation Year Book. 1995. have increased, as illustrated in Ports Corporation Director. Engineer Mohammad Dalabeeh. Fgrs7ad8 Fi'gures 7 and 8. Exports through the Port of Aqaba 1200 from 1989-1993 ranged from 6.6 to 10 million metric tons per Year. Of these ex- 1000l ports, rock phosphate has been the leading commodity in terms of overall tonnage, 800_ ranging from 3.6 to 6.4 million metric tons in the 1989-1993 period (approximately 13 600 percent of world exports). During the same period, general cargo exports totaled 1.3 to 400 2.6 million metric tons: potash exports were in the 1.2 to 1.4 million ton range; 200 0 12e 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Figure 7: Tourist Arrivals in Jordan (in thousands) Source: Central Bank of Jordan Annual Report. 1994 80o - _ _ _ _ _ Tourism is a substantial compo- 6e0o _ _ _ _ _ nent in Aqaba's growing economy. 4 _ Currently, approximately 66 percent of tourists entering Jordan visit 2o _ _ _ _ _Aqaba. Tourism in the region gener- 0-0 ates estimated revenues of JD40 mil- 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 lion (USD58 million) and employs an 800-person workforce. The city of Figure 8: Tourist Receipts and Merchandise Aqaba's 35 hotels, with some 3,300 Revenues as a Percent of GNP Sources: Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, 1996 beds, host an estimated 300,000 hotel Central Bank of Jordan Annual Report, 1995 Countn' Report - Jordan 57 bed nights annually. Figure 9 describes the Legal and Institutional Framework number and ranking of hotel rooms cur- rently available and proposed for future INTRODUCTION development in the Aqaba region. In recent years Jordan has made great pro- gress in improving the legal and regulatory framework for environmenltal protection. 2000 Changes have occurred at everv level in- cluding nationial legislation, local initia- 150(1 - tives specific to the Aqaba coast, and in- I( (0 - ternational agreements. 50(1'- NATIONAL LAWS, STANDARDS AND U- * * | | | t t GLIIDELINES unclass. I-star 2-star 3-star 4-star 4-star 5-star Under the Law of the Aqaba Region Au- thority, No. 7 (1987), broad powers of U current roomiis X plannied rooms governance are assigned to the Aqaba Re- gion Authority (ARA). These powers in- Figure 9: Current and Proposed Hotel Rooms dude Authority to plan andexecute in Anaba clude the authority to plan and execute in As til figure indicates, significant ex- projects in the industrial, tourism, agricul- Asthis oftigue indiateis, significnto ex- tural and service sectors, and to supervise pansionl of tmhe Aqaba tourism sector, with other public and private agencies undertak- a particular emphiasis oni luxury accommo- ing projects in these sectors. The ARA dations, is envisioned. A sample of pro- Board of Directors includes representatives posed projects include: eight five-star and of key ministries (Municipal, Rural Affairs three four-star resort hotels, a 54 hectare and Environmenitr Planning, Industry and i Disnev type"' amusement park, two 18- adEvrnei:Pann:Idsr n hoise ty re" amusementparkyiw 18- Trade: Tourism) as well as the Ports Cor- hole golf courses and accompanying re- poration, the Army, and the Department of sort, and 930 units of vacation homes. See Lands and Survey. The Board is empow- the Map at end of volume for the location ered to appropriate lands, dispose of gov- of these proposed developments. ernment property, and promulgate permits F ISHING and licenses for activities carried out in the region. Regulations for the implementation The fishing industry in Aqaba is small and of the ARA Law are prepared by the ARA artisanal, consisting of approximately Pedt, submitt ed to the ARA eighty-five fishermen and fortv boats i D President, submitted to the ARA Board of 1995 Th toal alale ctchin 995was Directors and subsequently to the Council 1995. The total salable catch in 1995 was of Ministers for approval. The ARA has an estimated 15 metric tons, with a value been the lead organization in Aqaba on ef- of JD45,000. This represented a significant beeq to improvrgandzatio n environ- drop from the 1993 catch of 105 metric forts to improve and strengthen environ- tons, and was well below the largest regis- mental controls. Environmental assessment tered catch of 194 metric tons in 1966. As procedures and coastal zone management there are currently no holding facilities for guidelines, developed under ARA supervi- temporary storage, fish are sold immedi- sion as part of the preparatory phase of the ately at dockside, mainly to restaurants and Aqaba Enk/GEF-spon Plf of hotels. The Aqaba Fishermen's Coopera- Aqaba Environmental Action Plan, may tive hopes that a holding facility and a provide important future guidance to de- programmes forat ahmaintenance may be velopment activities in the Aqaba region. programme for boat mainth e maye Regulations for the Jordanian portion of provided to fishermen in the coming years. the Red Sea Marine Peace Park are also being developed under ARA supervision. 58 St-ategic Action Programniefor the Red Sea and Gilf ofAden In September 1995, the Law of Envi- Several legal provisions address ship ronmental Protection No. 12 (1995) was based pollution. Shipping Law No. 51 approved by the Jordanian parliament. A (1961) bans ships from dumping soil. Royal Decree was issued to make the law stones, sand, scum, toxic and chemical effective as of the date of its publication in waste, or any other material on land or wa- the Official Gazette. It was published and ter. Appropriate measures are required uLl- thus made effective on October 1, 1995. It der this law for the prevention of spills establishes a national framework for envi- during the loading and unloading of ships. ronmental policy, including the formation The law sets fines for the violation of any of a Higher Council for Environmental of its provisions. Aqaba Port Quaranitinie Protection on whichi the Secretary General Law No. 32 (1972) bans the discharge of of the Aqaba Region Authority sits as a sihip based pollution, includinig bilge water. member. The Higher Council sets national Daily fees to be paid by shiips for garbage environimenital policy and review proposed collection are established under Port Ser- environmental laws. specifications and vices Fees Law No. 49 (1976). This law standards prepared by a separate executive was amended in 1987 by the Port Services body, the General Corporation for Envi- Fees Law No. 20 and its amendments. The ronmental Protection. The General Corpo- new Law of Environimental Protection ration is the primary body at the national makes ship captains personally liable for level responsible for implementing pollu- polluting substances released from their tion preventioni regulations including in- vessels. In addition to setting applicable spection and monitoring. The Law also fines and prison terms, the Law requires empowers the General Corporation to har- remediation at the responsible party's ex- monize existing laws and settle current pense. jurisdictional conflicts. Some protection of fisheries and coral In controlling industrial wastewater reefs is provided under Agriculture Law discharges, Jordan Standard Specifications No. 20 (1973). This law- provides for the No. 202 (1982, updated in 1991) estab- issuance of fishing licenses pursuant to lishes maximum allowable limits for some specified conditions, and additionally pro- thirty-seven pollutants discharged into hibits damage to or removal of corals. streams, wadis or the sea, or used for natu- More explicit in banning harm to or re- ral recharge or irrigation. JSS 202 also in- moval of coral or shellfish from the Gulf cludes normative standards for the protec- of Aqaba is Article 25 of the Law of Envi- tion of public and worker health, ground- ronmental Protection, which specifies fines water quality and aquatic life. The Water and prison terms for violators. Authority of Jordan (WAJ) is responsible The Ministry of Energy and Mineral for monitoring industrial discharges semi- Resources has prepared comprehensive monthly, to ensure compliance with J environmental guidelines for all energy 202. To date however, monitoring has not taken place at this level of frequency, and sector operations in consultation with the e r nc ss n S a World Bank and the concerned local insti- rare. tutions. These guidelines apply to the power subsectors, oil and gas operations, Publicly-owned wastewater treatment refineries and petroleum products, storage works operated by the WAJ are subject to and distribution, oil and gas pipelines, and Jordan Standard Specifications No. 893 vehicle emissions. (1994. updated in 1995). This standard sets * * * r r ~~~~~~~Table I lists these national laws and maximum limits for a number of pollutants regulations and the government agencies in sewage plant discharges. No standards . . or guidelines are currently in force for sewage sludge. Country Report - Jordatn 59 Table 1: National Laws and Regulations Related to Coastal and Marine Environment and Resources National Laws and Regulations Year Government Agency Concerned (in force) Law of Environmental Protection No. 12 1995 Higher Council for Environmental Pro- tection General Corporation for Environmental Protection Jo°rdanSpecWification Standard No. 893 1994 Water Authority of Jordan Jordan Specification Standard No. 202 1982 Water Authority of Jordan Law of the Aqaba Reqion Authoritv No. 7 1987 Aqaba Reion Authority Port Services es s Law, No. 49 1976 Ports Corporation Port Services Fees Law No 20 1987 Ports Corporation Agjicultural Law, No. 20 1973 Ministrv of Agriculture Aqaba Port Quarantine Law No. 32 1972 Ports Corporation Shippina Law No. 51 1961 Ports Corporation INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL . The International Convention for the TREATIES, CONVENTIONS AND Prevention of Pollution from Ships AGREEMENTS (MARPOL) was signed by Jordan in Jordail is party toeghtDecember 1994. Jordan's ratification Jordan is party to eight principal imterna- of this Convention is expected soon. tional conventions relevant to the parotec- AnxIo hsCneto mna tion of the Gulf of Aqaba: Annex I of this Convention (manda- tory for all parties) establishes the Red The International Convention for the Sea and Gulf of Aqaba as a special Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by area where the discharge of oil and Oil (London Convention) establishes oily residues is prohibited. To foster controls on oil discharges from ships. compliance with this ban, parties are Under this Convention, the Red Sea, required to provide reception facilities including the Gulf of Aqaba, is coIn- for oil and oily residues from tankers sidered a special zone where height- and other ships using their ports. Un- ened protection applies. der Annex 11 (also mandatory), bans e The Convention on the Prevention of on the discharge of certain categories Marine Pollution by Dumping of of noxious liquid substances are estab- Wastes and Other Matter regulates the lished, along with the required provi- disposal at sea of waste and other mat- sion of port reception facilities for ter from ships, aircraft, platforms and such substances where needed. Annex other fromcshrps, aircraft, platformsandV (optional) prohibits the dumping from ships of garbage other than food * The Convention on International Trade wastes. in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulates the export * The Regional Convention for the Con- and import between CITES patties of servation of the Red Sea and the Gulf listed wild species of flora and fauna of Aden Environment (Jeddah Con- including marine life. In addition, vention) aims to protect the Red Sea, CITES parties can establish trade re- Gulf of Aden and Gulf of Aqaba envi- strictions on species of flora and fauna ronments. Article 6 of the Convention within their jurisdiction that are deter- calls for appropriate measures against wihined torequire juri ction that aredeter-water and airborne pollution originat- mined to require protection. ing from land. Under the Protocol con- cerning Regional Cooperation in Com- 60 Strategic .Action Programmne for the Red Sea and Gulf qt-Aden Combating Pollution by Oil and Other Three recent agreements between Jor- Harmful Substances in Cases of Emer- dan and the State of Israel, as part of the gency, a marine pollution emergency' process of normalizing relations between response center is to be established, the countries, are significant for environ- along with procedures for the ex- mental protection: chianige of scientific data and regional The Peace Treaty between the State of technical assistance. Israel and Jordan (24 October 1994) The Conventioni for the Control of establishes a firm basis for environi- Transboundarv Movements of Haz- mental consultation and cooperation ardous Wastes and their Disposal betweeni these two Gulf of Aqaba- (Basel Convenitioni). In addressing the bordering states in the areas of envi- general secretariat of this Convention, ronmental planninig, environimental Jordan's delegate declared Jordani an legislation and enforcemenit, monitor- area forbidden to the importation or ing and emergency response. Among transshipment of foreign hazardous the geographical areas identified as wastes. prime targets for bilateral cooperation, The United Nations Convention on the Treaty gives first priority to the Biological Diversity requires parties to and or A reas speciiednfor take conservation and sustainable use and littoral zone. Areas specified for of biological resources into account in attention in this region are ey viron- making policy decisions. Measures re-mental impacts of industry, power quired under the Convention include generation, hazardous materials, solid the establishment of a system of pro- w tected areas, identification and . Further elaborating on the objectives monitoring of biological diversity of the Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty is the components and potentially adverse Agreement between the Government impacts on those components; and of Jordan and the Government of the preparation of emergency response State of Israel on Cooperation in Envi- plans where human actions may pose a ronmental Protection and Nature Con- grave danger to biological diversity. servation, initialed by both in May T he United Nations Framework 1995. Convention on Climate Change has the . In January 1996, the agreement on objective of stabilizing carbon dioxide Special Arrangements for Aqaba and and other greenhouse gas concentra- Eilat Between the Government of the tions in the atmosphere at levels that State of Israel and the Government of would prevent dangerous interference Jordan was signed. Key environmental with the climate system. Sea level rise, protection provisions in this agreement one of the widely anticipated results of include establishment of a binational global warming, could have a marine park called the Red Sea Marine significant impact on Gulf of Aqaba Peace Park; joint environmental edu- marine and coastal ecosystems. Parties cation efforts; and mutual assistance in are required to prepare national emergency preparedness and response, greenhouse gas inventories and must including direct communication links take climate change into account, to and joint training programmes. These the extent feasible, in their social, international agreements and treaties economic and environmental policies. are summarized in Table 2. Country Repor t - Jordan 61 Table 2: Treaties, Conventions and International Agreements Related to Coastal and Marine Environment and Resources Treaties, Conventions and International Year Description Agreements (in _ww>.www_ ~~~~~force)_ International Convention for the Prevention 1954 - Establishes standards for oil discharges of Pollution of the Sea by Oil - Designates Gulf of Aqaba as a special zone with heiqhtened protection Convention on the Prevention of Marine 1975 - Regulates disposal at sea of wastes from ships, Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other aircraft, platforms and other structures Matter Convention on International Trade in En- 1979 - Regulates export and import of listed endangered dangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora species of fauna and flora (CITES) - Additionally allows parties to give protection to se- lected species of flora and fauna within their jurisdic- tion International Convention for the Prevention 1983 - Prohibits discharge of oil and noxious liquid sub- of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) stances from ships in the Gulf of Aqaba - Requires port reception facilities Regional Convention for the Conservation 1985 - Calls for establishment of a marine pollution emer- of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environ- gency response center and procedures for regional ment data exchange and technical assistance - Calls for appropriate measures against land based water and air pollution Convention for the Control of Transbound- 1989 - Accompanies declaration that Jordan will not im- ary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and port or trans-ship foreign hazardous wastes their Disposal United Nations Convention on Biological 1993 - Calls for identification and monitoring of biodiversity Diversity components - Calls for establishment of protected areas and emergency response plans The United Nations Framework Convention 1994 - Calls for stabilization of greenhouse gases, and on Climate Change requires parties to prepare greenhouse gas invento- ries Peace Treaty Between the State of Israel 1994 - Proposes cooperation in environmental planning, and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, and legislation, enforcement, monitoring, and emergency Arrangement between the Government of 1995 response with a focus on impacts from industry, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and the power generation, hazardous materials, solid waste, Government of the State of Israel on Coop- ports and tourism eration in Environmental Protection and Nature Conservation Special Arrangements for Aqaba and Eilat 1996 - Establishes binational Marine Peace Park Between the Government of the State of - Calls for joint environmental education efforts Israel and the Government of the - Promotes mutual assistance in emergency re- Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan sponse KEY INSTITUTIONS proval by Royal Decree. Daily manage- Natioiial and Local Institutions ment of the ARA is the primary duty of the ARA Secretary General, who supervises The Law of the Aqaba Region Authority, the ARA's six main departments: Aqaba No. 7 (1987), defines the area of the Aqaba Town Planning: Tenders and Public region as approximately 8,300 square Works; Finance: Administrative Services; kilometers, comprising about 9.5 percent Regional Planning; and Research and of the Kingdom. This area covers part of Studies. Of greatest relevance to this report the Aqaba governorate and part of the is the establishment of the ARA Environ- Ma'an governorate (the Mudawwara area). ment Unit in late 1994. The functions and General development responsibility for the authority of this unit will be substantially Aqaba region is assigned to the ARA. The expanded in accordance with the recently President of the ARA has ministerial au- approved Gulf of Aqaba Environmental thority to run the ARA and is appointed by Action Plan for Jordan, funded at USD3.5 the Cabinet of Ministers subject to ap- million over three years by the GEF and 62 Strategic Action Programniejbr the Red Sea and Gilf of/Aden the Government of Jordan. Also relevant is monitor merchant vessel activities and the ARA's role in commissioning and keeps a patrol boat on 24-hour watclh in the drafting plans for new neighborhood de- ship anchorage area adjacent to the main velopment and urban renewal projects port. Where a ship is found to be discharg- within the town of Aqaba as well as for in- ing oil or garbage, Navy personnel board dustrial zones, road siting, and hotel and the vessel, order the polluting activity to residential development outside the Mu- cease, and work witlh the port to obtain a nicipality's boundaries. court order barring the ship from leaving The Ports Corporation is directly re- port pending an emergency court hearing sponsible for the conlstruction, operationl Oln the alleged violationi. The court hearinig and maintenanice of Aqaba port facilities is typically held within 48 hours of initial Giveni the economic importanice of port ac- detection of the polluting activity Report edly. fines raniging from JDI000 to 10,000 tivities and the phyvsicaloscaleof pr OP (USD1600 to 16,000) have been imposed. erationis, the Ports Corporationi is a key As a result of substanitial com-plianice, nio partner in ARA efforts to address prioritv i s l to prosecution during te envionmntalproectin cncers i the incdents led to prosecut'oni durinig the environm ental protection concerns in the 1993-1995 period. The Navy also engages region. The Ports Corporation also bears in preventive measures includino periodic responsibility for ensuring the health and ipe safety of the largest work force in the meetings witlh shipping agents, at whichi Aqaba region. The Ports Corporation Di- the agents are urged to alert ship captains rector Genieral is a member of the ARA to Jordan's readiness to take tough en- Board of Directors. In addition to its re- forcement actions agailst marine polluters. sponsibility for port facilities, the Ports The Aqaba Marine Science Station Corporation has a Marine Department, (MSS), administered jointly by the Univer- which is responsible for the safety of ship sity of Jordan and Yarmouk University. operations in port areas. Within the Marine with the objective of monitoring coral reef Department is a Marine Inspectorate, ecological trends and providing facilities whose five inspectors periodically inspect for training and research. Since its found- ships for compliance with international ing, the MSS has conducted baseline re- maritime safety rules. These inspections search on coral life, marine water qualitv primarily focus on the adequacy of naviga- and the impacts of selected pollutants on tional tools. communication equipment. the marine environment. The MSS is also fire-fighting appliances, life boats and responsible for maintaining the Marine other life-saving gear, and safety-related Science Station Center, Jordan's only ma- record-keeping. Observations pertaining to rine research center. This center, estab- the environmental performance of ships lished in 1974, is located along a 500- are not part of the routine inspection re- meter stretch of coastline immediately port, but if ships are observed discharging south of the Aqaba ferry terminal, and oil or garbage into the marine environ- provides protected habitat for fringing cor- ment, the Inspectorate works with the als. The level of management at this loca- Royal Jordanian Navy to ensure that the tion is high, and it currently has no global violating ship remains in custody while recognition. formal charges are brought before a court The Royal Scientific Society contracts of law. with the ARA, the Ports Corporation, and The Royal Jordanian Navy (formerly individual industries in the Aqaba region the Royal Jordanian Coast Guard) is the to monitor environmental quality and in- most active presence in policing the envi- dustrial discharges. ronmental performance of marine vessels operating in Jordanian waters. The Navy Three nongovernmental organizations conducts daily patrols of port areas to play varying roles in addressing Gulf of COU1ntrv Report - Jordan 63 Aqaba environmenital concerns in Jordan. In 1995, under the auspices of the Re- The Royal Society for the Conservation of gional Economic Development Working Nature (RSCN) is responsible for manag- Group (REDWG), the European Union ing five terrestrial nature reserves. In sponsored the launchinig of the Taba-Eilat- Aqaba, the RSCN finances the salary of Aqaba Macro Area ("TEAM" Area) Ex- one of three inspectors who undertake perts Group, whose agenda is to identify daily patrols of merchant vessel operations priority economic development projects in the Gulf of Aqaba. An independent en- involvinig Jordan, Egypt and Israel. A Free vironmental research and education or- Trade Zone, a regional bypass road for ganization, the Jordan Environimenit Soci- commercial transit, and development of a ety, has spearheaded the creation of a regional airport are among the topics now seven-member Aqaba Envirolimenlt Com- ulider discussion for the northem Gulf of mittee, whicih is introducing environmental Aqaba area. awareness programmes in the Aqaba pub- Another important consultative lic schools and serves as an independent watcldog" of Aqaba developmnent activi- tion Committee, whose regular meetings ties. The m-ost recently establislied NGO tiiConiite,wserglrmtns ties. The mos recent.y' established NGbring together Israeli and Jordanian offi- addressing Gulf of Aqaba environmental i_ tha concerins is the Jordan Royal Ecological cials to discuss the economfc and eliva- Diin Soit,-(JRd". Thsgop ronmental im-plications of unilateral anid Divnd ing Socety (19 RedTs group, bilateral development projects. This com- found In August 1995, holds beach and underwater cleanup campaigns organizes mittee is an outgrowth olf the "Agreement undewae ca. oon Special Arrangements for Aqaba and diver awareniess and public education pro- i grammes, and has received a GEF Small Grant to establish three coral reef monitor- Under the auspices of the GEF- ing stations. sponsored Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Regional Institutions Action Plan, important strides are being made toward strengthening Jordan's legal Several institutions are involved in pro- and institutional framework for environ- moting regional cooperation between Jor- mental protection and toward promoting dan and its neighbors. Active consultations regional cooperation in environmental pro- on Gulf of Aqaba environmental protec- tection. Through the GEF project. the tion are already well underway between Aqaba Region Authority is taking the lead Jordan, Egypt and Israel, largely as an out- in developing regulatorv and institutional growth of the Middle East peace process. mechanisms to ensure effective environ- The Multilateral Working Group on Envi- mental control of coastal industries, marine ronment established Gulf of Aqaba envi- vessels, sewage, solid waste, and tourism ronmental protection as its first target for development projects. regional cooperation. The Upper Gulf of The Jordan Rift Valley Integrated De- Aqaba Oil Spill Contingency Project, with v S i Joran gyt ad sral a ativ prtnrs velopment Study is another planning Jordan, Egypt and Israel as active partners, initiative that interfaces with development has emerged as a direct outgrowth of the projects in the Aqaba region as part of a Working Group's deliberations. The target broader survey of possible economic, so- of this joint effort is to create, in its first ciaderonmen an infasrcture po- ^- - ? . ~~~~~cial, environmental and infrastructure pro- phase, an effective strategy for combating jects extending from the Tiberias Lake small to medium-sized spills (up to a com- (Sea of Galilee) in the north, to the Gulf of bined total of 600 metric tons), with each Aqaba in the south. This included a feasi- of the parties having an Oil Spill Response bility study of the proposed Red Sea-to- Center. Dead Sea canal, utilizing the 408-meter drop between the Gulf of Aqaba and the 64 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Dead Sea to generate hydroelectricity for discharging some 3.5 million metric tons desalination projects. of oil per year at the Eilat-Ashqelon Pipe- CONCLUSION line terminal. In the 1970s, nearly ten times the current volume of oil was trans- Jordan has made progress over the last ported from Iran to this terminal. Jordan's decade in creating and enhanicing mecha- oil terminal, thoughi presently unused, is nisms for environmental protection in the likely to resume operations as a major Aqaba region. As this review illustrates, shiploading facility for truck-transported several new laws. standards and institu- Iraqi crude oil. In June 1996, a preliminary tions have been established. The present agreement was signed between the Gov- challenige is to assure that they are en- emineit of Jordan and a United States forced so as to have the maximum positive holdinig company for the construction of an effect. On the national level, this challenige oil refinery near Tetin, 18 kilometers east is clearly addressed in the 1995 Law of of the Gulf of Aqaba, processing 250,000 Environmental Protection. which explicitly barrels of oil per day primarily for the ex- calls for removing administrative overlap port market. This project, which may result and ambiguity in enforcement authority. In in the marine transport of substantial quan- addition, cooperation with neighboring tities of oil products, will undergo a full countries in the Gulf of Aqaba in the areas environmental assessment before final ap- of oil spill response and coral reef protec- proval is given. tion are critical to Jordan's ability to ad- Ship traffic in the Gulf of Aqaba poses dress these two environmental protection . . . ~~~~~~~~a risk of oil pollutioni from the following priorities. sue sources: Threats to the Environment . Small spills caused by the accidental or intentional release of oil- The phvsiographic features of the Gulf of ontamina l rbllast water contaminated bilge or ballast water Aqaba create a unique and diverse ecosys- from freighters (0-2 metric tons). tem. but one particularly susceptible to damage from pollution. The major pollut- . Minor spills caused by the release of ants and pollution threats in the region are oily ballast water from an oil tanker or marine oil spills and discharges, industrial the release of bunker oil during termi- pollutants, uncontained disposal of used nal operations (2-20 metric tons). mooroi muniicipal and ship based sew- motor ol* Medium spills caused by the release of age, and solid waste from marine and land oil as a result of defective equipment based sources. Planned tourism develop- or procedures at an oil terminal or ment activities may intensify existing sew- . . . age and solid waste pollution concerns and may also heighten the risk of direct physi- * Major spills caused by the rupture of a cal damage to coral reefs. bunker oil tank in a bulk/cargo vessel collision (500 metric tons), shipwreck of a bulk/cargo vessel (1,500 metric Ship traffic in the Gulf of Aqaba poses a tons), or a tanker collision causing the major, sustained risk of damage to coral rupture of a single oil tank (7,500 met- reefs and related marine life from oil pol- ric tons). lution. Over 2,300 ships pass through the Disastrous spills caused by the wreck- Port of Aqaba annually, yet the port has no age of a fully loaded oil tanker reception facility for oil-contaminated (100,000-150,000 metric tons). bilge or ballast water. Tankers with a cargo capacity of 100,000 to 150,000 metric tons Small to minor oil spills have occurred of crude oil arrive almost weekly in Eilat, frequently in the Gulf of Aqaba, causing Country Report - Jordan 65 localized damage to coral and marring the cooling water is approximately 3°C popular beach areas especially in the above ambient marine water temperature. northern Gulf area. where shipping is most Ship loading and unloading operations heavily concentrated. In 1990, some pertainiig to the JPMC facility present twenty-two small to minor spills were re- added environmental hazards. Raw sulfur ported in Israeli waters alone. In Aqaba. used at the facility is ualoaded from shlips fortv-ninle small to minlor spills were re- ported inheerid993199 nadito berthing at a nearby jetty, and fertilizer is to one medium spill in 1995 in awhichl loaded onito silips at the same jetty. Small about 54 mnetric tons of fuel oil spilled into quantities of sulfur and DAP are routinely the sea. The Ports Corporation reported spilled during these processes. and there is sixteen spills in 1993. eleven spills in a risk of larger accidental spills. Ammonia 1994, seveniteeni spills in 1995. anid five releases during transport to the plant from spills in 1996. a separate, nearby jetty pose a further risk to the environment and human healtlh. POLLUTION FROM COASTAL INDtUSTRIES Other concerns pertaining to the JPMC Jordan's South Coast Industrial Zone. im- facility include the possibility of explosioni mediatel' south of Jordan's planned South or health-endangering gas releases from a Coast Tourism Zone and adjacent to the 30,000-ton on-site ammonia storage tank, Saudi Arabian border. contains the primarv in which cooled ammonia is maintained in industries along the Gulf of Aqaba coast- a liquid state through refrigeratioii at line. The principal industries located -32 'C. As over 1,000 people are em- within this Zone are a large fertilizer ployed at the facility. immediate health manufacturing facility owned and operated hazards as well as broader ecological dan- by the JPMC: a storage area and loading gers require careful attention. terminal for potash from the Arab Potash Corporation: the i'Solvochem" tank farm The Jordan Electricity Authority cur- Corpraton-,the"Solochm" tnk arm rently operates a 260-megawatt thermal for chemicals, oils and solvents, and an as- roperates a 260-megawatt thema soiae por failt owe y.h qb power station in Jordan's South Coast In- Ports Corporation: and a 260 MW thermal dustrial Zone and is already underway withi POwerts Corpation: operatd aby6 the rmal the construction of a second stage, which power station operated by the JEA. consists of three 130-megawatt units. A The five buildings of the JPMC fertil- comprehensive environmental assessment izer factory are designed to meet the pollu- was conducted prior to the construction of tion control standards of the United States the power station. High-sulfur oil with a Environmental Protection Agency. A pri- 3.2-3.5 percent sulfur content is trans- mary environmental concern pertaining to ported from Iraq via tanker truck to be this facilitv is the possibility of reef- used at the current facility. No desulfuriza- damaging runoff during occasional flash tion equipment is currently used at the site, floods from a "gypsum mountain" due east nor is such equipment planned for the new of the plant, where 2 million metric tons of unit. Plans for retrofitting with such fluorine-containing gypsum waste are de- equipment have been considered for later posited annually in an unlined, unconfined phases of plant development. With 1,100- setting. With annual rainfall averaging 1,200 metric tons of oil burned per day, only 25 - 30 millimeters, the risk associ- approximately 35 metric tons of sulfur are ated with gypsum runoff is minimal. An- released from a 125-meter stack with twin other concern is the factory's discharge of flues into the atmosphere daily by the cur- chlorinated cooling water into the Gulf of rent plant, with double this amount ex- Aqaba at a rate of 20,000 cubic meters per pected to be emitted once the new facility hour. At the discharge point located 145 begins operation. Winds carry sulfur diox- meters from shore at a depth of 30 meters. ide and other flue gas emissions into unin- 66 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and GulfofAden habited inland desert areas southeast of the berths is another environmental issue plant 90 to 95 percent of the time. which has received considerable attention. Heated cooling water discharges froimn In 1993 two choke feeders were installed the preseint aind planned power stations on the phosphate berths to reduce dust theay have an impact on nearby corals and emissions during ship loading operations. mayine have.Atthe animpactont narycoalsoe a In April 1996. a third choke feeder entered marine life. At the present facility, some 38,000 cubic meters of cooling water per operation. Following installatioii of the 0our is discmarged iito the Gulf of Aqaba choke feeders, Ports Corporation officials from an outlet 200 meters from shore and estimate that dust emissions from the 20 meters below the surface. The tempera- phosphate facility have been reduced by 90 tuire of this wvater is 3 °C above ambienit to 95 percent. Significant additional phos- water temperature at the discharge outlet. plate dust emissions continue to occur Thie water discharge temperature surveys during the unloading of phospilate from the waterdischarge tiemperature surveys trucks and train cars into the six store bv the Marinie Sciencee Stationi showved hiouses at the phiosphate port, as well as at that, withinl 10 to 15 meters of the outlet, transfer points on phosphate conaveyors. the temperature of this water is only I °C above ambient water temperature. With an Potash and phosphate loading activi- identical cooling system planned for the ties in the port of Eilat (Israel) are further new plant, the volume of thermal dis- contributors to mineral dust problems fac- charges from the combined power stations ing the Upper Gulf of Aqaba. An undeter- will double in the coming years. mined quantity of phosphate dust gener- At the Arab Potash Company's storage ated by port operations is emitted. facility in the South Coast Industrial Zone, Hazardous and persistent solid wastes 150,000 metric tons of potash are stored in associated with land transportation pose two partially enclosed storage sheds. additional environmental problems related Closed conveyors, adjustable booms in the to Aqaba region industries. In the absence storage sheds, and dust collection equip- of a clear hazardous waste management ment are generally effective in reducing policy, used asbestos brake linings, ex- on-site dust levels. Nevertheless, insuffi- hausted automotive batteries and worn cient attention to proper operation of tires are discarded in a haphazard and, in equipment suggests that elevated on-site some cases, health-endangering manner. dust levels may still pose a health hazard During a recent site visit to the Iraqi- to the facility's 100 workers. Jordanian Land Transportation Company The Solvochem tank fanrm serves as a repair yard, oil drums filled with asbestos Thet reonvochem stoank farmit servs as a brake linings sat uncovered and unsealed port reception and storage facility for im- in outdoor areas immediately adjacent to ported chemicals including toluene, xy- the main repair shed. Tens of thousands of lene, acetone and other ketones, viiyl ace- discarded tires were also observed both tate monomer and ethanol. Imported vege- wihnterpryadndrodisp- table oils and beef tallow are also received within the repair yard and around its pe- from ships and stored on-site. The tank riphery. The handling of used batteries, farm presently has seventeen tanks meet- though not observed, is another matter of ing American Petroleum Institute stan- probable concern dards, and an additional fourteen tanks are Truck traffic in the Aqaba region also currently under construction. Approxi- generates air pollution and noise pollution. mately 13,600 metric tons of chemicals Although levels of exhaust gases have not and 6,000 metric tons of oils and beef tal- been monitored, visual levels and prelimi- low are received at the site annually. nary modeling results indicate high pollu- Phosphate dust generated by ship load- tion concentrations and noise levels in ur- ing at the Ports Corporation's phosphate ban areas adjacent to truck routes. Diver- Cotintry Report - Jordan 67 sion of trucks from inhabited areas would duce dust in the adjacent truck repair reduce these impacts, but a recently con- sheds. This practice has been employed structed bypass road throughi the Aqaba throughout the 13-year duration of the fa- mountain zone remains largely unused be- cility's operation, and an undetermined cause its grade and slope length pose grave quantity of waste oil now resides in the hazards to heavily loaded trucks. In 1994 surface and sub-surface soil strata. alone, twenty drivers lost their lives in SEWAGE POLLJTION truck accidents on the bypass road. The problemn of wvaste oil disposal is Lowi nutrient levels are a major contributor partictilarly acute in the Aqaba region be- to the diversity and abunidance of coral in particuarlye ate hinh thluine Aqaba l rgion the Gulf of Aqaba's coastal waters. Sew- l of b r age discharges into the Gulf of Aqaba have transportation via trLick to and from the g q r Aqaba Port and the industrial facilities i 'resulted i the prolferation of algae, de- Aqaba Sort Coansth industrial faciitAi esti-i pressing coral growthl particularly in the the Southl Coast Industrial Zone. An esti- Gufhevlstldnohrneae. mated 1,200 haulage vehicles enter or The Cietlo t ~~~~~~The Citv of Aqaba has a sewage collection leave the Port of Aqaba each dav, and sev- f h .. ' . n~~~~ietworl; thlat reaclhes approxim-ately 65 eral hundred additional trucks make dehiv- newrthteaesproitly6 eral hunreadiioaltruksmaee percent of the city's population of 65.000 eries to, or pickups from, the South Coast people. The remaining 35 percent of the lIndustrial Zone, resulting in over 400,000 population, primarily residing in the city's truck trips each year along local roads. older. densely settled "Old Aqaba" and Inadequate provisions for waste oil "Shalala" neighborhoods, are required by collection and recovery pose a hazard to the local building code to have operable both the marine and terrestrial environ- septic tanks. Many households lack such ments. Despite an official prohibition bar- systems, however, withi the result that un- ring trucks from entering beach areas, treated sewage percolates into sub-soils truck drivers commonly drive heavy haul- and possibly into shallow underlying age vehicles to off-road areas within a few groundwater. dozen meters of the water's edge. Waste Sewage entering Aqaba's sewage col- oil has been discharged from trucks in sen- ection network is piped to the Municipal sitive tidal areas, posing a direct hazard to Sewage Te nt Works, appro imal near-shore coral and related marine life. At four kletent oft ci inate a~~~~~ feSoit ln h catltukrue our kilometers north of' the city in the a few polints along the coastal truck route, Wadi Araba basin. The sewage is then prominent signage prohibiting trucks from tad b atin Thee-age ined enern unae bacfrn ara ca be treated by oxidation in a three-stage lIned seen, but this ban remaics to be enforced. pond treatment system, capable of han- dling 9,000 cubic meters of sewage per The use of waste oil as a dust suppres- day. Current daily loading is at 4,500 cubic sant in unpaved truck repair yards is a fur- meters per day, or about 50 percent of ca- ther environmental hazard. At the repair pacity. It is believed that half of the sew- yard of the Iraqi-Jordanian Land Transpor- age placed in the ponds is lost to evapora- tation Company, some 85 heavy haulage tion and seepage. Most of the losses are vehicles are serviced each day. Waste oil attributed to high evaporation rates in from these trucks is transferred to an on- Aqaba. Sewage may also be infiltrating the site underground storage tank which is be- brackish water aquifer from the holding lieved to be concrete-lined. While most of ponds of the Municipality of Eilat, located the waste oil is pumped from the storage some 6 kilometers north of the city of Eilat tank and transported to Jordan's oil refin- immediately adjacent to the Jordanian bor- ery in Zarqa, some 5-10 cubic meters of der. The sewage infiltration from both waste oil is sprayed on the unpaved sur- treatment plants and potential impacts on face of the truck yard each month to re- the aquifer require investigation. In Aqaba, 68 Strategic Action Progran2me for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden treated wastewater is available for land- growth in the South Coast area. Construc- scape tree and agricultural irrigation in the tion activity may cause chemical pollution vicinity of the treatment plant. Therefore, from servicing of construction machinery, the cumulative water loss in the treatment increased siltation during construction, and process represents a lost opportunity for alteration of hydrologic conditionis iiclud- restricted irrigation and for reducing de- ing runoff rates and flow patterns. Coastal mand on scarce freshwater supplies. zone management guidelines and other Cargo vessels, tour boats, ferries and planning measures have been developed private yachts are additional sources of by the ARA to minimize the potentially private yacitscharge addintiontheulf sou f adverse environmental impacts associated sewage discharge linto the Gulf of Aqaba. wihscnedvlomtatvte. Ani unidetermined proportion of cargo ves- sels using the ports of Aqaba and Eilat Aquatic Tourismn have on-board sewage treatment systems, but oneof he ulfbordrin sttesem- Aquatic tourism in Jordan has yet to ap- but inoiie of the Gulf-borderiig states em- pocitelvl o xeiicdi ploy measures to ensure the effective op- proacil the levels now experienced in eration of these systems while shlips are in neighboring Egypt and Israel. Rough esti- mates place the total number of divers in port. Moreover, the three vessels operated o b th A b B id M iti CJordan's Gulf of Aqaba waters durmgi by' the Arab Bridge Maritime Com-pany, 19atamds3,0.ufrm ,20 in servicing the Aqaba-Nuweiba ferrv route, 1e I have o onoard ewag treamentsys- 1989, com-pared to approximately 200,000 have no onboard sewage treatment Sys- in both Israel and Egypt in 1995. Jordan's tems. As a result, untreated sewage from three dive centers have a maximum com- the 1.2 million passengers who travel this bined capability of hosting 160 divers at a route annually is dumped directly' into the time. Yet even at this relatively low level. Gulf of Aqaba. .v Jordan's reefs show significant physical PHYSICAL THREATS TO CORAL REEF damage at a number of prime dive spots. ECOSYSTEMS Direct destruction of fragile reef structures Developmiient of the Souith Coast Tourisni is caused by tourists walking on exposed Znee e reefs, breaking off coral for souvenirs and collecting aquarium fish, divers resting on A precipitous rise in the numbers of divers the sea bottom while adjusting their gear: and snorkelers visiting Jordan's reefs is snorkelers dragging their fins across shal- expected in the coming years. The most low fringing reefs; underwater photogra- dramatic plan for tourist development, de- phers steadying their cameras by bracing scribed above, is in the South Coast Tour- themselves on reef formations; and fishing ism Zone. As currently proposed, this de- and tourist boats dropping anchor or run- velopment will include two 18-hole golf ning aground on the reefs. Through im- courses, a "Disneyland type" amusement plementation of Marine Park regulations park, eleven resort hotels with four to five proposed by the ARA, manv of these po- stars and a residential resort villa complex. tentially damaging activities should be Directly inland of the Tourism Zone is a controlled. major new planned town ("Teeba"), pro- .s. jected to have a population of 100,000 by Fishing the year 2020-more than 150 percent of Commercial fishing in Aqaba is done with Aqaba's current population. shallow-water (5 to 15 meter) baited cage Most directly threatening to coral reefs traps, hand-drawn gill and seine nets, and will be the substantially increased numbers handlining with baited hooks and lures. As of aquatic tourists. Wastewater manage- Jordanian fishing vessels are barred from of~~~~~~~~~~~~ eraatin outsides Jordan'se confined .rito ment and solid waste disposal are further o perating outside Jordans contined territo- issues directly affected by population rial waters, the local fishing fleet consists entirely of small outboard motor boats, ap- Coluntry Report -Jordan 69 proximately 5 meters in length. With fish- chored offshore. Some 30 metric tons of ing concentrated in or immediately adja- garbage are collected by the Port of Aqaba cent to reef areas, damage to reefs from each day. as compared to a daily average short-line anchors, snagged nets and lines, of 60 metric tons collected from Aqaba abandoned bait traps, and direct human homes and businesses. contact is an ongoing concern. Marked re- T e r L_ ~~~~~~~The efficient receptioni of marine ves- ductions in the abundance and diversitv of sel-generated waste In Jordan Is not reflec- coral-dwelling fish, observed in recent years. are partialiv attributed to cuirrent tie in Jordan's Aabre There practices in Jordail's Aqaba reg;ioil. There fishingh practices. .. . . fishing practices. is no properly maintainied solid waste land- SOLID WASIl POLLUITION fill. Instead, garbage from Aqaba house- Unlike the sporadic eniviroii-nmental imiipacts holds and businesses as well as the port is of oil pollutioni, solid waste generated by transported to an upland wadi due east of shilp crews. ferry passengers. beach vaca- thle planined South Coast T ourisimi Zone. At this site, piles of discarded waste line both tioners and local residenits poses a coni- stant. high-visibility environmental prob- sides of a winding one-kilometer road C, l~~~~~~~eading to the primarv dumping area. lem. Jordails Gulf of Aqaba beaches and l t t near-shore reef and seagrass areas are Combustible garbage is burned in open heavily impacted bv discarded plastic and fires. and non-combustibles remain ex- posed to the elements. No systernatic recv- other refuse materials. The Port of Aqaba p s tlements yt ir has solid waste receptacles in port areas and additionally provides a daily garbage Threats to the environment are sum- collection service via barge to ships an- marized in Table 3. Table 3: Threats to the Coastal Environment and Marine Resources Issue Impacts Immediate Root Causes Scale Severity Causes Oil Pollution from Ships Frequent small Damage to ma- Discharge of Lack of reception fa- Regional Moderate oil spills (less rine life, beach ballast and cilities and enforce- than 20 mt) contamination bilae water ment authority Ol 1spills of 2-20 Damage to ma- Bunker oil spill Inadequate control Regional Moderate mt rine life, beach and monitoring of contamination procedures, equip- ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ___ ___ ment and personnel _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Oils spills of up Damage to ma- Discharges Inadequate control Regional Severe to 100 mt rine life, beach from pipelines and monitoring of contamination or terminals procedures, equip- ment and personnel Potential oil spill Destruction of Rupture of oil Insufficient tanker Regional Severe of up to 150,000 marine habitats, tanks in colli- safety specifications, mt devastation of sion or wreck- inadequate personnel beaches age and navigation proce- d ures Pollution from Coastat Industnes Industrial Health risk and Accidental spill Inadequate control Local Moderate chemical spills potential damage during trans- and monitoring of to marine life port, storage or hazardous sub- use of chemi- stances cals Air pollution - Health risk and Release of S02 Inadequate air pollu- Local Moderate S02emissions deterioration of from electrical tion control regula- aesthetics facility and fer- tions, monitoring and tilizer plant enforcement 70 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and GnifojaAden7 Table 3 continued Issue Impacts Immediate Root Causes Scale Severity Causes Cooling water Alteration of ma- Release of Inadequate thermal Local Low discharges rine environment cooling waters pollution control stan- from electrical dards, monitoring and facility and fer- enforcement tilizer_plant _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Phosphate dust Decreased coral Release of Inadequate pollution Local Low emissions growth around phosphate dust control standards, phosphate port during port op- monitoring and en- erations forcement Gypsum disposal Potential leaching Unconfined Lack of proper haz- Local Low of gypsum into the storage of gyp- ardous waste disposal Gulf of Aqaba, or sum at the siting, regulation and seepage into fertilizer factory enforcement groundwater Waste oil Soil and possible Improper dis- Lack of proper oil dis- Regional Severe disposal groundwater im- posal of used posal or recovery op- pacts motor oil and tions and lack of ef- use of oil as a fective regulations dust suppres- and enforcement sant Sewaae Pollution _______ Municipal Raised water ta- Treated sew- Unlined maturation Regional Unknown sewage ble and possible age infiltration ponds and incomplete groundwater im- reuse of treated sew- pacts age Marine vessel Localized marine Direct dis- Inadequate on-board Regional Moderate sewage pollution charge from treatment ships Physical Threats fo Coral Reef Ecosystem Development of Physical damage Marinas, Inadequate environ- Local Moderate South Coast to reefs, alteration coastal con- mental planning Tourism Zone of coastline, eu- struction, sew- guidelines for coastal trophication age infiltration, development landscape irri- gation Aquatic tourism Damage to corals, Physical con- Lack of education Regional Severe and fishing depletion of tact with reefs about sensitivity of fisheries and overfishing marine ecosystem, inadequate regula- tions and enforcement Solid Waste Aesthetic deterio- Beach litter, Inadequate solid Regional Moderate Pollution ration, physical open dumping waste collection, dis- damage to reefs and garbage posal, public aware- and marine life from ships ness and enforcement Recent, Current and Planned A Resource Book of Information and Environmental Initiatives Guidelines for Action. This document gives an overview of environmental condi- Jordan, with assistance from a variety of tions in Jordan and recommendations for international sources, is currently involved improvements. The Ministry of Planning in an extensive process of planning and and the Ministry of Municipal Rural Af- implementation of environmental legisla- fairs and Environment, relying on back- tion and projects aimed at protecting and ground material provided by local consult- enhancing the Gulf of Aqaba's marine and ants, and with support from the Govern- terrestrial environment. This process began ment of Japan and the World Bank, then in 1989 with the National Environmental prepared the National Environmental Ac- Strategy Project, with assistance from the tion Plan (NEAP) for Jordan. This in- IUCN - World Conservation Union, which volved a systematic planning process resulted in the 1991 publication of the Na- which prioritized actions based on envi- tional Environmental Strategy for Jordan. Couintv Report - Jordan 71 ronmental criteria, and scheduled imple- Tourism Zone as well as other devel- mentation of the highest priority items opment areas. within three to five years. The NEAP is an . Environmental auditing procedures ongoing dynamic process that responds to applicable to existing industries in the new environmental conditions and chal- . lne. Aqaba region. lenges. . Performance and discharge standards In Noveber 199, the Jrdanianfor industries located along or near the Government requested that a proposal for a coast. regional Gulf of Aqaba Environimenital Ac- coast. tion Plan be sLubmitted to the GEF. A . Preliminary manacement guidelines World Banki mission assisted the govern- for the Jordanian portion of the Red ment in preparing the framework for aii Sea Marine Peace Park. environimenital action plan for the Jorda- A report on marine vessel pollution niani portion of the Gulf of Aqaba. In Oc- prevention and port reception facility tober 1993, the Government of Jordanp needs. Based on PPA docup entatioii with GEF and World Banki assistance, and analysis, the GEF Council ap- completed the Gulf of Aqaba Environ- proved full implementation of the mental Action Plan, Jordan (GAEAP). GAEAP in June 1996. This document recommends twenty-three actions in six categories: legal and regula- During the three-year implementation tory framework; institutional strengthen- phase of this USD3.5 million project, the ing; infrastructure investments. marine GAEAP is providing staffing and training park management; monitoring and applied for the recently established Environment research; and public awareness and envi- Unit of the ARA. including the hiring of a ronilimenital education. The primary objec- Unit Director, an industrial pollution pre- tive of the GEF project is to enable Jordan vention specialist, a coastal zone manage- to take the lead in establishing and imple- ment/environmental assessment specialist, menting a regional collaborative frame- a GIS/computer programmer. a Marine work for sustainable management and pro- Park Manager and Marine Park Staff, and tection of the Gulf of Aqaba, and the con- support staff. In coordination with coun- servation of its unique coral reefs. The terpart agencies in Aqaba and at the na- GAEAP utilizes the comprehensive ap- tional level, the ARA will apply the Envi- proach outlined in the GEF Council strat- ronmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and egy for international waters to develop Coastal Zone Management (CZM) guide- mechanisms for control of transboundary lines developed under the PPA: introduce pollution, and addresses environmental is- an enhanced system for monitoring indus- sues that constitute regional and global pri- try pollution prevention measures; and de- orities. velop and implement a management plan for the Jordanian portion of the Red Sea Devetantiallopmnden the GAEAProjet a pane Marine Peace Park. It will also work with substantially under the GEE Project Prepa- thPosCrpaintoteghncuet ration Advance (PPA), carried out during the Ports Corporation to strengthen current rationAdvance (PPima docaried prouduring efforts to monitor and enforce regulations 1995-1996. Primary documents produced barring marine vessel pollution of the Gulf of Aqaba, and to develop port reception * Environmental assessment procedures facilities for oil-contaminated ship waste. for new developments in the Aqaba Important assistance in developing region. regulations for the Jordanian portion of the * Coastal zone management guidelines Red Sea Marine Park has been provided by for Jordan's planned South Coast the US Agency for International Develop- ment and the US National Oceanic and 72 Strategic Action Prograin ejor trhe Red Sea and Gulj of Aden Atmospheric Administration. This park, a ordinated emergency response centers in specific outgrowth of the 1994 peace treaty each of the three neighibors. In the spring with Israel, involves cooperation between of 1996, Jordan received a full comple- the two parties in developing and imple- ment of oil spill response equipment capa- menting a marine park management strat- ble of handling spills of up to 300 metric egy for the upper Gulf of Aqaba. tons. This equipment is housed at the Ports The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Corporation, which is responsible for co- Resources hias prepared comprehen,sive ordinating Jordanian oil spill response ef- environmenital guidelines for all energy forts. sector operations in consultation withi the These recent developments are listed World Bank and the concerned local insti- in Table 4. Table 4: Recent, Current and Planned Environmental Initiatives Programme/Project Period Budget Scale Implementing (USD million) Agency Upper Gulf Oil Spill Contingency 1993- 7.0 (EU/Japan) Regional Aqaba Ports Project 1996 Corporation Installation of three choke feeders at 1994, 2.2 (Ports Local Aqaba Ports the phosphate port to reduce phos- 1996 Corp.) Corporation phate dust Development by the GEF PPA of 1995 0.3 (GEF) Local ARA environmental impact assessment, environmental auditing and coastal zone management procedures ________ Performance and discharge stan- 1995- Local ARA dards for industries on or near the 1996 coast Report on marine vessel pollution 1995 Local ARA prevention and port reception facility Aqaba Ports needs Corporation Proposal for creation of waste oil re- 1995 Local ARA Preliminary management guidelines 1994- 0.1 (USAID) Regional ARA for the Jordanian portion of the Ma- 1995 rine Peace Park Full implementation of Gulf of Aqaba 1996- 2.7 (GEF) Regional ARA Environmental Action Plan (GEF) 1999 0.8 (Jordan) tutions. These guidelines apply to the Priority Actions power sub-sectors, oil and gas operations, The pon actions resented here address refineries and petroleum products, storage The preats to nviresentederibed and istibuion oi an ga pielies,and the threats to the environment described and distribution, oil and gas pipelines, and above. Beyond the specific focus on iden- vehicle emissions. tified environmental threats, two overarch- Regionally, there are several additional ing objectives are relevant for each action: significant developments. During 1994 and 1995, Jordan, Egypt and Israel took a first Strengting th overnstna step toward developing a sub-regional ap- .cies .of J ian G ranm proach to environmental protection agencies through the hiring and train- throach the prenviratonmental UpprotercGuing of staff and the implementation of through the preparation of an Upper Gulf environmental protection laws and of Aqaba Oil Spill Contingency Project funded by the European Union (EU) and regulations. the Government of Japan. This plan, cur- rently under implementation, calls for co- Countr'iy Report - Jordan 73 Improving regional cooperation to co- and data functions, and conduct staff train- ordinate and enhance the efforts of in- ing in information technology applications dividual parties bordering the Gulf. for specific projects. Jordani has already taken significant PHYSICAL THREATS lO CORAL REEF action on improving its capacity for envi- ECOSYSIEMS ronmental protection. The establishment of implement GEE PPA coastal zone the new national environmental law, the management and environmental im- creatioIl of the ARA Environment Unit. and the work of the GEF PPA are evidence pact assessment procedures. of progress in this area. Regional coopera- The ARA will use the draft CZM and EIA tion is also critical to environmenital pro- procedures developed under the PPA to tection because of the dramatic tranis- establish and implement guidelines for boundary impacts on this small section of new construction. These guidelines will be coast. As described above, the Middle East coordinated with requirements that may be peace process and the openinig up of rela- developed by the General Corporation on tions between Jordan and Israel have cre- Environmental Protection. As a key step ated commitments for regionial cooperation toward implementing the draft CZM on a range of environmental issues. guidelines, a statutory coastal zone man- INSTITuTrIONAL GAPS agement map will be proposed and adopted, establishing boundaries of coastal Hire and train staff to implement Gulf sub-zones (marine waters, beach, back- of Aqaba environmental protection shore, upland. etc.). EIA procedures, de- policies and regulationis. veloped under PPA, will be supplemented Under this action, staff have been hired to in order to apply them to specific projects promote the full and effective implementa- or categories of projects. tion of industrial pollution prevention. . Establish and implement a manage- coastal zone management, environmental ment plan and regulations for a Gulf of assessment and marine park regulations. A Aqaba Marine Park. full-time GEF Project Manager has been Under this task, a multi-use marine park hired to supervise Project implementation (MP) will be officially established in Jor- over a three-year period, and an ARA En- dan. Authorizing legislation will be final- vironment Unit Director has been hired to ized and a management plan developed manage all ARA environmental responsi- and implemented. This plan will include: bilities. Other key positions include a Ma- rine Park Manager and Rangers, an Indus- O Regulations governing different trial Pollution Prevention Specialist, and a user activities (e.g. motorized and Coastal Zone Management/Environmental non-motorized boating, diving, Impact Assessment Specialist. snorkeling, swimming, fishing, Acquire computer/GIS database capa- beach recreation). bility. O Installation of boundary demarca- Under this action, an assessment will be tions for different user zones made to determine the information tech- within the MP, including mooring nology appropriate to support the work of and marker buoys, terrestrial fenc- the ARA Environment Unit. The informa- ing, floating platforms, reef cross- tion technology system chosen must be de- overs, and informational signs. signed to promote planning, monitoring O A detailed operating budget incor- and enforcement actions. This equipment porating user fees and other means will be purchased, and a computer/GIS of financing ongoing MP opera- programmer hired to manage all computer tions. 74 Strategic Actiot Programmefor the Red Sea and Gulfof Aden 0 A public information and aware- may be expected to develop regulations for ness programme., including printed marine vessel management of oily waste information brochures for different (bilge and ballast water and tank wash- user categories and audio-visual ings), noxious liquid substances, solid presentations for use at the MP waste, and possibly sewage. A study will visitor center, in Aqaba area ho- be conducted to examine the nature of Jor- tels. and in public school and adult dan's obligations under MARPOL, with educational settings. specific attention to the introduction and implementation of ship record-keeping and This plan will be implemented by a man- report irementsh port inspeion agmet ea icldii aMPMaagr reportimg requirem-enits, port inspectioni agement team includingaMPMfunctionis and port reception facility needs. two MP Wardens and support staff. Park activities will be coordinated withi regional A specialist in marine vessel pollution pre- counterparts. vention will be hired to help implement the newv standards and regulations. The re- Hire and trami staff to implemenit regu- .ie sadrsaidegltos. Th e Ilation of new develop lnent. sponsibilities of this position will include conducting regular inspections and sam- A carefully targeted training programme pling discharges, bilge and ballast water will be developed and implemented to from marine vessels; compiling inspection strengthen Jordanian capacity to regulate information in a computer database; pre- and control new development based on en- paring reports on findings from inspections vironmental concerns. A coastal zone and coordinating strategies for reducing management specialist will be hired in or- marine vessel pollution with regional part- der to assist in finalizing EIA and CZM ners. requirements and the CZM statutory mapDd v . ' . Develop a solid waste programme. work with developers, engineers, architects and planners through all stages of project A mangement programme should be de- review to ensure compliance with CZM veloped and implemented to control dis- and EIA requirements; and train relevant posal of solid waste and litter from ships ARA staff on the effective use of the new and ferry boats. CZM and EIA procedures. Produce a feasibility study for bilge NAVIGATION RISK AND MARITIME and ballast water reception facilities at TRANSPORT the Port of Aqaba. Improve navigational aids. Under this action, a feasibility study for waste oil collection, recovery and reuse in Navigational aids and radio communica- wte Ua tions in Jordanian waters should be im- the Upper Gulf of Aqaba region will be . . ~~completed. Building upon consultations proved, especially on major shipping chan- copetd Buldn uocnslais ped, with the International Maritime Organiza- nels. tion initiated under the PPA, various tech- . Develop and implement marine vessel nological options for collection, storage, pollution prevention and control stan- transport and recycling of waste oil from dards and regulations. ships will be examined. Provisions for in- Pollution prevention and control standards tegrating waste oil from land transport ve- for *m.eve n c w hicles into the collection and reuse system foRPOL minevessels,ionsisen wi the tveld will be included. The feasibility of build- MARPOL Conventi on, will be developed ing a coordinated (Jordan-Egypt-Israel) under this action. Jordan, now a signatory waste oil recovery scheme will also be as- to MARPOL 73/78, is expected to ratify sessed. Fee based measures of cost recov- the Convention and certain key annexes toial the Convention in the near future. To meet eay will be p ed,land sourcesofn its obligations as a MARPOL party, Jordan financing will be explored for a demon- Colintr) Report - Jordan 75 stration project in integrated waste oil re- tion of industries, the ARA will monitor covery and reuse. air and water discharges, compile and ana- . Produce a prefeasibilitv study on lyze inspection data, review emergency mechlan1ism1s to reduce risli of catastro- preparedness planis, and assist industries in phic oil spills. the preparation of environmental audits. Coastal zone management guidelines, to be Throughi the Upper Gulf of Aqaba Oil implemented under the GEF project, will Spill Contingency Project. significanit steps help guide future decisions about industrial have been takien to prepare for small to siting. moderate oil spill response through the es- tablislhmenit of oil spill responise cenlters ill dustrial pollution prevention regula- Nuweiba (Egypt), Eilat (Israel) and Aqaba. tions. The Contiigenicy Project, targeting spills of up to 600 metric tons of oil, leaves uln- A carefully targeted training programme addressed the risk of a potentiall' catastro- will be developed and implemented to phic spill (up to 150,000 metric tons) re- strengthieni Jordanian capacity to regulate sulting from a tanker collision or ground- industrial performance. Essential for the ing in the Gulf of Aqaba. To address this development of this programme is the hir- hazard, a prefeasibility study of measures ing of two technical specialists under the to enhance tanker safety will be conducted, supervision of the ARA Environment Unit to examine the economic feasibility and Director: an industrial pollution prevention practical benefits of electronic navigational specialist and an environmental monitoring aids, pilotage requirements for tankers op- technician. The industrial pollution erating in the Gulf of Aqaba, and tanker prevention specialist will implement the design specifications (e.g. double-hull de- new permitting process, conduct facility sigin). Harmonization of proposed meas- inspections and review specific industry ures among Gulf-bordering states will be documents and practices relevant to con- explored as part of this analysis. trol of industrial pollution. The environ- INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT mental monitoring technician will be re- sponsible for collection and analysis of * Create a demonstration project for ma- both air and water samples. Special region- rine waste oil recovery. wide training efforts to reduce industrial Building upon the feasibility study for pollution will also be carried out. bilge and ballast water reception facilities, . Conduct waste oil contamination the most appropriate options for recoverv monitoring and initiate a demonstra- of marine waste oil for the Aqaba region tion project in waste oil recovery from will be put into practice as a demonstration land based sources. project. This project could be effectively Under this activity, inspection of surface integrated with a parallel effort for waste and underground oil storage tanks will be oil from land transport vehicles, undertaken and selective soil samples will * Adopt and implement regulations, be examined to determine possible waste standards, coastal zone management oil contamination. Technical and economic and environmental auditing procedures aspects of waste oil collection, reuse and for coastal industries. disposal will also be analyzed, and a dem- Based on the studies made during the pre- onstration project for reuse and disposal of paratory phase of the GEE project, the waste oil will be created. This programme ARA will adopt and implement guidelines could be integrated with a parallel effort for industrial pollution prevention. for marine waste oil recovery. Through a permit based system for regula- 76 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and GuIjofAden Monitor marine water quality. URBAN DEVELOPMENT Under this action, a programme for moni- . Develop a plan for municipal sewage toring the Gulf of Aqaba's waters has been water conservation and reuse. designed by the ARA's Environment Unit Under this action, concepts for more effec- in collaboration withi the MSS, to be im- Undertis atioionepts for more efc plemented jointlv by the ARA and the tive utilizatio of treated sewage water will be analyzed and presented in order to MSS. A framework for the marine water achieve Jordan's niio-discharge' policy re- quality monitoring programme is presented garding sewage influx into the Gulf of in Aniex 9 of the October 1993 report A. c Gitf (f AabaEiiiroiiietial ctin Pan, Aqaba. Technical aind econioiilic feasibility Jor AaiIts baectiveoarento assesActio ent Pn of sewage water reuse will be examined Jordan]. Its objectives are to assess current with respect to both the existinig treatmenit marine water qualitv, and to establishl marine water quality. plant and the new facility planned for Jor- measures for maintaining and improving daifs South Coast Tourism Zoiie. water quality. The monitoring programme will include monthily baseline testing at se- * Conduct groundwater quality monitor- lected locations both along the coast (in- ing programme. cluding bathinig areas) and in offshiore Gulf Current monitoring of test wells in the vi- of Aqaba waters, so as to assess the hori- cinitv of the Aqaba sewage treatment plant zontal and vertical distribution and move- will be enhanced to clarify the extent and ment of nutrients, inorganic components. nature of possible sewage infiltration into algae, oxygen, salinit, and other elements. T pr the transboundarv brackish water aquifer The programme is funded by the United nrhfhctoAaa States Agency for International Develop- menit and the GEF, and will be coordinated * Develop and implement a solid waste with the monitoring activities of other lit- collection, recycling and disposal plan. toral states. A solid waste collection, recycling and Further reduce phosphate dust emis- disposal plan, developed under this action, sions. will examine the financial feasibility and Under the GAEAP. the technical feasibil- environmental impacts of such options as l]ndr th GAAP? he echmal easiil- separation of compostable organiic waste 1tv of different options for further reducing aratin of postaber aste phoshat dus emssins i pot aras ill and recycling of plastics. paper and metal phosphate dustemissions in port areas will waste. Mechanisms for safe handling be examined. Improved operation of choke transport and disposal of medical waste feeders can reduce dust emissions during will be presented in the study, and meas- shiploading;, technological changes can be wilbprsneintetuyadma- mhiploade in theequipmenological usnedso uures to ensure the segregation of hazardous made in the equipment used to unload wastes from the solid waste stream will be phosphate from trucks and train cars; and wastes Fee sed wastemstr will be the design of conveyors and storage sheds examined. Fee based systems for cost re- can e enancd. Te prlimnarycostes- covery and options for bidding out specific can be enhanced. The preliminary cost es- solid wvaste management functions to pri- timate for a comprehensive dust collection vate contractors will also be explored. Full system for the phosphate port at Aqaba is integration of port reception facilities for solid waste will be a feature of this plan. Undertake actions to manage trans- APPLIED RESEARCH boundary marine pollution in the upper Gulf of Aqaba. * Strengthen applied research activities. Actions should be undertaken to manage In particular, the current programme for transboundary marine pollution in the up- development of a database for biological per Gulf of Aqaba. resources and environmental information should be strengthened. Programmes to Counitry Report - Jordan 77 support operations and enforcement activi- The priority actions are summarized in ties should be further strengthened and ex- Table 5. panded. Table 5: Priority Actions __w_ w Environmental Priority Action Scl wEmphasis Urgency Issue Environmental Recruitment and training of National Capacity building management staff to implement Gulf of Local Management pro- Aqaba environmental protec- gramme tion policies and requlations Environmental Development of an improved Local Management informa- * management computer and GIS database tion capability for environmental Capacity building management of the Gulf of Habitat Implementation of GEF Pro- National Management pro- conservation ject-supported Coastal Zone Local gramme Management and Environ- Enforcement mental Assessment proce- dures Habitat Establishment and implemen- Regional Legal framework conservation tation of a management plan National Capacity building and regulations for a Gulf of Local Management pro- Aqaba Marine Park, including gramme fisheries manaqement Enforcement Habitat Recruitment and training of Local Capacity building ** conservation staff to implement regulations Management pro- for new coastal development gramme to reduce physical threats to Enforcement coral reef ecosystems Navigation risk Improvement of navigational Sub- Capacity building ** aids and radio communications Regional Technical development in Jordanian waters, especially National on major shipping channels Local Maritime Development and implementa- Local Legal framework transport tion of pollution prevention Capacity building control standards and regula- Enforcement tions for ship-based sources Maritime Development and implementa- Regional Legalframework transport tion of a management pro- National Enforcement gramme to control disposal of Local Public awareness solid waste and lifter from ships and ferrv boats Maritime Preparation of a feasibility Local Feasibility study transport study for bilge and ballast wa- Technical development ter reception facilities at the Port of Aqaba and implemen- tation of priority recommenda- tions Petroleum Preparation of a pre-feasibility Regional Management informa- development study on mechanisms to re- National tion and transport duce the risk of catastrophic oil Local Management pro- spills gramme Industrial Design and implementation of Regional Demonstration activity development a demonstration project for Local Technical development marine waste oil recovery 78 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf oJA4den Table 5 continued Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Industrial Adoption and implementation National Strengthening stan- development of regulations, standards, Local dards coastal zone management and Enforcement environmental auditing proce- dures for coastal industries Industrial Recruitment and training of National Capacity building development staff for implementation of in- Local Strengthening stan- dustrial pollution prevention dards regulations Enforcement Industrial Waste oil contamination moni- Local Management informa- ** development toring and demonstration pro- tion ject in recovery of waste oil Technical development from land-based sources Industrial Programme to monitor marine Local Information gathering ** development water quality for pollution from industries Industrial Implementation of measures to Local Technical development i development further reduce phosphate dust emissions Urban and Cooperative actions to man- Sub- Regional cooperation industrial age transboundary marine pol- Regional Management pro- development lution in the upper Gulf of National gramme Aqaba Local Technical development Urban Development and implementa- Local Technical development development tion of a plan for municipal wastewater conservation and reuse Urban Development and implementa- Regional Management informa- development tion of a groundwater quality Local tion management programme Management pro- arame Urban Development and implementa- Local Technical development ** development tion of a solid waste collection, Regional cooperation recvcling and disposal plan Applied Strengthening of current pro- National Capacity building * research gramme for development of Local Management informa- database for biological re- tion sources and environmental information; further strengthen- ing and expansion of pro- grammes to support opera- tions and enforcement activi- ties References Plan. Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Al-Khoshman. Eng. Mahimoud. 1996. En- World Bank/Global Environment Facil- Al-Khoshman. Eng. Mahmoud. 1996. En- ity. vironmental Impact Assessment Package. 1995. Prepared for the Jordan Marine Atari, Dr. Yousef 1996. Jordan Marine Pollution Action Plan. Hashemite King- Pollution Action Plan: Analysis of Gov- dom of Jordan, World Bank/Global Envi- ernmental Agencies Responsible of Envi- ronment Facility. ronmental Protection in Jordan. Pre- pared for the Jordan Marine Pollution Al-Khoshman, Eng. Mahmoud. 1995. En- Acio Pln Hahmr igo fJr vironmental Auditing Package. Prepared An, Wld Bank/Goba Envioment for the Jordan Marine Pollution Action dacilo. . Facility. Couintry Report - Jordan 79 Clawson, Patrick. Tourisnm Cooperation in Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Ministry of the Levant. Research Memorandum. No. Municipal and Rural Affairs and the En- 26. Washington DC: Washington Insti- vironment, IUCN-World Conservation tute Policy Focus, May 1994. Union. 1991. National Environment Strategy for Jordan: A Resouirce Book COWIConsult, Consulting Engineers and for Information and Guidelines for Ac- Planiners, CEB Jouzy and Partners Con- torI. sulting Engineering Bureau, Copenha- tiO7. ten. 1995. Report fioin a Project Follow- Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Ministry of upil Aission, September 2 - 8. September Transport. 1993. The Ports Corporationi 1995. Year Book. COWIConsult. Consulting Engineers and Internationial Maritime Organization. 1995. Planiers: CEB Jouzy aiid Partilers Con- M1ission Report on7 the Assessmen7t of the suIlting Engineering Bureau, Copenha- Need for Reception Facilities for Ship gen. 1995. Reportfiom ta Project Follow- Generated Whraste in the Port of Aqaba. up) 11vission, Decemnber 8 - 20. February Prepared for thie Jordan Marine Pollution 1995. Action Plan. Hashemite Kingdom of Jor- COWIConlsult, Consulting Engineers and dani World Bank/Global Environment Planners; CEB Jouzy and Partners Con- Facility. sulting Enginieerinig Bureau, Copenha- Mann, Roy. B. 1995. Coastal Zon7e Man- gen. 1993. Aqaba Coastal Resources: agemnent Guzidelines and Standards fbr Emnvironmental M11anagement Stldv in Touirisni7 and Urbca Developn77ent in the Jordan. October 1993. Aqaba Regiont of Jordan. Prepared for Dar Al-Handasah Consultants. 1996. Tour- tlhe Jordan Marine Pollution Action Plan. ism Outline Developn7ienit anid Growth Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, World ismn ut/meDevelpmentand Gowth Bank/Global Environment Facility. Scenario in the Petra Region. Amman: i Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan Ministry Musa. Dr. Riyad. 1996. An Evaluation of of Tourism and Antiquities. Land based Indutstrial lPollution Sources in the Gulf of Aqaba. Prepared for the Environmental Law Institute. 1994. Pro- Jordan Marine Pollution Action Plan. tecting the Gulf of Aqaba: A Regional Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, World EnCvironmental Callenge. Washington, Bank/Global Environment Facility. DC. Wilkinson, C.R. 2000. Statuts of Coral Environmental Resources Mana-ement. Wikno.CR 20.Saz fCoa Env6.ironndstral ResourcesManagrement.o77 Reefs of the World: 2000. Global Coral 1996. Indutstrial Pollurtion Prevention Reef Monitoring Network and Australian and Conthrol in Aqaba Joidan. Prepared Institute of Marine Science. Townsville, for the Jordan Marine Pollution Action Queensland. 363 p. Plan. Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. World Bank/Global Environment Facil- World Bank, Gulf ofAqaba Environmental ity. London. Action Plan: Jordan. Report No. 12244 Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Central JO. October 1993. Bank of Jordan Department of Research World Bank/Global Environment Facility, and Studies. 1995. Monthly Statistical Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan: Gutlf of Butlletin. Vol. 31, No. 12, December. Aqaba Environmental Action Plan Pro- j.ect Docutn7ent. Report No. 15290 JO, Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Central Mec Dc n. R Bank of Jordan Department of Research May 1996. and Studies. 1994. Thirty-first Annutal Report. 80 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gulf of/Aden Acknowledgments Valuable coments and guidance were pro- vided by His Excellency Dr. Fayez Khasawneh, former President of the Aqaba Region Authority, Engineer Muzahem Muhaisini, former Secretary General of the Aqaba Region Authority, Dr. Engineer Saleh Share. Director of the General Cor- poration for Environmental Protection. and Dr. Ahmed Abu-Hilal, Director of the Aqaba Marine Science Station. Additional suggestions and helpful information were provided by representatives of the Ministry of Planning, the Ports Corporation, the Royal Jordanian Navy, the Jordan Electric- ity Authority, the Jordan Phosphate Mines Company, the Royal Scientific Society, and the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature. This document was prepared by: Raed Anwar Daoud, Managing Director, EnviroConsult Office (Amman) and Steven Lewis, under the supervision of Philip Warburg, Executive Director, Resources for a Sustainable Environment. Country Report Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Introduction pared by a Task Force including PERSGA member states, the Islamic Development The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden represent a Bn.teUie ain eeomn complex and unique tropical marine eco- Pam U. the United NationsD Programme (UNDP), the United Nations system with extraordinary' biological di- Environment Programme (UNEP). and the versitv and a remarkably high degree of World Bank. Financial suport has been endemism. This narrow band of water provided by the countries of the Region. shared bv a number of coastal states is also t G E I the Global Environiment Facility (GEF) an important shipping lane linking the . T Z and selected donor organizations. The GEF world's major oceans. While large parts of has approved support for implementation the Region are still in a pristine state, envi- of the SAP, which will be complemented ronmental threats-notably from habitat by funding from a variety of intemational destruction, over-exploitation and pollu- tion-are increasing rapidly, requiring immediate action to protect the Region's The present country report provides coastal and marine environment. To this background information to the SAP proc- end, a Strategic Action Programme (SAP) ess at the national level. It is based on in- has been prepared through a continuous, formation from publications and reports. consultative and cooperative process References and summary data are provided among the coastal states, coordinated by at the end of the text. the Regional Organization for the Conser- vation of the Environment of the Red Sea Background and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA). Saudi Arabia's Red Sea coastline extends The SAP is a programmatic approach over 130 latitude from al-Dourrah at the to the development of country based re- border with Jordan, north of Haql (ap- gional environmental projects, providing proximately 29°30'N) south to the border and benefiting from linkages with ongoing with Yemen at Oreste Point (approxi- regional seas initiatives and major interna- mately 16°22'N). The coastline is ap- tional waters projects. This will assure a proximately 1,840 kilometers in length, concerted approach to transboundary prob- accounting for 79 percent of the eastern lems, and the realization of regional and seaboard of the Red Sea (MEPA/IUCN, global benefits. The SAP has been pre- 81 82 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gzlf ofAden 1987). See Map of Saudi Arabia at end of ern industrial country., complete with so- volume. phisticated infrastructure and modern As the climate is extremely arid, much health care (Table 2). of Saudi Arabia's biological productiviht Much of Saudi Arabia's development is confined to a narrow coastal strip and has taken place in or has had an effect on originates mostly from habitats such as the coastal lands and waters where 20.4 coral reefs and the mangrove and seagrass percent of the population of nearly 17 mil- communities found in shallow embay- lion were censused in 1992 (Ministry of ments (Table 1). Planning, 1994). Of these, 15.2 percent lived in the Red Sea coastal zone. Table 1: Distribution of PhysioJraphic Tpes in Saudi Arabia By 1987 Land Type io1Ha Human Impact % about 8 percent Land, Arid 209,283 Land Area of Low Human Dis- 83.2% Of te Red Sea turbance coast had been Land, Semi-Arid 4,920 Land Area of Medium Human 6.7% subject to ex- _ Disturbance tensive devel- Land, Humid 766 Land Area of High Human Dis- 0.08% opment (Chiff- turbance ings. 1989). Land, Su Much of this L and, Sub-tropical 149,311 _ ~~~~~~~~~development Land, Temperate none; Source: WRI, 1995 (1989, prior to settlement of a number of border issues) involved land- filling and The continental shelf extends offshore dredging, affecting substantial areas of the for distances of less than 1 kilometer in the intertidal and nearshore sub-tidal habitats. Gulf of Aqaba to over 100 kilometers in Urban expansion and comiche develop- the Farasan Bank. The continental shelf ment are continuing this trend towards de- area to the 200 meter depth contour is terioration of habitats and natural re- 77,859 square kilometers (WRI, 1995). sources (NCWCD, 1990). Saudi Arabia claims a contiguous zone (in which it exercises economic control) of eighteen nautical Table 2: Some Development Achievements miles and a territorial sea between 1963 and 1994 Item Period Percent twelve nautical miles. Change Average rainfall is gen- P erally less than 70 millime- Gc ters per year along the broad Paved Roads 1979-1988 157 coastal Tihama (16 millime- P C 1 3 ters per year at al-Wajh, 63 A A millimeters per year at Jed- = f millimetes per yea at Jed- Fertilizer Production 1969-1991 9342 dah and 63 millimeters per R P 1 year at Jizan) although inland Crude Oil Production 1963-1991 393 above the coastal escarpment Cement Production 1967-1993 3058 it may exceed 200 millime- Desalination 1970-1994 9928 ters per year. Vehicles 1975-1990 888 Electricity 1974-1992 4055 In the past three decades, So : M S Saudi Arabia has undergone a rapid transformation from a state of un- Saudi Arabia is experiencing major derdevelopment with severe constraints to expansion of its population and economy development and public welfare to a mod- that requires careful planning, particularly Countrv Report - Saudi .rabia 83 with regard to its coastal and marine re- bly of great significance and may iifluenlce source base. This is particularly true of the or even limit the development of endemic Red Sea coastal zone because of its greater forms. length and pressures from urban and indus- trial development. In addition, much of the 3 ID30 pressure from the 25.000 to 30,000 ships tranisiting thirouglh the Red Sea (Lintner ZEE ZONE A GULF OF AQABA) anid otlhers, 1995) are associated witlh . molE i ZONE B (NORTHERN RED SEA) Saudi Arabia's oil production and petro- :.oobo |Z ZONECICENTRALREDSEAI chemical ilndustries on botlh coasts. ZDNED SOUTHERN RED SEA) .' ..AI Wajh Coastal and Marine Resources HABI I'ATiS V U- Lajh - -25P ARAB" Most of the ilnformation available onl SaUdi REP OF GY Arabia's coastal resources comes from an SAUDI extensive survey of the literature as well as ARABIA a field survey of the entire Saudi Arabian. Red Sea and Gulf coasts by Saudi Arabia's Jedok Meteorology and Environmental Protec- OMakkoh tion Administration (MEPA) in collabora- , tion with the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The results are presented in a SUDAN seven volume series (MEPA/IUCN, 1987). This effort provided a valuable baseline -A describing the predominant habitats and .6q.yq formed the basis for a national coastal I zone planning effort. Currently, a process ERITREA for cross-sectoral coastal planning has 0 200km z been submitted by MEPA for approval and promulgation. Mch 2000 ' In general, four physiographic zones Figure 1. Biogeographical Regions in the were recognized within the Saudi Arabian Saudi Arabian Red Sea. Red Sea based upon species distribution. These were: . Zone A (Gulf of Aqaba) is character- ized by its geographical isolation and * Zone A - Gulf of Aqaba. the relatively high number of species * Zone B - Northern Red Sea. that are either restricted to or restricted from the area. The extreme north of * Zone C - Central Red Sea, including the Gulf contains species found no- the outer Farasan Bank. where else in the Red Sea. * Zone D - Southern Red Sea. . Zone B (Northern Red Sea) is charac- The distribution of these zones (shown terized by the seagrass Thalassodeni- in Figure 1) may be determined by a vari- dron ciliatum which is found in this ety of physical factors such as substrate zone and Zone A but rarely elsewhere type and availability, relative aridity of the in the Red Sea. Temperature may be a associated land-mass and freshwater run- determinant factor for many of the off, nutrient supply, water circulation and species distributions. wave exposure. Climatic factors, in par- . Zone C (Central Red Sea, including ticular sea surface temperature, are proba- the outer Farasan Bank) contains many 84 Strategic Action Programme for thie Red Sea and Gulf oJfA den species absent from Zone B to the Coral Reefs north and Zone D to the south. There The coral reefs of the Red Sea are among Is some evidence that coral abundance is some incexthat cora iabudanc the most spectacular in the world. Most are trisuimortnt in explaioneing speces ds- situated along the coast and surrounding pributron ithsznawelstr- offshore islands and are in relatively good condition. However, reefs along some Zone D (Southern Red Sea) has many stretches, such as the coast surrounding species more suited to its waters whichl Jeddah and the industrial city of Yanbu are are laden with sediment from land becoming increasingly affected by devel- based sources and undergo water mix- opment. hin- across the wide sliallow coastal n a There are 194 species of corals re- shelf. The highiest sea temperatures are corded along the Saudi Arabian coast with foLund in this zone anid coral develop- the greatest diversity in the central portion. ment is restricted. There is a lack of v deep water liabitat. Five areas along the coast are noted for deep water habitat. their extensive coral reefs: the Tiran Island Distribution of coastal habitats along area, Wajh Bank. the area north of Yanbu, Saudi Arabia's Red Sea coast is generally the coastline between Obhur and Tuwwal determined by the interaction between north of Jeddah; and the outer Farasan seawater intrusion, terrestrial freshwater Bank. aquifers and tidal activities. A schematic Coral reefs play an important role in dl'agramme sliowinc, the distributioni of e in the coastal ecosystem. They provide habi- major habitats and their causal factors is tats for a wide variety of marine species shown in Figure 2. and protect coastal lands from erosion and Mean High Mean High Maximum Salt Water Springs Water Water Intrusion Terrestrial (Freshwater) Vegetation Salt Marsh (H6lophytes) Saltpan {Sa6kha) e ~~~Mangroves e.LAND SURFACE , S Intrusion! Spray e ~~~~~~andMingZe Figure 2. Schematic representation of habitat distribution along the Saudi Arabian Red Sea Coastline along with causal elements Comntry Report - Saudi Arabia 85 storm damage. In the Red Sea, coral reef with areas of greatest agricultural poten- communities generally form extensive and tial. Agricultural development, properly productive reef flats which create pro- planned and managed, could be beneficial tected habitat for many juvenile species as to certain coastal habitats such as man- well as lagoons whichi also serve this groves. Mangroves have a variety of val- purpose (Figure 3). Corals also create a ues: they provide food in the form of detri- IBRD 30706 Reef Slope Algol Ridge Leewarcl (Reef Crest)RefFa ccRefef ~~~~~~~~RefFa ac Reef Ree M.r,h 2000 Figure 3. Cross sectional schematic diagram of Saudi Arabian coral reef structure protected environment for the development tus, shelter for numerous organisms (such of coastal vegetation such as seagrasses as mollusks, crabs, shrimp, and fish), fod- and saltmarshes.I der for camels and goats, and fuel for hu- man use. Mangroves are also important ltmangroves nesting sites for several species of birds. Mangroves generally grow in waterlogged Development of coastal recreation fa- and saline soil of the intertidal zone and cilities and "Coastal Villages" in the Ras are often associated with areas of runoff. Hatiba area nort of Jeddah and shrimp Only two species have been recorded aquaculture along the southern Red Sea along the Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast, coast have contributed to the decline of Avicenn)1ica nmarina, which is widespread, Saudi Arabia's coastal mangroves. and RhiLophora mnlcronata, found at only six sites. They are found in such areas as Seagrasses broad coastal plains, protected shores, over Seagrasses are fairly widespread along the shoals and spits, and in lagoons. Red Sea coast although they are more While mangroves are found scattered common in the southern Red Sea. They along much of the Red Sea coast, the ma- tend to be concentrated in shallow water jor concentration is in the southern Red areas such as lagoons, sharms (drowned Sea where factors such as increased sedi- wadi mouths), and marsas (shallow em- ment create an environment more condu- bayments) because of the soft-bottom cive to their development. This increased sediments found in these areas. Of the development in the south also coincides eleven seagrass species in the entire Red Sea. ten have been recorded along the I For updated descriptions and impacts to the coral reefs Saudi Arabian coast. As seagrasses are one and associated habitats for Saudi Arabia, refer to Wilkin- of the most productive habitats in coastal son. 2000. pp 35-54. 86 Strategic Action Progranmmefor the Red Sea and Gulf ofjAden environments, their abundance along the sas are scattered all along the coast, they Red Sea is indicative of a highly produc- are more common in the central region. tive ecosystem. Islands S~abkhas Islands were not studied in detail during Sabkhas or saltpans are broad expanses of the MEPA/IUCN survey but the islands of seasonally inundated mud flats. often en- the Saudi Arabian Red Sea are important crusted with salt. These areas support sig- sanctuaries for a variety of marine life. nificanit microalgal growth wileni flooded, seabirds and turtles that feed or nest on and which may contribute to the overall pro- around islands. Many fish and inverte- ductivity of the Red Sea. However, relative brates are supported by the reefs around to other forms of coastal vegetation, these these islands. Some of the Farasan Islands areas are less important ecologically. are inhabited and support fishilig commu- Other Coastal Vegetation nities. Saltmarsh halophytes and freshwater- KEY MARINE AND COASTAL SPECIES dependent vegetation such as date palms Birds are also found along the Red Sea coast. In the far north, saltmarsh halophytes usually Saudi Arabia's Red Sea coast and its asso- occur in a band 1-3 meters above the high ciated islands are globally important for water mark and are sparse and stunted due birds as many of the Palearctic migratory to the arid climate. The best developed and pathways pass over the Arabian Shield. greatest variety of halophyte communities The tidal flats, in particular. are considered grow in the central region of the Red Sea. as important overwintering areas, hosting Some of the offshore islands also support between one and two million wading birds dense stands of halophyte vegetation. In of 125 species and serving as an important areas of plentiful freshwater supply. date 'refueling station" for many of the 113 palms develop. species which have so far been recorded as passing through the area. In addition, many of the Red Sea Islands are important nest- Much of the Red Sea coastal area is domi- ing sites for seabirds. The Red Sea sup- nated by a flat, low-lying desert or semi- ports internationally important concentra- desert plain. This is known as the Tihama tions of the brown booby (Sula leuco- and separates the mountains and the sea. gaster), pelican (Pelecanus rufescens), On a typical shoreline, this plain ends sooty gull (Larus hemnprichii), white-eyed abruptly and becomes a narrow, gently gull (L. leucophthalnius) and brown noddy sloping beach, often backed by halophvte (Anous stolidus) (NCWCD, 1990, Evans, vegetation. 1994). Bays. Sharms, and Marsas Marine Turtles The bays, sharms. and marsas of the Saudi Five species of marine turtles have been Arabian Red Sea provide an important en- recorded in Saudi waters of which the vironment for mangroves, seagrasses, and green turtle (Chelonia niydas) and the saltmarshes. These ecosystems support a hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys irnbricata) large variety of marine life including fish, are the most important (MEPA, 1989). The shrimp, turtles, dugong, and birds. Mainte- MEPA study estimated the Red Sea popu- nance of the complex relationships among lation of both species at around 3.500 indi- species found in these environments is de- viduals. All marine turtles except for the pendent on the conservation of various loggerhead turtle are on the IUCN list of habitats. Although bays, sharms, and mar- endangered species. Country Report - Saudi Arabia 87 The main threats to turtles in Saudi FISHERY RESOURCES Arabia's Red Sea coastal zone come from the persistence of oil spills, loss of habitat Uni exlate s aum i Arabiaes fs and development activities that endanger ery was exploited almost exclusively by ant artisanal fishermen from small boats and nesting beaches, Oine example of suclh a nesting bc On larger (up to 20 meters) sanbuks (Table 3). thireat can be found at Ras Baridi where After 1980. an industrial fishery began and uncontrolled particulate emiiissionis from a large cement factory coat Table 3: Fishing Boat Distribution along Saudi Arabian Red Sea Coast, 1995 the beaches owwwwwvwRegion Industrial Traditional Pleasure Total and create Tabuuk Region 7 888 34 929 additioal Madina Reion 2 749 478 1,229 hazrdsfor Greater Makkah 18 2,382 1,485 3,885 liazards for Rgo emerging Gree rJiza 8_ 9 1,239 11...... 1,459 turtle hatchi- Region lings. Fish- 116 5,258 2,128 7,502 eries exploi- Source: MAW 1996 tation of tur- has grown until the largest company, Saudi tle popuiations in Saudi Arabian waters Fisheries, currently lands around 1,500 does not appear to be a problem because of metric toins of shrimp and a similar amount cultural aversions to eating turtle meat. of finfish on both coasts (Saudi Fisheries, .warine Mvtammnals personal communication. 1995). Despite this, landings remain dominated by the ar- Of the thirty species of whales and dol- tisanal sector. phins that might be expected to occur in Saudi waters, nineteen have been observed Fishery Data (Gasparetti and Shalhoub, ms.) The du- Fishery statistics from different sources gong (Dutgonig dugong) occurs in signifi- have been analyzed. Despite broad agree- cant numbers (MEPA, 1989a). The MEPA ment, differences between the various study indicated that Saudi Arabia's two sources indicate the need for greater stanl- coasts constitute one of the two most im- dardization. One significant problem in portant areas for dugong in the world. The addressing specific questions stems from species is long-lived, growing and repro- the fact that Saudi Arabia's fishery statis- ducing slowly, making it particularly vul- tics are generally aggregated for both the nerable to overexploitation. As herbivores, Red Sea and Gulf fisheries. Specific stud- dugongs are also sensitive to damage to ies (most notably Sanders and Morgan, the shallow water seagrass beds upon 1989; MAW, 1987, 1996; Kedidi and oth- which they depend for food. ers, 1984 and Peacock and Alam. 1980) do The MEPA (1989a) study indicated provide specific insights into the Red Sea that the population of dugongs in Saudi which assist in development of general waters numbers around 2,000 and recoin- strategies for fishery management, but a mended that coastal areas important for reliable long-term series of catch and ef- dugong survival be set aside as protected fort, required for specific management de- areas. The more recent "Plan to Protect cisions. is notavailable atpresent. Areas in Saudi Arabia" (1990) prepared by Potential Yield the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD) Fishing results (primarily from the FAO has included this recommendation in es- series which runs from 1950 to 1993) do tablishment of marine reserves, not particularly suggest that effort is in ex- cess of the sustainable yield of the com- bined Gulf and Red Sea potential, as the 88 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and GulfqfAden landings continue to rise. This rise has oc- indicate whether or not the northern Red curred despite prior suggestions (Kedidi Sea has provided increased landings. and others, 1984) that Saudi Arabia's Red What these studies indicate (Table 4) Sea resources were fully exploited by the is that there is a general trend for increased mid 1980s. As previously mentioned, spe- cific s t aproductivitv from the north (in the Gulf of cific statements about the Red Sea are lim- Aqaba) south towards the border with ited to Sanders aind Morgan (1989). which Aqb) sot, twrstiebre ii reited tpoSandersandenMorga (1989)ad. whic Yemen. Over 74 percent of the annual Red relied upon fragmentary Red Sea data, and Sea landings come from the southern sec- the Ministry of Agriculture and Water tion between al-Lith and the Yemen border (MAW) study, which undertook detailed (23 percent from al-Lithi to Yanbu and samplings of Red Sea fishing ports for a onl 3 percent from Yanbu to the Jordan one-year period in 1985-86. Detailed sta- border, MAW. 1989). tistics for Red Sea resources in 1995 are found in MAW (1996). This is demonstrated by increased pro- duction both per kilometer of shorelinie and Table 4: Distribution of Red Sea Catch and Effort in 1983 (from Kedidi and others, 1984) and 1995 (from MAW, 1996) Region # Fishermen Annual Catch/Unit Effort Production Landings (mU mtVkm of (mt) fisherman/year) shoreline Haal-Duba 29 80 2.758 .3 Duba-Waih 39 90 2.307 .6 Wajh-Umm Lajh 86 250 2.903 1 4 Umm Laj-Yanbu 225 670 2.978 4.4 Yanbu-Rabiah 320 1,030 3.218 5.9 Rabigh-Jeddah 303 880 2.904 6.1 Jeddah 284 1,180 4.140 - Jeddah-Lith 174 460 2.644 4.1 Lith-Qunfudha 176 580 3.294 6.6 Qunfudha-Shuqaav 156 1 030 6.606 7.3 Shugayq-Jizan 50 320 6.400 2.9 Jizan-Yemen Border 371 2,390 6.442 35.7 Farasan Islands 195 1,250 6.441 7.7 Total/Average 1983 2,408 10,210 3.788 9.04 Total/Average 1995 10,640 22,887 2.151 12.4 1 Jeddah landings included significant amounts of fish caught in sanbuks operating in the al-Lith and Qunfudah sectors, which were added to those sectors. Productivity of the shelf adjacent to per fisherman. The increase is apparently Tuwwal was estimated to be about 0.38 based on productivity (or possibly area) of and 0.41 metric tons per square kilometers the fishable shelf as the least intensively in 1982 and 1983 (Kedidi and others, stocked areas are the least heavily fished. 1984). Estimates of the grounds north of Species Conmposition of Landings al-Lith to the Jordan border was 4,300 metric tons per year. which at that time Red Sea landings are nearly evenly divided was roughly equivalent to the current between benthic species associated with catch, indicating that the shelf was fully coral reefs and the "continental" shelf and exploited. Peacock and Alam (1980) had pelagic species (shown in shading in Table suggested that the northern sector was 5) that generally migrate throughout their overexploited. Since that time, Saudi Ara- life history, most probably throughout the bia's fishery landings have increased sig- Red Sea and most likely between the In- nificantly although data are unavailable to dian Ocean and the Red Sea. While man- Country Repori - Saudi Arabia 89 however, must await an improved Table 5: Species Composition of Saudi Arabian Red database of catch and effort. Sea Landins, 1985 (MAW 1986) and 1995 (MAW, 1996) Species % of total land- % of total land- Management of migratorv ns, 1i985 .995wwP-5 species will require more than Spanish Mackerel 30.4 16.2 unilateral national management Jacks 12.0 10.7 wwwwwww_S%e-W^^WWHW wwww1wwww0m actions as these species cross na- Cutlass Fish 3.0 w21 tional boundaries and harvest in Cobiaw/6ww WYWWWWW>. 0. 1 '1 the waters of one country can af- Indian Mackerel 3.0 1~~~~~5. 1 fect hlarvest by othiers. Regionial Grouperos 13.9 102 .IS4eyIllaellltatlllSWi --------- ~~~~fishiery m-aniagemnent activities will Snappers 8.0 4.9 need to be initiated in order for Barracudas 7.0 3.9 rational exploitation of these spe- Miscellaneous 4.4 10.5 cies to be undertaken. The work Sharks 2.0 1.8 of such a regional entity should Mullets 2.0 1.9 conlsist of identification of spe- Parrotfises 1 .0 3.0 cific fishery resources that war- Wrasses 0.1 0. 08 , , _ ..-. rant development of detailed fish- Sea Breams 0.03_ 12 ery managemenit plans. These Surgeon Fish ° 002 0.6 plans should be developed on the Rabbit Fish 0.02 4.0 . basis of best available scientific Goat Fish 0.0 1 02 information and should be used as Note: Species in italics are pelagic species that may migrate across national boundaries. a guidelinle for national fishery management authorities for im- agement of benthic species can largely be plementation. dealt withl as a national issue (within cer- NONLIVING MARINE RESOURCES tain limitations associated with tranis- boundary recruitment), management of Slightly more than 50 percent of Saudi migratory species requires establishment Arabia's economic development currently of cooperative management regimes originates in the oil sector Decreasing oil among the countries involved in exploita- prices, coupled with efforts to diversify the tion of the shared resources. Thus, it would economic base, brought the dependence on1 be expected that most of the Red Sea coun- oil from a 1974 high of over 76 percent to tries are similarly involved in exploitation 32.8 percent in 1985. Since that time, of pelagic resources and should, therefore, however, there has been a continuing trend be involved in joint management of the re- upwards toward increased dependence on1 source base. oil. In addition to the fact that tropical One aspect of this dependence on oil fisheries are inherently difficult to manage and petrochemical development is that because of the diversity of species har- Saudi Arabia's ports constitute a major vested, issues for Saudi Arabia in develop- center for maritime activities associated ing its fishery resources generally center with the export of oil and oil products as on insufficiency of data upon which to ini- shown in Table 6. tiate a substantive programme of fishery MARITIME TRANSPORT management. Despite this problem, the MAW has begun a programme of seasonal The Saudi Arabian maritime fleet totals protection of breeding aggregations of seventy-one ships of the types listed below groupers as well as a number of other with a total 865,343 GRT (1,240,874 regulatory actions. Management for targets DWT). The distribution of vessel classes of maximum or optimum sustainable yield, in the Saudi-owned fleet is shown in Table 7. 90 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gif a/ofAden Table 6: Crude Oil and Petroleum Products Legal and Institutional Framework loaded in Saudi Arabian Ports (both coasts). Product Loaded Year 1IVMT The key to any efforts to reconcile envi- Crude Petroleum 1988 122,703 ronmental concerns with economic and Crude Petroleum 1989 126,549 population expansion in Saudi Arabia lies ____________ _ ,,_____ Uin strengthening the institutional basis for Crude Petroleum 1990 175,840 coordination and implementation of neces- Petroleum Products 1988 37,962 sary economic expansion in a sustainable Petroleum Products 1989 38,430 manner. Petroleum Products 1990 37,200 MEPA is the central environlmental Source: WRI, 1995 agency in Saudi Arabia. It has not, how- ever, been giveni the extensive enforcement Table 7: Saudi Arabia's Maritime Fleet and regulatorv authority foulld in Euro- ^y Vessel Type (bathcoasts)pean or North American environmental Vessel Class Number < B I 11 agencies. Instead. Saudi Arabia has chosen ~Cargo x 11 to distinguish between the setting of envi- Chemical Tanker 4 ronmental criteria such as standards. and Liquefied Gas 1 actual operational management. Thus op- Livestock Carrier 5 erational agencies such as the Ministry of Oil tanker 23 Petroleum, Ministry of Agriculture and Passenoer 1 Ministry of Industrv and Electricity retain Refrigierated cargo 6 actual regulatory control over activities Short-sea passenger 7 carried out under their respective man- Specialized tanker 1 dates, while MEPA sets environmental Roll-on/roll-off cargo 11 performance standards, monitors the ac- tivities of operational agencies and serves A large percentage of the maritime as a central coordinator for environmental traffic in the Red Sea is associated with management. transport of Saudi Arabian crude oil and Among the innovative approaches em- petrochemical products, particularly be- ployed bv MEPA has been the memoran- tween the northern Red Sea port of Yanbu dum of understanding with the Royal which is the terminus of the Trans-Arabia Commission for Jubail and Yanbu (RCJY) Pipeline (Tapline), the Suez Canal and the in which the commission has been dele- Egyptian SUMED pipeline that transports gated authority for managing environ- oil across from the Gulf of Suez to the mental activities in the industrial cities. Mediterranean. The arrangement has been so successful The result of all of this shipping pres- that in 1987 the RCJY was awarded the sure is that the Red Sea has much more United Nations Sasakawa award for its en- pollution from marine transport and refin- vironmental achievement. A recent analy- ery inputs than the global average. The sis of environmental management in Saudi Red Sea is inherently dangerous to mari- Arabia (MEPA, 1994) has suggested that time traffic because of its narrow and con- this approach should be employed on a gested deep water navigation routes broader basis. bounded on either side by very restricted With regard to coastal zone manage- anchorages and coral reefs. Shipwrecks ment, MEPA has been consistently identi- and collisions continue, despite advances fied as Saudi Arabia's central environ- in safety and navigational systems. Even at mental agency and the lead agency for a major port such as Jeddah, 5-10 maritime coastal zone management. Despite this, in- accidents occur annually, some of which stitutionalization of authority for central- result in oil spills. ized coastal zone management has not Country Reportl - Sautdi Arabia 91 been fully achieved. Instead, each individ- such conflicts and establishing national ual agency operates under its own specific environmental policy is the Ministerial mandate and numerous overlaps and po- Committee for Environment. Day-to-day tential conflicts abound (Table 8). Cur- coordinationi mechanisms and central rently, the only recourse for resolving such planninig authority specific to the coastal Table 8: Interency Jurisdictional Issues within Saudi Arabia's Coastal Zone Authority J _ Jurisdiction ___ wwe MARINE ACTIVITIES Saudi Coast Guard Jurisdiction between the border of the Territorial Sea (12 miles offshore) and 10 kilometers inland (Royal Decree No 33, dated 27/7/1377) MEPA Jurisdiction for prevention of Pollution in the Territorial Sea (Council of Ministers decision No 157, dated 20/11/1411 and Royal Decree No 7/505M, dated 28/3/1406 Ministry of Agriculture (SWCC), Ministry of Control activities that emit pollutants into the Territorial Sea Petroleum (Saudi Aramco, oil companies), Ministry of Municipalities and Rural Affairs (Sewage Authority), Ministry of Industry and Electricity (SCECO and industrial cit- ies) and RCJY MEPA Jurisdiction for oil spill response (coordination mechanism established underRoy Decree 711/13307, dated 22/7/1411) Ministry of Transport Responsibility for Marine Naviaation in the Territorial Sea Sea Ports Authority Responsibility for ports (Royal Decree No 7/505M, dated 28/3/1406) Ministry of Agriculture Jurisdiction for fishery activities (Royal Decree No 71505M, dated 28/3/1406) Ministry of Petroleum Jurisdiction over oil production and marine mineral extraction _________ ________ activities in the Territorial Sea Miwwnitryof Defense J urisdiction of milita activities within the Territorial Sea SUBMERGED LANDS Sea Ports Authority Responsibility for ports (Royal Decree No 7/505M, dated 28/3/1406) MEPA Jurisdiction for prevention of pollution including effluent from iinistry of Petroleum Jurisdiction over oil production and marine mineral extraction activities in the Territorial Sea iinistry of Agriculture and Water Directed by Royal Decrees to enforce a moratorium on landfill ports (Royal Decree No M/9, dated 27/3/1408) RESOURCE CONSERVATION Ministry of Agriculture Responsible for fishery management (Royal Decree No 7/505M, dated 28/3/1406; Royal Decree No M/9, dated 27/3/1408) NCWCD Responsible for management of protected areas (Royal De- cree No M/22, dated 121911406) Ministry of Agriculture Responsible for management of national parks COASTAL DEVELOPMENT Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs Responsible for municipal development, flood water man- agement and disposal of waste Ministry of Industry and Electricity Responsible for industrial development and electricity genera- tion Ministry of Agriculture Responsible for agricultural development, development of groundwater resources and seawater desalination MEPA Responsible for setting standards for the environment (Royal Decree No 7/M/8903, dated 2/14/1401) and for carrying out a programme of environmental impact assessment; designated coastal zone management agency Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu Responsible for industrial development within the two indus- trial cities: also responsible (under a Memorandum of Under- standing with MEPA) for environmental management in those cities 92 Strategic Action Programniefor the Red Sea and GilfofAden zone are lacking. A draft proposal for de- If such planning is to take place, atten- velopment of a national coastal zone man- tion must first be paid to the need for in- agement plan was submitted and approved creased coordination between the many for final promulgation by the Ministerial agencies whose mandates overlap and cre- Committee for Environment in July 1997. ate potential conflicts within the coastal Saudi Arabia is signatory to regional zone. It would also seem most appropriate and international agreemnents which place that a centralized municipal planninig en- and internationa g i freents ow polac titv, based upoIn the highly successful tionbland protection of resoprces. Notable model of the Arriyadhi Development Au- amonanp these are: thority, be establislhed in order to plan mu- enicipal expansioni and mediate the poten- * The protocol concerning Regional co- tial conflicts between development and operation in combating pollution by oil environimenit. and other harmful substances in cases of emergency (1978). Threats to the Environment * The Regional Conventioni for the con- Several significant issues will need to be servation of the Red Sea and Gulf of addressed if Saudi Arabia is to continue to Aden against pollution from land expand its economy and population whiile based sources (I 982). maintaining the highly desirable standard * The Declaration of the Regional Or- of living currently enjoyed by its people. A ganization for the Conservation of the programme of sustainable development Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf will Inherently require investment on a of Aden (1995). level appropriate to address past, present and future impacts from such develop- Major actions to support sustainable ment. development were undertaken in 1992 when a basic change in Saudi Arabia's Many of the environmental problems system of government was made to incor- facing Saudi Arabia require an integrated porate National and Provincial Advisory' approach for their solutioni. Such an ap- Councils (Majlis Shoura) of experts whose proach has been difficult due to the sec- purposelwas to consider the issues facing toral organization of its government. Re- purpose was to developmes Al- cent efforts in creating Advisory Councils Saudi Arabia's future development. Al- though it is too early to assess the impact and a national coastal zone management of this change, it does appear that the plan may begin to addressthis issue. Envi- councils are debating a number of cross- ronmental monitoring and enforcement of sectoral issues and suggesting useful solu- existing environmental regulations also tions. will need to be improved. Future growth (based on a near dou- URBAN DEVELOPMENT bling of the population during the next two Expansion of Saudi Arabia's urban cen- decades) will either require considerable ters, particularly in Jeddah, clearly requires expansion of infrastructure or a major de- improved planning of future activities as crease in the rate of consumption of basic well as considerable investment in rectifi- services if Saudi Arabia is to maintain cation of prior problems. The entire proc- quality of life for its inhabitants. Much of ess of urbanization has been accompanied this expansion will require careful man- by demographic dislocation, rapidly ex- agement to prevent environmental conse- panding demand for water, electricity and quences of development activities in the services and coastal landfilling. Saudi Ara- coastal zone. bia's government is strongly sectoral in its organization and requires an integrated and Countn, Repor-t -- Saudi 4rabia 93 and coordinated overlay if cross-sectoral While these alternative urban devel- problems are to be addressed. opment strategies may suit economic ac- Expansioni of cities and other aspects tivities, such expansion will intrude upon of urban development constitute the single many undeveloped areas. particularly alonig the Red Sea coast. Significant em- greatest pressure upon the coastal enivi- phasis will have to be placed upon urbani ronment. Between the 1974 and 1992 cen- plasis ail hastal p pon urban sueZSaudi Arabia's population grew planning and coastal zone management if suses. Saudi nea's popullion at the environmental deterioration that is cur- from 7 miilllion to niearly 17 millioni at an rentlv occurrina is to be avoided. Most ur- average annual rate of 3.24 percent. Urban e it population grovth. however, was nearly 7 ban environmenital impact originates from population~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~tlre sources:t laiwever,n- desalinatio7 .ald percenit, compared to only 0.58 per-cenit for three sources: landfiling, desalination and rural areas (WRI, 1995). sewage. In the 1992 census, there were three LANDFILLING cities of over 750,000, includinig Riyadh Much of Saudi Arabia's coastal area is with over 2.7 million and Jeddah, the larg- low-lying sabkha. Urban development has est, with 2 million. By 1995, the popula- been accompanied by extensive filling of tion of Jeddah was over 2.5 million (Olsen sabkhas and other coastal habitats in order and otlers, 1996). Over 77 percent of the to raise ground level for construction pro- censused population lived in the six largest jects above the level of seawater intrusion. cities. Despite this trend towards urbaniza- In the Red Sea coastal towns such as Jed- tion, 22.4 percent of the population still dah, the bottom drops off over 20 meters live in villages and settlements of less than immediately following the reef edge, creat- 2.400 inhabitants. Anothier 20.4 percent ing a boundary for fill operations. In gen- live in towns and villages larger than 2.400 eral, however, despite the existenice of a people within the coastal zone (Ministry of Royal Decree prohibiting dredge or land- Planning, 1994), for a total of 2.5 million filling, private developers have continued along the Red Sea coast (WRI, 1995). to carry out extensive shoreline alteration projects, frequently without environmental Table 9: Results of 1992 Census analysis. Total Population 16,929,294 Population in villages of 13,113,807 WATER USE greater than 2,400 .... Much of Saudi Arabia's expansion has Inhabitants of villages less 3,815,487 been made possible by extensive use of desalinated water. As a result there are is- Living In Coastal Zone 3,456.548 (20.42%) sues of marine pollution from thermal Arabian Gulf 888,252 emissions, brine and air quality problems. Red Sea 2,568,296 In addition, inefficient use of desalinated Source: Ministry of Planning, 1992 water through distribution leakage, waste and septic disposal has created secondary There appears to be a growing problems such as a rising groundwater ta- recognition that the costs of catching up to ble and consequent human health issues. and keeping pace with growth in Saudi This requires leak detection and repair, ex- Arabia's large cities may well warrant pansion of the central sewage network, and consideration of altemative planning elimination of septic disposal. Activities to strategies. One possible approach involves promote water conservation programmes establishment of new "satellite" townships for all user groups, including the public, and new urban centers that encourage should be given priority. population movement away from the major cities. As of 1992 there were eighteen desali- nation plants operating along Saudi Ara- 94 Strategic Action ProgrammeJbr the Red Sea and GulfofAden bia's Red Sea coast, with a total combined Such heavy dependence on desalina- capacity of 726,343 cubic meters per day tion carries with it a number of environ- (SWCC, 1992). The distribution of these is mental and security issues. In Jeddah, for shown in Table 10. example, the desalination plant produces a major portion of the NOx and SO, emis- Table 10: Seawater Desalination Plants on sions and contributes heavily to the par- the Red Sea Coast of Saudi Arabia Location m Iacy Start Up ticulate and trace metal emnissionis load Ca?acitY Date (Table 11). Haql 3,785 1989 Discharges into the marine environi- Duba 3,785 1989 -nment from the Jeddah plants include cho- AI-Wajh , 473 _ 1979 rine and anti-scalant chemilicals as well as Al-Waih lla 825 1986 1.73 billion cubic meters of brine at 51 A-Wah llb 1,032 1989 ppm-over 1.3 times the ambient saliiit Umm_Laih _ 3,785_ 1986 Yanbu (Madina) 95,000 1980 of the Red Sea-at a temperature of Rabigh2'' ''-'9'- 41°C-arounld 9°C over the average ambi- Aziziah 3,870 1987 ent Red Sea temperature. All of these load- JeddahlI 37,850 1978 ings must certainly stress marine biota that Jeddah III 75,700 1979 are already living at the upper end of tem- Jeddah IV 189,250 1982 perature tolerance for many marine spe- Jeddah RO I 48,827 1989 cies. Shuaibah (Mak- 181,800 1989 kah, Taif198 SEWAGE Al-Birk 1,952 1984 Each of the coastal cities has devel- Asir 75,700 1989 oped sewage treatment capabilities. The Farasan 1 430 1 figures shown in Table 12 onlv present an estimate of sewage release as many of the sewage treatment plants processing the The most recent start up is over seven waste stream are operating in excess of ca- years old. Rising populations require more pacity, with the result that essentially un- water and Saudi Arabia is now faced with treated sewage is being emitted into the Table 11: Sources of Air Pollution in Jeddah Pollutant Refinery Industrial Desalination Vehicles* Power Total City - co 40 - 854000 - 854,040 VOC 3,700 - - - - 3,700 HC - - - 66,000 - 66,000 NOx 1,400 3,000 29,000 21,700 14,300 69,400 S02 40,000 2,200 180,000 2,300 19,200 243,700 Particulates 530 58,000 6,800 - 1,010 66,340 Vanadium - - 50 - 9.1 59 Nickel - - 17 - 1.1 18 Lead - - 1.2 610 0.9 612 * Gasoline powered vehicles only Source: MEPA. the question of either investing in in- marine environment with impacts that creased capacity or undertaking demand- range from eutrophication of coastal la- side management. goons and malodorous inputs into the hu- man environment, to contamination of Country Report - Saudi Arabia 95 Table 12: Estimated Red Sea Pollution Generated by Saudi Arabia's Municipal Sewage Treatment (metric tons per year) Town COD BOD P N NHW Jeddah 92,000 37,000 2,200 8,000 Yanbu 99 39 2 8 Unaounte for - _T,i66 TF6 -*own - ----%^ Western Region 100,000 40,000 2,000 8,700 10,000 Unaccounted for Northern Region, 66,000 26,000 1,300 5,700 Unaccounted for * Southern Region, 48,000 19,000 950 4,200 Unaccounted for *. Total 306,099 122,039 6,452 26,608 10,000 * This amount was estimated by per capita production rates from towns where no information was available during the study period. The unaccounted for values do not necessarily represent discharges to the Red Sea but do not include the inland cities of Taif, Makkah, Madina, Abha, Qassim, Khamis Mushayt. Source: MEPA. groundwater and humani healtlh problems lead to waterborne disease by allowing resulting from contamination of the food contaminated water to enter the potable chaini. water system. The sources of this rise are GROUNDWATER shown in Table 13. Rapid expansoin in coastal cities has led to High dependencv on desalinated water also leads to air pollution and creates a a number of environmental impacts on1 .. . groundwater that must be addressed. These significant economic drain in terms of in- are caused by coastal city needs for water vestment and operation to keep up with the and electricity, disposal of sewage and heavy domestic and industrial demand for other wastes, and industrial development, water (Olsen and others, 1996). One unexpected aspect of urban pollution In addition to basic investment and has been the rise in groundwater levels that operational costs associated with water has resulted from increased water use and use, there are other costs associated with insufficient sewage disposal. human health and damage to infrastructure In Jeddah, groundwater inputs have caused bv the rising groundwater table. It made the groundwater table rise at a rate of has been estimated that the actual cost of water when these Table 13: Sources of Groundwater in Jeddah are included is Source of Groundwater Groundwater Input Amount an order of m3year) magnitude greater Horticulture 10,690,000 (80/)tanteprdc ' : "5 __ w ~~~~~~~~~~~~than the produc- Sewage 89.878,000 (67%) incs n _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~tion cost and Leakage from distribution 32,840,000 (25%) three orders of system magnitude greater Area of Jedahm 1,200m Groundwater (m3/m2/year) 0.11- thani the subsi- Sediment porosity 0.2 dized cost to Groundwater rise (in/year) 056 thle customer. Source: Olsen, and others, 1996 0.5 meters per year in much of the town, NAVIGATION AND MARITIME RISKS causing pooling at the surface in some ar- eas. High groundwater levels can create The Red Sea is inherently dangerous for habitat for insect-borne disease; damage to maritime activities. It is narrow, with con- roads, infrastructure and buildings; and gested and confined shipping lanes in a 96 Strategic Action Progranmm1efor the Red Sea and GidjofAden central trench that is 2,000 meters in depth INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT and bordered with coral reefs. In additioni Industrial development along Saudi Ara- prevailing winds carrv most of the marine b R S preval I ~~~~~~~bia's Red Sea coast has been accom-paniied pollution onto Saudi Arabia's coastline, by inputs of a number of marine pollutanits Thus, any activity which would increase in addition to those from sewage. A sum- maritime safety would have a positive . m mary of the marine and air pollutionl Inputs impact ulpon Sauidi Arabia's coastal lanids. from the Red Sea coastal areas is shown in Table 14. Table 14. Marine and Air Pollution Emissions from Red Sea Coastal Provinces 14a. Water Pollution Emissions from Red Sea Coastal Provinces (mt/yr) Pollutant Sewage Industrial De- Re- Petro- Total Cities salination fineries chemical COD 293,200 2,570 270 296,040 BOD 144580 1,114 1,543 147,237 P 51,580 9 51,589 TSS 1,623 1,623 SS 1,071 63 1,134 N ~~~~~29,480 29,480 NH3 10,000 Ntot ~~~~88 88 Barium 285 285 Copper 345 345 Cadmium 10 10 Chromium 54 54 Chlorine 630 146 100.2 876 Iron 825 825 Lead 195 195 Manqanese 195 195 Nickel 2,909 2,909 Oil 1,164 369 1,533 Phenol 49 49 Phosphorus 3,298 95 2.2 3,396 Phosphate 3.20 3 Sulfides 452 452 Zinc 13,043 13,043 Heat Load 18,250,000 18,250,00 (qram cal./yr) 0 Brine 1.73E+09 1.73E+09 14b. Air Emissions from Red Sea Coastal Provinces (mtlyear) Pollutant Source Vehicles' De- Power Re- Industrial Cement Petro- Total salination Generation fineries Cities chemical so0 2,300 384,000 137,000 132,840 2,200 14,700 3,530 676,570 No, 21,700 57,800 61,000 7,900 3,000 21,500 2,860 175,760 HC 66,000 66,000 CO 854,000 40 854,040 Particulates 18,000 6,000 710 58,000 232,510 315,220 VOC 3,000 44,800 18,090 65,890 Pb 610 6 616 Vanadium 173 173 346 Nickel 57 57 114 1 Includes Jeddah only. Country, Report - .Saudi.4rabia 97 In addition to these industrial inputs. FISHERY DEVELOPMENT nearly the entire Saudi Arabian coast suf- Expanded development of Saudi Arabia's fers some degree of oil pollution (Awad, 1995). Awads survey indicated that tie fishery management database will be re- Red Seadreceivs 6,836y meticated tont oe quired to sustainably manage fisherv re- Red Sea receives 6,836 metric tons or 14.61 kilograms per square kilomiieter per sources. Additional attentioni will need to vear of oil from splippinr nearly 1.5 tires be paid to managemenlt of migratory spe- yero.irmsil .5 ts cies that traverse international borders and the global average of 3.2 million metric require regional management. Destruction tons per vear or 9.1 7 kilograms per square irt oasal habita Dfiof I ~~~~~~~~of important coastal habitat (landfill of kilometer per vear. Global refinery input is 0.56 kilograms per square kilometer per . f r . *_1 s.etc.) will need to be reduced since this year. whereas the Red Sea receives 6.64 translates directly into decreased recruit- kilograms per square kilometer per vear. e ment to tile exploited populationis. nearly II times as much. This stems largely from the fact that the prevailing A summary of threats is provided in winds over most of the year are from thle Table 16. north-northwest and blow whatever pollu- tion originates from the numerous annual Recent, Current and Planned transits of the Red Sea onto the Saudi Environmental Initiatives coastline. Althouglh traditional Saudi society con- Maritine activities are not the only tained several cultural devices for conser- source of oil pollution as is shown in Table vation of rangelands and other resources, 15 which indicates the sources of refinery the consolidation of the country led to a inputs into the Red Sea from Saudi Arabia. decrease in political/tribal modalities for implementation. In 1977, the small island Table 15: Sources of Oil Pollution of Umm al-Qamari was given de facto pro- Originating from Red Sea Refineries tected area status. Asir National Park was Jedda SRefine r 27 established by the MAW in 1981 :d <-enFf 1 g>0 (NCWCD. 1990). Yanbu Refinery 1,120 (CC.19) Yanbu Oil Terminal 345 Following these initial efforts, the MEPA survey in the early 1980s identified Source: Awad, 1995. forty-six areas warranting consideration as COASTAL DEVELOPMENT part of a system of coastal protected areas Saudi Arabia's coastline has been devel- (MEPA, 1987). Saudi Arabia's Environ- odwithout sufficient analysis of envi- mental Protection Coordinating Committee ronwmental impacts. Corniche roads have (EPCCOM) designated them as "Environ- been built by landfilling to the reef edge; mentally Sensitive Areas" (Table 17) private villas and coastal cities have been In 1987, the NCWCD was formed developed with extensive dredging and with the express mission of handling Saudi landfill; and municipal sewage outfalls Arabia's wildlife and conservation man- have been built in proximity to recreational agement issues. It began a process of de beaches. There is an immediate need for a facto designation of terrestrial and coastal structured programme of environmental protected areas according to the classifica- assessment and integrated planning for de- tion system in Table 18. While these cate- velopment projects that have an impact on gories tended to coincide with IUCN, coastal resources. some modification was undertaken for greater applicability to the Saudi Arabian situation. The equivalent IUCN categories are also shown in the table. BY 1989, this 98 .Strategic Action Pro-gralmmefoir the Red Sea and GitfofA den programme had placed 51,405 square . Review of current navigation charts, kilometers of land (2.4 percent of total), conduct hydrographic re-surveys and under protected status. In 1990, the prepare updated charts for key areas NCWCD published its "Plan to Protect along shipping routes and in vicinity Areas in Saudi Arabia" that contained a of key ports. system of protected areas that could place Improvement of navigational aids and 12.8 percent of Saudi Arabia's land mass radio com. unication in Saudi waters, under conservation management. especiallv 011 major shlipping chanmlels. Priority Actions * Implementation of current Oil Spill Contingency Plani including develop- Priority actions are listed in Table 19. ment of local response plans. * Enforcement of legislation related to Review of port reception facilities and m-aniagem-eiit of coastal aind imarinie ar- managementsof.coastal and marine ar- upgrade of measures as appropriate. eas. . Improved management of air pollu- . Final approval and effective imple-l-nrvdmag-etofirP1_- tion, brine disposal and thermal dis- menitation of the coastal zone man- charges from desalination plants at ur- agement plan. ban areas and industrial ports. * Implementation of management pro- . Improved control of emissions from gramme for the Farasaii Islands Ma- cement plants in coastal areas, espe- rine Protected Area. cial]y Ras Baridi. * Developm-nent and implementation of Effective control of dredging and fill- management programme for Marine Protected Areas at Wajh Bank, sites in ment port construction and mainte- Straits of Tiran and other areas on the nance dredging of navigation channels. Red Sea.,ac rdigo nvgto hnes * Upgrading of wastewater collection d Rehabilitation of mangroves from and treatment in coastal areas, espe- damages caused by landfilling and ciallv Jeddah. camel grazing. S Development and implementation of a prStock assessment and management special programme for the manage- programme for finfish and shrimp with ment and reduction of elevated an evaluation of catch and effort. groundwater tables in the Jeddah urban * Measures to control intensive collec- area. tion of fish and invertebrates on reef . Strengthening of enviroilmental plan- flats and spearfishing. ning and management of urban devel- • Development and implementation of a opment in the Jeddah Region. conservation and management pro- . Strengthening of the current pro- gramme for breeding birds and nesting gramme for development of a database turtles on offshore islands. for biological resources and environ- . Update of current fisheries manage- mental information, and further ment programme. strengthening and expansion of moni- • Enforcement and public awareness ac- toring programmes to support opera- . Enfocemen and pbilc warenes ac-tions and enforcement activities. tivities for coral reef conservation, in- cluding control of overfishing, tram- . Expand activities of Saudi Public pling of corals, anchor damage, litter- Awareness Programme implemented ing and souvenir collection. by public and private sector parties. Country Report - Saudi .Arabia 99 Table 16. Threats to the Coastal and Marine Environment and Resources Issue Symptoms I Immediate Root Causes Extent Severity Impacts Causes Habitat Destruction _ __ _ _ Coastal Dredging and fill- Urban, industrial Inadequate envi- Localized, Severe development ing, destruction of and port develop- ronmental plan- above all in and land coral reefs, loss of ment, expansion of ning, vicinity of reclamation productive lagoons coastal population Lack of ICZM, large set- Limited use of EA tlements Mangrove Deterioration of Construction of Lack of regulations Localized Moderate, destruction mangrove habitat; shrimp ponds, and management, locally decreased fish and Grazing by camels lack of awareness severe shrimp catches; lower water quality Damage to Loss of coral habi- Anchor damage, Inadequate naviga- Localized Moderate coral reefs tat and decline in ship grounding, tion systems, lack reef associated damage by fishing of moorings. de- fauna, coral break- nets, trampling of structive fishing, age reefs, collecting of lack of awareness marine souvenirs and enforcement L,v;ns' Marine Resources Potential Decline in land- Increased fishing Lack of stock as- Throughout Moderate overfishing of ings, decrease in efforts, landing sessment and reli- area pelagic and average size beyond Maximum able statistics demersal fish Sustainable Yield stocks Potential Decline in landings Increased fishing Lack of stock as- Southern Moderate overfishing efforts in limited sessment, Red Sea to severe shrimps areas, illegal Lack of enforce- coast shrimp fisheries ment Collection of Decrease in nest- Subsidiary food Lack of public Localized Low to turtle and bird ing populations supply awareness, lack of moderate eais ______ enforcement Navigation and Maritime Risks Navigation Risks of ship colli- Limited naviga- Navigational haz- Throughout Moderate risks sions and ground- tional devices and ards, heavy mari- the area, ing inadequately sepa- time traffic near major rated traffic ports Marine vessel Localized marine Discharge from Inadequate on- Throughout Moderate sewage and beach pollu- ships board treatment, the area tion lack of port recep- tion facilities Ship Solid waste on Discharge of solid Inadequate surveil- Throughout Low to discharge of shoreline, in man- waste from ships lance and en- the area moderate solid waste grove areas and forcement, lack of coral reefs port reception fa- cilities Spillage of Damage to marine Ship accidents at Navigational haz- Throughout Moderate hazardous life, contamination port entrances or ards, inadequate the area, to severe chemical of industrial intakes collision at sea navigational aids, specially cargoes and recreational heavy traffic near ports beaches, human health risk Petroleum Development and Transport Small oil spills Beach contamina- Tanker cleaning, Lack of reception Localized, Moderate (< 20 mt) tion, damage to discharge of ballast facilities at ports; near ports coastal and marine and bilge water, inadequate control, and termi- biota discharge of waste lack of enforce- nals oil, bunker oil spill ment Medium oil Beach contamina- Discharges from Inadequate con- Localized, Moderate spills tion, damage to terminals, small trols and monitor- nearports to severe (20-100 mt) coastal and marine accidents at sea ing of equipment and termi- biota and personnel, nals Inadequate training 100 Strategic Action ProgrammeJbr the Red Sea and Gilf oJfAden Table l6 continued Issue Symptoms I Immediate Root Causes Extent Severity Impacts Causes Risk of large Destruction of Rupture of oil tanks Insufficient tanker Localized, Severe oil spills and coastal and marine in collision or safety specifica- throughout disasters habitats and biota, wreckage tions, inadequate the region (> 100 mt) devastation of navigation aids beaches Industrial Activities Surface and Excessive surface Ecsiepump- Inadequate regula- Localized Moderate groundwater and groundwater ing, inadequate tion of water ex- in industrial use for industrial use concern for con- ploitation areas servation Industrial Decline in water Chronic release of Inadequate regula- Localized Moderate pollution quality pollutants tions and enforce- ment Poliution from Decline in water Release of thermal Dependence on Localized Moderate desalination quality, habitat de- brine contaminated desalinated water, to severe plants terioration with chemicals inadequate plant (chlorine) maintenance Waste oil Soil and groundwa- Improper disposal Lack of proper oil Localized Presently disposal ter pollution of used motor oil disposal and re- low covery, lack of regulations and enforcement Urban Development Surface and Excessive surface Excessive pumping Inadequate water Localized Moderate groundwater and groundwater of groundwater conservation, in- use, saltwater in- adequate mainte- trusion nance of distribu- ______ _____ ______ ___________ _____ _____ tion system s _ _ _ _ _ _ Discharge of Groundwater im- Insufficient sewage Inadequate pollu- Localized, Moderate insufficiently pacts. eutrophica- treatment, lack of tion control regula- urban ar- to severe treated tion, public health maintenance of tions, monitoring eas sewage threats existing plants and and enforcement dischar e pipes Water Rise in groundwa- Discharge and Inadequate plan- Localized, Severe discharge ter levels leakage of water ning and irrigation urban ar- from distribution systems, lack of eas and irrigation net- maintenance work Discharge of Groundwater im- Insufficient sewage Inadequate regula- Localized, Moderate insufficiently pacts, eutrophica- treatment, lack of tions, monitoring urban ar- treated tion, public health plant and pipe and enforcement eas sewage threat maintenance Urban growth Spreading of urban Rapid expansion of Lack of planning Local Moderate development, in- cities and coordination to severe adequate services Recreational Major construc- Growing need for Inadequate coordi- Localized Moderate villages tions along coast- recreational sites nation and EA, lack to severe line of control and en- forcement Other Concerns Sedimentation Destruction of Grazing by live- Inadequate man- Localized Low to from vegetation cover, stock agement of coastal moderate agriculture mobilization of grazing and grazing dunes and sand sheets, smothering of coral reefs Use of Contamination of Large-scale use of Inadequate plan- Localized Low pesticides and soils and water, pesticides and fer- ning and surveil- fertilizers in presence of pesti- tilizers for agricul- lance, lack of con- the coastal cides in marine tural purposes trol and awareness zone orqanisms Countir Report - Saudi Arabia 101 Table 17. Marine Protected Areas (in italics already established; others proposed) Protected Siz_ekm2 Major Habitats and Impacts and Priority Area Regional Significance Conflicts Strait of Tiran Undefined Islands and extensive coral reefs with Small part of area Regional diverse reef associated fauna in transi- used by tourists tion area, turtlenesnidon from E9ypt Ras Suwayhil 267 Pristine and diverse coral reefs and Unknown Regional reef associated fauna, high cliffs, and scenic features, seabirds, du ,ong Sharm Zubayr 80 Coastline and sharm with fossil reef Construction of National coast cliff, narrow reef flats and fringing reef, causeway northernmost mangroves Ghubbat 33 Sharm and coastline with reefs, particu- Unregulated rec- National Bal'aksh larly high coral diversity, seagrass reation beds, osprey, low hills inland Sharm 70 Scenic lagoons with fringing reefs, sea- Fishing and rec- National Dumagyh, grass beds, mangroves, green and reation Sharm Antar hawksbill turtles, osprey Wajh Bank, 2840 Extensive shallow water area with Collection of turtle Global Sharm Habban mainland coast and offshore islands, and bird eggs, and Sharm most extensive coral reef system of fishing Munaybirah Red Sea, diverse reef associated fauna, seagrass beds, mangroves, tur- tles, bird nesting sites, key area for du- aonas Qaiib Island included Series of low lying, sandy islands, sea- Collection of turtle National chain in Wajh grass beds, coral reefs, lagoons, nest- and bird eggs Bank ing site for turtles and seabirds al-Hasani Undefined High aspect islands with shallow and Egg collection National Island, Libana deep fringing reefs, important nesting Island site for turtles and sea birds__ Ras Abu Madd, Combined Scenic sharms and high quality fringing Fishing activities National Sharm Hasi with pre- reefs, fossil reef terraces, osprey vious area Ras Baridi, 30 Sand beaches, small islands, coral Pollution from Regional Sharm al- reefs, seagrass beds, important nesting industrial source Khawr Island beach for green and hawksbill turtles, bird nesting area, dugong Sharm Yanbu 50 Deep, sheltered, bi-lobed lagoon, man- Recreation activi- National groves and seagrass beds, fringing ties reefs, osprey, dugon Yanbu Royal 5 Mangroves and good quality fringing Unknown Local Commission reef, osprey _,yrotection area Shi'b al-Qirin 15 High quality inshore and offshore reef Unknown National Reef complexes. osprey Marsa al- 30 Shallow lagoons, dense stands of halo- Livestock grazing National Usalla, Marsa phytes, mangrove, seagrass beds, al- on inland halo- Tawil gal beds, osprey, migratory birds phytes Mastura beach 30 Low lying shoreline with stands of reed Recreation pres- National (Phragmites) and palms, rare freshwa- sure ter dependant vegetation site Marsa as- 200 Largest land-locked lagoon on Saudi Agricultural de- National Sarraj Arabian Red Sea coast, mangroves, velopment, fishing halophytes, seagrass beds, high quality reef, osprey, important coastal wetland Marsa Umm 67 Shallow bay with extensive seagrass Unknown National Misk beds, small stands of mangrove, os- prey, dugong Haramil Island included Small elongated island, halophytes, Island used by National in previ- dugong, osprey, nesting bridled terns fishermen ous area and brown noddies 102 Strategic Action Programme for thle Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Table 17 continued : Protected :Size km'2 : Major Habitats and: Impacts and Priority Area Regional Significance Conflicts Ras Hatiba 450 Large shallow lagoon, sand and coral- Recreation pres- Local line spits, small mangrove stands, off- sure, unregulated shore reefs, high diversity, prime site development for education and extension Jeddah salt 100 Marshland and coral reef, key site for Oil pollution and National marsh birds: large concentration of waders, other waste dis- osprey, spoonbill, flamingos posal, possibly development al-Shuayba, 100 Large lagoon with extensive man- Cutting of man- Local Mastaba groves, fossil reef terrace and good grove, quality offshore reefs, bird breeding unregulated rec- area, osprey reational devel- opment Oishran Undefined Complex of reefs, coral spits, seagrass Development for National beds and extensive mangroves, impor- recreation, possi- tant seabird site, ospre, dugong ble corniche Inner Farasan Undefined Low lyind, seasonally inundated Unknown National Bank mainland coastline, fringing mangroves, islands, birdsnetin dugong area Outer Farasan Undefined Major reef and island system with di- Unknown at pre- National Bank verse habitats, mangrove, seagrass, sent coral reefs, bird and turtle nesting area, representative of central Red Sea Umm al- 2 Two small islands off the Red Sea None National Qamari coast, with thousands of birds such as collared doves, herons, pelicans, gulls and sootv falcon Marka Island Undefined Low, sandy island with dense halophyte Used by fisher- National vegetation, good quality reefs, bird men, possible breeding_site eg9_collection _____ Ras Tarfa 230 Coastal and terrestrial reserve, large Possibly hunting National spit with mangroves and seagrass beds, key site for marine and terrestrial habitats, important bird area Farasan Is- 3310 Terrestrial and coastal reserve, archi- Fishing, growing Global lands pelago of coral islands, coral reefs, development, seagrass beds. marine mammals, nest- recreational pres- ing seabirds, two species of man- sure groves, endemic gqazelle Khawr Amiq, Undefined Lagoons, osprey Unknown Local Khawr Raqa Khawr Nahoud 33 Lagoon with fringing corals, seagrass Presently un- National beds, mangroves, dugong, important known bird site osprey Khawr Itwad 70 Lagoon, abundant seagrass, extensive Unknown Local manqrove stands, fringin~ corals Shi'b Abu al- 140 Small lagoonal areas with abundant Unknown Local/ Liqa, mangroves, coral reefs national Shi'b al-Kabir KhawrWahlan 27 Representative saltmarsh with halo- Grazing National phytes, sinificant coastal wetland area Duwayyimah 160 Productive shallow lagoon, seagrass, Unknown National mangroves, osprey, dugong Cow?Mrt Report - Saudi Arabia 103 Table 18: NCWCD Conservation Categories and Their IUCN Equivalents. NCWCD Category IUCN Equivalent(s) Special Natural Reserves 1. Strict Nature Reserve/Scientific Park II. National Park IV. Nature Conservation Reserve or Managed ReserveNVildlife Sanctuary Natural Reserves 1. National Park IV. Nature Conservation Reserve or Managed ReserveANildlife Sanctuary Biological Reserves 1. Strict Nature Reserve/Scientific Park IV. Managed Reserve Resource Use Reserves V. Protected Landscape or Seascape VI. Resource Reserve VilI. Multiple Use Management Area/Managed Resource Area IX. Biosphere Reserve Controlled Huntinq Reserves VIII. Managed Resource Area 1. Special Natural Reserves are intended as prime sites of high biological excellence which em- phasize conservation of biological diversity. All exploitive activities within the area of Special Natu- ral Reserves would be strictly regulated. 2. Natural Reserves are areas of lesser natural excellence which have undergone some altera- tion and which may be managed either by the NCWCD or other agencies. 3. Biological Reserves are proposed to carry out conservation priorities that include protection of important rangeland seed stocks, demonstration of the benefits of range lands management, pro- tection of critical water catchment areas, and protection of local biological communities or coastal resources. 4. Resource Use Reserves are visualized as relatively large areas in which the emphasis is on sound resource management rather than pure conservation goals. 5. Controlled Hunting Reserves are suggested for areas in which wildlife is managed with the aim of providing improved and sustainable hunting at some time in the future when game popula- tion have recovered (as a result of management activities). Table 19: Priority Actions Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue ___,_ L egislation Enforcement of legislation related to National Capacity building management of coastal and marine Technical development areas Environmental Final approval and effective National Legal framework management implementation of the coastal zone Capacity building manaqement plan Environmental Implementation of management National Legal framework management programme for the Farasan Islands Local Management information Marine Protected Area Manaqement proqramme Environmental Development and implementation of National Legal framework management management programme for Marine Local Management information Protected Areas at Wejh Bank. sites Management programme in Straits of Tiran and other areas on the Red Sea Habitat Rehabilitation of mangroves from National Management programme ** conservation damages caused by landfilling and Local Public awareness camel qrazing Living marine Stock assessment and management National Management information resources programme for finfish and shrimp Management programme with an evaluation of catch and effort Living marine Measures to control intensive National Enforcement ** resources collection of fish and invertebrates on Local Public awareness reef flats and spearfishinq Living marine Development and implementation of National Legal framework resources a conservation and management Local Management information programme for breeding birds and Management programme nesting turtles on offshore islands 104 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Table 19 continued Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Living marine Update of current fisheries National Management information * resources management programme Management programme P rodu Ect!ion ramme Tourism Enforcement and public awareness National Legal framework management activities for coral reef conservation, Local Management programme including control of overfishing, Public awareness trampling of corals, anchor damage, littering and souvenir collection Navigation risk Review current navigation charts, Regional Capacity building ** conduct hydrographic re-surveys National Technical development and prepare updated charts for key Local Management information areas along shipping routes and in vicinity of key po ____r_t___s_ Navigation risk Improvement of navigational aids and National Capacity building ** radio communication in Saudi waters, Local Technical development especially on major shipping channels Petroleum Implementation of current Oil Spill National Capacity building ** development and Contingency Plan, including Local Technical development transport development of local response plans Maritime transport Review of port reception facilities and Local Technical review ** _________ ~upgrade of measures as aporteTechnical development Industrial Improved management of air National Technical development development pollution, brine disposal and thermal Local discharges from desalination plants at urban areas and industrial ports Industrial Improved control of emissions from National Technical development development cement plants in coastal areas, Local especially Ras Baridi Urban Effective control of dredging and Local Enforcement development filling for urban and industrial Environmental planning development, port construction and Monitoring maintenance dredging of navigation Public awareness channels Urban Upgrading of wastewater collection Local Feasibility studies development and treatment in coastal areas, Capacity building especially Jeddah Technical development Urban Development and implementation of Local Management programme development a special programme for the Technical development management and reduction of elevated groundwater tables in the _Jeddah urban area Urban Strengthening of environmental Local Environmental planning ** development planning and management of urban development in the Jeddah Region Applied research Strengthening of current programme National Capacity building * for development of database for Management information biological resources and environmental information, and further strengthening and expansion of monitoring programmes to support operations and enforcement activities Environmental Expand activities of Saudi Public National Public awareness Education Awareness Programme implemented Local Environmental education by public and private sector parties C'ountrv Report - Saiudi Arabia 105 References Background Papers from the Sea to Awad, H. 1995. Oil Pollutlioni in the Red Sea Conference, Jeddah. Sea. A State of' the Art Assessment. MAW (Ministry of Agriculture and Wa- PERSGA/IOC/UNEP W\orkshiop oni ter). 1996. Fisheries Statistics oJlSaudi Oceanographic Inputs into Coastal Arabia, 1995. 111 + 123 pp. Zone Managemenit in the Red Sea and MAW (Ministry of Agriculture and Wa- Gulf of Aden. Oct. 12. 1995. Jeddah. ter). 1987. Marine Fish Productions Chiffings. A.W.. 1989. A Drali Marine firomn the Traditional Fisheries in the Pr-otected Areca Svstemn Plani for the Kingdom of Saudi Araibiai cdurinig Oc- Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. tober 85-September 86. 104pp. IUCN/NCWCD Specialist Report. MEPA. 1989. An assessment of' the con7- EPCCOM (Environmenital Protection Co- servation status of maclrinie turtles in ordinatingo Committee of Saudi Ara- Saudi Arabia (2 volumes). MEPA bia). 1984. Designiationi of' Environ- Coastal and Marine Management Se- mentally Sensitive Areas for tlhe Red ries Reports No. 9. Sea an7dArabian Gulf Coasts. MEPA. 1989a. The status and conserva- Evans, M.I. 1994. Important Bird Areas in tion status of the Dugongs in the Saudi the Middle East. 410 pp. Bird Life In- Arabian Region. MEPA Coastal and ternational. Cambridge Marine Management Series Reports FAO. 1993. Database of Global Fisherv No. 10. Statistics. FAO. Rome. MEPA. 1989b. Environmiienital Pr-otection? FAO. 1981. FAO Country Profile: Saudi Standards. MEPA Document 1409-01. Arabia. FAO, FID/CP/SAU Rev.2. MEPA. 1987. Saudi Arabia Assessmenit of Coastal Zone Managemtent Require- Gasparetti, J. and N. Shalhoub. (in Manu- Cental Mete and enviro- script) An Introduction to the Endan- mental Protection Administration. gered Marine Maninals of Arabia for Jeddahl Saudi Arabia. (7 Volumes) Fishermen. Divers, Coast GuardsmenJ and Students. (35pp) Ministry of Finance and the National Economy. 1970-1992. Statistical IUCN. 1989. A Conservation Strategy for YEonok for 0the 9K.ingdm iofSaud ihe 1990s. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland Yearbook for the Kpegdoss . r Kedidi, S.M., T. Abushusha and K. Allam. Ministry of Planning. 1995. Achievements 1984. Description of the artisanal of the Development Plans: 1972-1994. fisherv at Tuwwlial Saudi Arabia: Min. Planning Press. catches, efjbrts and catches per unit effort. Survey conducted during 1981- National Commission on Wildlife Conser- 82. Cairo, Project for Development of vation and Development. 1990. A Plan Fisheries in Areas of the Red Sea and to Protect Areas of Saudi Arabia. Na- Gulf of Aden. UNDP/FAO tional Co07mtission for Wildlife Con- RAB/81/002/1 :17. servation and Development. Arriyadh, Lintner, S.F., S. Arif and M. Hatziolos. Saudi Arabia. (2 Volumes). 1995. The Experience of the World Olsen, D.A., M.J. Abdulrazzak, S. ElIgow- Bank in the Legal, Institutional and hary, A. Khan and S. Al-Kouli. 1996. Financial Aspects of Regional Envi- Management of Growth in the Coastal ronniental Programm?es: Potential Ap- Zone: Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Ara- plication of Lessons Learned for the bia. MEPA Tech. Report. ROPME and PERSGA Programnmes. 106 Strategic Action Programme fbr the Red Sea anid Gulf ofjAden Peacock, N.A. and K. Alam. 1980. Final Report. The fishery resource survey of the Saudi Arabia Red Sea. February 1977-October 1979. Field Report. Fisheries Development Project, King- dom of Saudi Arabia, (40): 28pp. Sanders, M.J. and G.R. Morgan. 1989. Re- view of'the Fisheries Resources of the Red Sea anld Gulf of'Aden. FAO Fish- eries Technical Paper. 304: 138pp. Saline Water Conversion Corporation. 1992. Annu1lal Reportjbr 1411-1412. Vine, P. and H. Schmid. 1987. Red Sea Explorers. Immel Publishing, London. Wayzata. 1995. World Fact Book, a com- pilation of'the non-restricted CIA and Department of State Databases. Wilkinson, C.R. 2000. Status of Coral Reefs oJ'the World: 2000. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and Austra- lian Institute of Marine Science. Townsville. Queensland. 363 p. World Resources Institute. 1995. Database of WVorld Resources Institute. Acknowledgments This document was prepared by the Mete- orology and Environmental Protection Administration with the support of David Olsen, consultant, Abdulwahhab Dakkak, Director of Natural Resources and Fried- helm Krupp, UNDP/SAP Chief Technical Consultant. Country Report Nortliern Coast of Somalia Introduction member states, the Islamic Development Bank. the United Nations Development The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden represent a PamU. the United Natio ns compex nd iiiue ropcalmarne co- Programme (UNDP), the United Nations complex and unique tropical marine eco- system with extraordinary biological di- Environment Programme (UNEP). and the versitv and a rem-narkably high degree of World Baniik. Financial support has been provided by the countries of the Region. endemism. This narrow band of water t shared bv a number of coastal states is also and slecte don nizationsy TGEE and selected donor organizations. The GEF an Important shippina lane linkinig the n m has approved support for implementation world's major oceans. While large parts of the Region are still in a pristine state, envi- by fni from a viety' ofr ntin roninental threats-notably from habitat and ic rouries. destruction. over-exploitation and pollu- and domestic resources. tion-are increasing rapidly, requiring The present countrv report provides immediate action to protect the Region's background information to the SAP proc- coastal and marine environment. To this ess at the national level. It is based on in- end, a Strategic Action Programme (SAP) formation from publications and reports, has been prepared through a continuous, listed at the end of this document, and a consultative and cooperative process rapid assessment survey by the authors of among the coastal states, coordinated by this report. the Regional Organization for the Conser- vation of the Environment of the Red Sea Background and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA). Somalia has 3,300 kilometers of coastline. The SAP is a programmatic approach of which 1,300 kilometers face the Gulf of to the development of country based re- Aden from Ras Caseyr to the border with gional environmental projects, providing Djibouti. The western part of this coast be- and benefiting from linkages with ongoing tween Saylac and Berbera is shallow with regional seas initiatives and major interna- exposed, high energy sandy beaches. The tional waters projects. This will assure a central portion between Berbera and concerted approach to transboundary prob- Bosaso consists of mainly shallow, sandy lems, and the realization of regional and shorelines, broken rarely by protruding global benefits. The SAP has been pre- rocky, outcrops and cliffs which may ex- pared by a Task Force including PERSGA tend into the shallow water. In the eastern 107 108 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden part between Bosaso and Ras Caseyr high west monsoon there are upwelinigs of cold mountains reach the sea. This area is char- water in the northeast that are rich in nutri- acterized by rocky shores with steep cliffs, ents, but generally low in oxygen. These often interspersed with short segments of upwellings generate phyto- and zooplank- narrow sandy beaches. East of Xabo the ton blooms. They break down during the coast again becomes shallow. There are no northeast monsoon when the water in the perennial rivers along the northern coast of area is warmer, less nutrienit rich and satu- Somalia. Freshwater reaches the coast only rated with oxygen (Swallow, 1991). during irregular flash floods following tor- renltial rains. The sLurface runioff fromi laindVeyhtemoato Iavlbe rentia rinsfi. The surfce rnoff fmland about the habitats and biota along the Gulf hasnosgnifcantifluenc on the mari of Aden coast of Somalia. The information environiment. The lower reaches of larger given here is based on a rapid assessment wadi systems mav form khoris (creeks), y ~ ~~~ I suirvey whicli the authiors coniducted in niatLiral harbors that offer safe anichiorage April and May 1996. Most nearshore sub- for smaller fishing vessels. The continental shelf rarely' exceeds 15 kilometers i tidal areas are shallow with sandv sub- width tfor the extreme northwestern strate, occasionally interspersed with fields width, ecp . , .of cobbles or boulders and with rocky out- section near the border with Djibouti, section nr tcrops. Even steep rocky cliffs usually con- where it is much wider. It covers a total tinue as shallow sand areas under the wa- area of 8,400 square kilometers. There are ter's surface. There are very few seagrass only two groups of islands along the Gulf beds; thev are found mainilv in the extreme of Aden shore of Somalia: The Saad ad- I Din group near Saylac consists of s northwestern part near Saad ad-Din Island. small, low-lying, exposed islands with Further east, sand movement prevents sea- sandy beaches, while Jasiired Maydh in grass settlement. Most hard substrates sup- the central part near Ras Xatib is a steep- port macrophytic algae and vast areas are thecenralpar ner Rs Xtibis step- covered by these macroalgal beds. Coral faced rock a little over 1.5 kilometers in gro d is liied, pacrtly al lack Cofsi legt wit an avrg hegt AfA0-e growth Is him-ited, partly by a lack of suit- lersn able substrates and partly by hydrographic conditions. Occasional coral growth was The climate is arid with an average observed in the eastern and western parts annual rainfall of less than 300 millime- of the coast. Extensive coral reefs, possibly ters. Seasonal variation is mainly influ- the largest ones in the entire Gulf of Aden, enced by the monsoon winds, which also occur in the vicinity of Saad ad-Din Island. determine the coastal currents. From May Smaller coral reef areas were found west to August, the southwest monsoon drives a of Xabo and betwveen Buruc and Bosaso strong current from the level of Socotra to (see Map of northeni coast of Somalia at the east. It influences the water masses in end of volume). Twelve larger mangrove the Gulf of Aden, where the main current areas have been identified. Most of them direction is eastward during this period. consist of the black mangrove (Avicennia However, along the northeastern coast marina) only, but on Saad ad-Din Island there is a counter current that flows west- Rhizophora was found as well. ward, fed by northeasterly flowing waters Alon the Gulf of Aden coast three ar- passing between Socotra Island and the Aog teGl fAe os he r mainland into the Gulf of Aden. From Oc- eas have been proposed for protection (Ta- mainlan inoteGlfAe. Frm c ble 1). The Daloh Forest Reserve, to the tober to March, during the northeast mon- soon, waters flow from the Arabian Sea north of Erigavo, has a coastal section into the Gulf of Aden. The main current which consists of sandy plains with sparse direction along the Somali coast is west- ward, but in the northeast there is a counter I For updated descriptions and impacts to the coral reefs current that flows east. During the south- and associated habitats for Somalia refer to Wilkinson. 2000, pp 35-54. Countra Report - Northern Cosast of Somalia 109 Table 1: Coastal and Marine Protected Areas along the Gulf of Aden Coast of Somalia ___ ^ ^A^ . v x - - - w__ _ w e _ - _~ Protected Size Year Major Habitats and Management Global Area (ki2) Significant Species Recognition Daloh Forest 2510 proposed Terrestrial protected None None Reserve area with coastal sec- tion; Prosopis forest, Somali wild ass, sev- eral species of ga- zelles, leopard, sandy coastal plain Maydh Island > 1 proposed Rocky island, possibly None None up to 100,000 breed- ing seabirds per sea- Aibat, Saad suggested Coastal area and coral None None ad-Din and islands, probably most Saba Wanak extensive mangrove areas (Avicennia and Rhizophora) and coral reefs of entire Gulf of Aden, rich reef asso- ciated fauna, impor- tant breeding area for large numbers of sea- birds grass cover. In the core area, there is one five years grew from little more than 5,000 of the last reasonably intact rocky ever- to over 100,000 inhabitants today (some green forests of the country. Among other estimates are as high as 120-1 70,000). wildlife it would protect gazelles, Somali Other larger settlements along the coast are wild ass and leopard. Maydh Island lies Saylac, Laas Qoray, Qandala, Xabo and adjacent to Daloh Forest Reserve. From Caluula with 1,000 to 3,000 inhabitants June to September, it is estimated that the each (Table 2). The population of coastal island is occupied by up to 100,000 breed- towns and villages is significantly higher ing seabirds. Outside the breeding season during the winter than during the summer. guano is traditionally collected from the Throughout Somalia animal husbandry and island. Aibat, Saad ad-Din and Saba agriculture are the main economic factors. Wanak are two islands and an adjacent Despite rich living marine resources that stretch of coastline near Saylac. This area could make a significant contribution to has the largest mangrove stands and coral economic development, fisheries currently reefs along the Gulf of Aden coast of So- account for only 2 percent of the GDP malia. It is an important breeding area for (FAO, 1995). Other marine based activi- a large number seabirds (Simonetta and ties are even less important. Simonetta, 1983, Kelleher and others, 1995, Fishpool pers. comm.). Somalia, one of the poorest countries in Africa. is currently suffering from civil In 1988 Somalia had about nine mil- strife which broke out in 1988 and resulted lion inhabitants. The largest town along the Gulf of Aden coast is Berbera. Its in collapse of the central government and a popuatin vaiesseasnaly bewee an breakdown of the national economy. The population varies seasonally between an cofitldoderuinofwligs estimated 50.000 and 150.000 inhabitants. conflct led to destruction of dwelings The second largest (perhaps now the larg- water points, crops, and industrial installa- Test seowndi l sarest (prhas now the larg- tions; looting of livestock: and the planting est) tovn is Bosaso which overthelast of millions of land mines. A major lit Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gidjf oJAden Table 2: Number of Fishermen and Boats along the Gulf of Aden Coast of Somalia Location Population No. of No. of Sail Boats and Facilities fishennen Motor Boats (MB) Full- Part- Sail MB MB Cold Engine Jelty Dry time time boat active idle storage /hull storage repair Bereda 800-1000 3040 45 20 10 5 - + - + Calula 1,000-1.200 20-25 35 25 5 - - - - + Xabo 1,000-1.500 80-120 60 10 5 - + + + + Gesalev 800-1,000 28 80 24 2 - Qandala 2,000-3,000 138 150 26 21 5 + + + + Buruc 300-400 38 60 16 3 - - - - - Mareero/ Ba'd 200-300 15 -0 3 3 - - - - - Bosaso 120,000 140- 200 27 38 11 + + + + -170,000 200 Qaw 200-300 20 0 5 2 1 EIo 500-700 24 0 12 20 15 - - - - Laas Qorav 2,000-3,000 80-100 0 20 20 12 + + + + Maydh 600-1,000 90-120 60 15 30 23 - - - + Heis 200-300 10 0 10 I11 6 - - - - Karin 300-500 15 0 0 0 0 Berbera 50,000 200 80 15 50 15 + + + + -150,000 Bullohar/ 100-150 0 15 0 0 0 Geeri Lu9haye 400-700 25 0 0 2 ~~~~~~~1 - - - + Savfac 1,000-1200 40 0 3 6 4 - - - + Lawyo-addo 300-400 0 0 0 0 0 Totals 181,700 993- 785 231 226 92 -336,650 1158 proportion of the rural population was dis- Coastal and Marine Resources placed. Taking into account the number of Both fisheries and maritime transport play refugees who left the country and the r r. ~~~~~~a minor role in the economv of northern number of dead through conflict and star- a vation, the remaining population is esti- Somalia, although in the present situation of relative security in the western and east- mated at 6.3 million (FAO, 1995). In Janu- er rgin,btscosaegown arv 1991, inter-clan conflict in the north- em regions. both sectors are growing. west resulted in the displacement of an es- Other coastal activities, such as salt mining timated 100,000 people, many of whom and the collection of guano, are only of lo- were skilled. In Mav 1991, former British cal importance. There is no oil or gas ex- Somaliland declared'itself independent and ploitation, nor tourism in the area. a government was installed, but the "Re- Berbera and Bosaso are the two main public of Somaliland," which controls the ports along the Gulf of Aden coast, linking western part of the coastline, is not recog- northern Somalia mainly to the countries nized internationally. The Somali people, of the Arabian Peninsula. Berbera has an in collaboration with the international airport and Bosaso an airfield, which pro- community, are facing the challenging task vide the focal point for relief project im- of rehabilitation and reconstruction. FAO, plementation and back-up support. There in collaboration with other international are daily commercial flight connections to agencies and NGOs, is currently operating Djibouti and regular flights to Dubai. Ad- relief and rehabilitation programmes ditionally, UN flights link Bosaso and (FAO, 1995). Berbera to other towns inside Somalia, Coutntry Report - Northern Coast of Somalia 11l Nairobi and Djibouti. The road system in metric tons. Predominant large pelagic fish the coastal areas is underdeveloped. A species include tunas (Thunnius spp., paved road in reasonable condition linkis Eutlhvnnus affinis Katsuomts pelaniis) Berbera to Hargeisa, the capital of Somali- Spanish mackerel (Scoimberoniorus comn- land. A track along the coast from Bosaso niersoni) and jacks (Caranx spp.). In com- via Berbera to Djibouti can only be passed mercial terms, the yellowfin tuna (Thunuts by 4-WD vehicles. In most of the area east albacares) and the Spanish mackerel are of Bosaso, topography makes the construc- the most important species exploited by tion of a coastal road difficult and many artisanal fislheries and ocean-going long- settlements in this section are only acces- liners. Most migratory species, whose sible by boat or by a track from far inland. stocks are shared with other countries, be- LIVING COAS1ALAN[) MARINE lolng to this group. Yellowfin tunia, skip- RL SOURCES jack tuna (Katsuwaoiu.s pelamis), Spanisl R Cmackerel, kawakawa (Euttlhvnnuiis atfinis) Fish and shellfislh resources in the Gulf of and dolphiinfislies (Cor_vphaena spp.) be- Aden are characterized by high diversity long to this group. The MSY for large and a limited number of commercially ex- pelagics has been estimated at 2.000 to ploitable species. In the 1970s and 1980s, 4,000 metric tons. several attempts were made to estimate the Fishing for sharks and rays is a tradi- stocks of Somalia's living marine re- tional activity for the majority of the fish- sources. Among others, the followinig re- io c ties for the Gulf of Aden search vessels visited the area: F. Nansen ing communities along the Gulf of Aden (1974, 1986), Isla de Lanizarote (1978-79), coast. The meat is salted and suni-dried, (1974. (198 9-8), . sadeLanzaroteor (198-79 wlhich is a rather simple method of preser- Colombus (1979-80). and Georgy Usha- vation. There are relatively stable markets kov (1987). Vastly different estinates are for shark meat in East Africa and the prod- ,given by different sources anid reported ucismtlexoedoMmbaan statistics often do not distinguish between uct is mostly exported to Mombasa and the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden Zanzibar. Throughout the summer. inten- coasts. In these cases it is assumed that the sive shark fishing takes place at the fol- value for the northern coast is roughlv one lowing sites: Xabo, Butiyalo and Hantara third of the total. In general, statistical data (eastern sectionBari Region). Elayo, Laas are scarce and not verv reliable. For the Qoray and Maydh (central sectionSanag period since 1988 no statistics are avail- Region), Lughaye and Geeri (westeni sec- able at all. tion=Awdal and Sahil Regions). Major sharks and rays targeted by these fisheries While populations of demersal fish are: hammerhead sharks (Sphyrnidae), lar- stocks and crustaceans are stable through- getooth sawfish (Pristis pectinata), out the year, the hydrographic regime re- whitetip shark (Triaenodoni obesus), tiger suits in seasonal fluctuations of small and shark (Galeocerdo cuvier), and guitar- large pelagics. The most abundant species fishes (Rhinobatidae). Over the past seven is the Indian oil sardine (Sardinella lon- years, sharks and rays accounted for 35-40 giceps). The highest concentrations are percent of the landings in northern Soma- found in the Cape Guardafui area, with lia. This is mainlv due to the fact that shark stocks decreasing gradually westwards. products can be preserved easily, while Round herring (Etruineus teres), anchovies there are no processing and storage facili- (Engraulididae) and scads (Alepes spp., ties for bony fishes. Between 1989 and Atiule mate) are important resources that 1993, at the height of Somali civil strife, are seasonally fished in the Gulf of Aden. which cut off the traditional trading routes, For the entire Somali coast, the Maximum the export of shark products was inter- Sustainable Yield (MSY) of small pelagics rupted. Fishermen continued to fish sharks, has been estimated at 70,000 to 100,000 however, but only used the fins, which I 12 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden fetch high prices, and discarded the body. Spawning and nursery areas along the Shark fins for the East Asian market were Somali coast have not yet been identified. mainly exported to Dubai. In 1994, the ex- The two largest creeks along the coast are port of shark meat to Mombasa resumed Khor Xabo and Khor Butiyalo. They are and over the last three years an estimated both fringed by mangroves and are ex- 150-200 metric tons of shark meat were pected to be important nursery areas for marketed. Additionally, 8-10 metric tons fish and shrimp. Khor Butiyalo is known of dried shark fins were exported to Dubai. as an important spawninig area for penacid Demersal fish stocks on the southern shirimps. banks of the Gulf of Aden are underex- Artisanal fisheries have a long tradi- ploited. Landings by local fishermen, who tion in Somalia. Important landinig sites operate with canoes and motorboats, are along the coast are Caluula, Xabo, Qan- minor compared to the expected MSY. dala, Laas Qoray, Berbera, Lughaye, and During the last few years some larger Saylac. Though still underdeveloped, ar- trawlers, converted to processing docks, tisanal fisheries are essential for the liveli- obtained catches from local fishermeni. hood of a large portion of the coastal popu- However, theyv accept only groupers and lation. However, Somalis tend to regard snappers of I kilogram and above. Addi- fishing as an inferior occupation fit for tionally, demersal stocks are exploited bv those who have lost their livestock or who foreign trawlers, who illegally intrude into have no land to farm. As a consequence Somali waters, usually at night. The pre- the number of fishermen is very low com- dominant families of demersal fishes pared to the whole population. About landed are groupers (Serranidae). snappers 2,000 men work full-time or part-time in (Lutjanidae), emperors (Lethrinidae), rab- this sector. They use Glass Reinforced bitfish (Siganidae), croakers (Sciaenidae), Plastic (GRP) boats of 6.4 to 8.5 meters and mullets (Mugilidae). During its 1975- length (most of which are aging by now), 76 survey, the R/V F. Nansen estimated usually powered with inboard engines of the MSY of large pelagics for the entire eight to twenty-two horsepower. These coast of Somalia at 40,000 metric tons per motorboats have begun to replace the tra- year. Large foreign trawlers that operated ditional, locally-made wooden crafts (ca- under license along the northeast coast be- noes and beden, a type of small sail boat), tween 1978 and 1982 reported daily although canoes are still widely in use in catches between four and seven metric the eastern section. Use of fiberglass boats tons. with outboard engines is growing. The Commercially important invertebrate most widely used fishing gear on these resources are spiny lobsters (Panulirus boats is large mesh size (300 millimeters spp.) and deep sea lobsters (Puerulus and larger) nylon shark nets. Other gear spp. anddeepsealobsers Puerlus commonly used by artisanal fishermen in- sewelli). The latter occurs over coarse sand cleshnlyues, longlish(mainl and hard mud at depths below 180 meters cludes handlines, long-lines (mainly for alond thar mudteast de sth b hel 0 metenrs sharks), gilinets, and lobster traps. In Xabo along the northeast coast. The extent Of an adl,bahsie r sdt this resource is unknown, however from and Qandala, beach seines are used to present levels of exploitation the MSY has catch sardines for bait, Between 1982 and present level of eXo itatmon *th Ms har 1985 total annual catch rates in this sector been estimated at about 500 metric tons for ragdbten400nd720mri spiny lobsters and 1,500 to 1,800 metric ranged between 4,070 and 7,720 metric tons for deep sea lobsters. From 1982 to tons, with the peak in 1984. 1985, total annual catches of crustaceans Trawlable areas along Somalia's Gulf ranged between 436 and 559 metric tons. of Aden coast are limited. For this reason Other invertebrates that are occasionally industrial fisheries are not well developed. exploited in unknown quantities are However, large trawlers that came to the shrimps, prawns and cuttlefish. area in recent years reported high catches Coointrv Report - Northern Coast of Somalia 113 of demersal fish, crustaceans and cuttle- north. Huris, motorized fishing boats, and fish. Statistical data are lacking and during sail boats are mostly laid up due to the lack the past eight years no national or licensed of fishing gear, spare parts and mainte- foreign fislinog vessels has legally operated nance. The fishing communities, howvever. in the area. Between 1982 and 1985 there are still present and in some places the was a rapid increase in total annual catches number of people has increased because of of this sector from 3.900 to 11,940 metric immigrationi from other parts of the coun- tons. About 70 percent of the landinigs try. from Somali waters were bv foreign- ownled vessels (FAO, 1988). Although at the national scale fisheries contribute insignificantly to the GDP, they During the 1 980s several initiatives are an important economic factor for were taken to develop the fisheries sector. coastal communities, both in terms of em- The two main projects were: the Northwest ployinent and income. However, with the Coastal Fishery Development Project lack of government institutions, it is not (NWCFD). and the Northeast Coast Fish- possible to determinie the financial capac- ing Enterprise (NECFISH). They were ity of the sector. For the same reason there managed separately under the supervision are no government loans available. Some of the Ministry of Fisheries and discontin- private entrepreneurs extend limited loans ued following the collapse of government. to individual fishermen, in the form of ma- The aim of the NWCFD was the develop- terials and food, but these loans are cou- ment of artisanal fisheries on the northwest pled with high interest rates and materials coast by providing basic infrastructure for are overpriced. Some international organi- the collection, processing and distribution zations and NGOs are extending limited of fish. It also provided training and work- assistance to the fisheries sector, mostly by shop facilities to fishermen. A 400 metric providing fishing gear and training. Some ton freezer store witlh a freezing capacity isolated basic infrastructure was estab- of four metric tons per day was the focal lished, such as storage and processing fa- point of the project. cilities for selected marine products. At- NECFISH prom-noted fisheries devel- tempts to rehabilitate existing facilities such as canneries have thus far been un- opment in the Bosaso-Qandala-Caluula re- gion. It developed an industrial fishery of successful. Problems affecting the fisheries small and large pelagics off the northeast sector may be summarized as follows: coast and supported artisanal fisheries by . With the collapse of the central gov- providing infrastructure for collecting and ernment, the traditional production and processing high quality fish products for trade pattern broke down. The rela- the export market and by providing assis- tionship between fishermen, boat own- tance and training to local fishermen. The ers and traders has lapsed. Fishermen industrial component aimed at an annual are largely unable to market their catch of 50,000 metric tons of pelagic fish. catches. However, between 1990 and 1996 total Local business is unable to generate fish catches dropped to a low of possibly sufficient foreign currency to import only 1,500 metric tons along the entire f g b coastline of Somalia (excluding sharks). fishmg gear, boats and engmes In or- All onshore facilities operated by these and der to replace the present aging mate- other projects (Table 2) have been idle for rials. many years now. Where the installations * The former storage and processing fa- have not been looted, they are aging and cilities, which bought most of the deteriorating. In 1996, apart from small products in the past, are no longer containerized chill rooms, only mobile ve- operational. Installations were often hicle cold storage was available in the looted and the condition of the remain- 114 Strategic Action Programmenfor the Red Sea and Gulf of/ den ing buildings and equipment is deterio- most all exports and imports are made via rating rapidly. the sea. However, dhow based trading along the coast is in decline, leading to in- Green turtles (Chelonica miydas) and L_ hawksbill turtles (Eretniochelvs imbricala) creased isolation of coastal fishinlg com- are found at several sites along the Gulf of munitiles that depend on the dhows for Aden coast of Somalia. Their numbers and their supplies. Berbera is the main port on nesting beaches are unknowni. Maydhi Is- the Gulf of Aden coast. It is fully opera- land and the Saad ad-Din group are impor- tional, even for commercial traffic, and mainly serves the inland towns of Hargeisa tant areas for nestinig seabirds. Population as ntimbers are largely unknowin; there are and Burao. Berbera port has four deep- water berths withi a total quay' lenigthi of several species of terns (SIterna spp.), sootv ,, , ., ............ , , 650 imeters. The livestock export of the gulIs (Larus hemprichii), brown noddy northwest is hiandled through this port. (Ano/ts stoliduis) anid num-erous otlier spe- nriesis1add Laruhti ot (Aieus sto/idus) and numerous other spe- Saylac and Maydh are small ports with cies. limited berthing and handling capacities. Pastoral nomads form the majority of Bosaso is the main port in the northieast. It the Somali population, followed by farm- is fully operational and used for the export ers. Animal husbandry is an important of livestock, fisheries products and in- economic activity in the coastal zone, pro- cense. Commercial traffic at Somali ports viding many employment opportunities. has increased dramatically during the last There are considerable fluctuations in the few years. coastal population as many nomads and their flocks move to the coastal areas after MARINE AND COASTAL TOURISM rainfall and then return back to the moun- Unlike other East African countries, tour- tainous hinterland during the hot and dry ism never played an important role in So- summer months. malia. The Ministry of Tourism had been NON-LIVING RESOURCES aiming at developing a viable tourism in- dustry. The 1984 Tourism Development During the 1980s, offshore oil explorations Act provided for the acquisition of land, were conducted. These surveys showed including beach properties. It also had that the continiental shelf of Somalia may provisions for the protection and preserva- have oil and gas reserves. Several oil com- tion of ecology and environment and for panies applied for concessions and Elf- planning of Marine Protected Areas Somalia and Agip were granted conces- (MPAs). The five-year development plan sions for the eastern and central parts of for 1982-1986 placed an emphasis on the the Gulf of Aden coast. No reserves of development of tourism infrastructure economic importance have so far been (Sheppard and Wells, 1988). These plans found and at present there is neither oil nor have not materialized, but there is consid- gas exploitation. erable potential for the development of There is currently no seawater desali- tourism in Somalia, including coastal and marine activities, once the situation is sta- nation to produce freshwater. Table salt is ble. produced in Tokhoshi, a small village west of Saylac, where the major economic ac- tivity is salt mining. The salt is sold to Legal and Institutional Framework other parts of Somalia and exported to Somalia has signed the Bamako Conven- Ethiopia. tion on the Ban of the Import into Africa MARITIME TRANSPORT and the Control of Transboundary Move- ment and Management of Hazardous Traditionally, maritime transport has Wastes within Africa (1993), and ratified played an important role in Somalia. Al- Cointr- Repo-t- Northern Coast of Sonialia 115 the following Convenitions and Protocols UInited Nations Convention on the relevant to the marine environment: Law of the Sea (1989). Convention for the Protection, Man- National environmental legislation is agement and Development of the Ma- poorly developed and inadequate for rine and Coastal Environiment of the meaningful environmental assessment, re- Eastern African Region (1988). source allocation, and management and protection of habitats and resources. Exist- Table 3: National Laws and Regulations related to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources Law, Ordinance, Regulation Year Government Agency (in force) Sanitary Code 1936 Ministrv of Health Maritime Code 1959 Ministry of Marine Trans- port and Ports Water Development Agency Law 1971 Ministry of Minerals and No. 28 Water Resources Law on Somali Territorial Sea and 1972 Ministry of Marine Trans- Ports, No. 37 port and Ports Water Law No. 77 1972 Ministry of Minerals and Water Resources Port ReuIations, decree No. 67 1978 Somali Ports Authoritv Sewage and Drainage Law No. 3 1983 Water Development Aqencv Joint Venture Guidelines 1983 Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources Tourism Development Act 1984 Ministrv of Tourism Fisheries Law No. 13 1985 Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources * Convention on International Trade in ing national laws and regulations are Endangered Species of Wild Fauna summarized in Table 3. and Flora ( 1985). Somalia has not yet formulated a na- • Convention on the Conservation of tional policy for the exploitation of marine Migratory Species of Wild Animals resources. Sainlos (1987) gives an over- (1986). view of marine environmental legislation * Protocol Concerning Cooperation in before the collapse of government. In the Combating Marine Pollution in Cases present situation these laws and regula- oEmnAfrican tions are not enforced and the national in- Region (f 988)a stitutions are of no relevance. The status as of 1988 is summarized below: * Protocol Concerning Protected Areas and Wild Fauna and Flora In the East- ANainlMreAfisComte ernd AfrildcFauan d Region (1988). theEwas established to oversee the overall em African Region (1988). development of the sector. This Com- • Protocol Concerning Regional Coop- mittee was chaired by the Ministry of eration in Combating Pollution by Oil Marine Transport and Ports and mem- and other Harmful Substances in Cases bers included the following ministries: of Emergency (1988). Minerals and Water Resources, Fisher- ies and Marine Resources, Foreign Af- Regional Convention for the Conser- ies aduMarine Res esei vation of the Red Sea and Gulf of f Aden Environment (1 988). . The Ministry of Marine Transport and Ports had a mandate for development 116 Strategic Action Programmniefor the Red Sea and Gzldf of Aden of maritime transport and the im- development of water resources within provement of port facilities. It was also the country. responsible for environmental control Other Ministries involved in the man- of coastal areas, including ports, pre- aoement and development of coastal vention of marine pollution and navi- at and marinie resources were Educationi, gation safety. The implementationi of Interior and Defense. the Maritime Code, other laws and regulations related to the marine envi- Since the outbreak of civil strife, ronmenit, and regional and interna- hardly any fisheries development work has tional conventionis were under the re- been carried out. In the absence of gov- sponsibilities of this Ministry. Legisla- eminent, Regional and District Councils tion to control pollution, however, was and Councils of Elders took up the role of restricted to ships in ports. The Somali principal coordinating organizations for Ports Authority and the Somali Ship- the inflow of aid to their respective juris- ping Agency operated under this Min- dictions. Internationial agencies and NGOs istry. have worked in coordination with the CoLucils of Elders in the development of a The Ministry of Fisheries and Marine sustainable institutional base. Institutional Resources was established in 1977 coordination takes place through the Dis- with the objective of developing and trict and Regional Councils to ensure a managinig Somalia's untapped fisheries reasonable level of public accountabilit.' resources. It was supported by staff In the case of research. extension or credit from the Soviet Union and later by accountability has to be established (FAO. FAO. Basic marine fisheries legisla- 1995). tion is contained in the Maritime Code of 1959. In 1983, the Ministry of Fish- One of the institutions of the "Repub- eries and Marine Resources issued a lic of Somaliland" is the Milistry of Fish- joint venture guideline and in 1985 the eries and Coastal Development. Created in National Fisheries Law. It is composed 1993, this Ministry is in charge of encour- of six departments: production, plan- aging public and private investment for the ning, research, marketing, personnel exploitation of marine resources; increas- and administration. The Ministry is the ing fisheries production within the MSY; Focal Point for PERSGA. protecting the coastline and sea from envi- * The National Range Agency within the ronmental degradation initiating and de- veloping research and training facilities for Minstry of Livestock, Forestry and the fisheries sector; and developing em- Range was responsible for National ployment opportunities in the marine sec- Parks, but at the time the government tor. collapsed, there were no MPAs and no legislation conceming their establish- Threats to the Environment ment or management (Elder, 1987). ..TheMinitry f Torismwas in The Gulf of Aden coast of Somalia is still caThe Moinstry of Tourism wa- in a largely pristine state. In the present charge of establishing MPAs. Legisla- siutothrisadlndeeo et tion, following the Kenyan model, has situaton there Is hardly any development beenprep followmg the netwok mod, p- and most threats to the marine environ- becten prepared fraewkop- ment come from poaching and alleged dumping of hazardous waste by foreign * The Ministry of Minerals and Water vessels. Additionally, certain living marine Resources was created in 1969. Its two resources show signs of overexploitation. main responsibilities were the devel- Anthropogenic pressure is otherwise low opment of mineral resources including and restricted to the immediate vicinity of mining and geological survey, and the Couintr y Report - Northern C'oast of Somalia 117 the larger settlements. Threats to the envi- does not always follow, established chan- ronment are summarized in Table 4. nels poses an additional problem. Fisher- HABITATI DEGRADATION AND men throughout the area report a sharp de- DESTRUCTION cline in shark catches, which is likely to indicate overfishinig of tihis resource. Physical damage to coral reefs, whicih may In the absence of law enforcement and result in a loss of coral habitat and decline legal protection, the level of poaching by of reef associated faunia, is currenitly low. foreign vessels is high. A large variety of Reef fisheries so far have a minor impact lto on the reef habitat. but in the northwest ts illegall fis in S alge stern corals are collected occasionally and trakilers illegally fish in Somali waters. sliipped to Djibouti for sale to toLirists. The Pakistani. Taiwaniese aind Italiani vessels shippe to thiboutivfor isat tkouris. The e have so far been captured bv militias. In tablishent it of collecting stations for reef additioni to unconltrolled exploitation of fabishmes of collectly ing stationsi foereef bliving marinie resources, the sea bottom is fisres is currntlybeigcosbeing damaged by heavv trawls. The level private entrepren1eur. If not managed prop- erly. this may have negative effects on the of illegal fisheries along the Gulf of Aden reef habitat. coast, whiclh usually occurs at night, is lower than along the Indian Ocean coast. Most mangrove habitats are still in At present it seems impossible to deter- reasonably healthy conditioni, despite graz- mine the extent of the damage from these ing by camels and collecting of branches activities (FAO, 1995). and trunks as firewood and building mate- Considering the lack of any control, rial. According to a survey by the authors, the lato of lng mrne utilization of this resource largely occurs at resources by privationtofpiing wine sustainable levels. Only one mangrove resources by private entrepreneurs without sustareabimmedielyst Ofy Bosemasogowed any environmental concern must be rated area immediately west of Bosaso showed hi. signs of severe degradation. However, a high. survey of all mangrove areas along the Local fishermen, who are in need of Gulf of Aden coast of Somalia is necessary subsidiary food sources, continue to collect to determine their present status. turtle eggs and utilize turtles for meat, oil and shells. Turtles are hunted directly or caught as a by-product in fishing activities. Because of limited availability of boats, The overall pressure on turtle populations engines and fishing gear, and consequent in the Somali section of the Gulf of Aden low fishing efforts and smaller fishing ar- is unknown, but it may be high and there- eas, most resources targeted by artisanal fore it is reasonable to assume that this re- fisheries are still under-exploited. How- source is being overexploited. ever, the rate of collection of spiny lobsters is increasing rapidly and pressure on this NAVIGATION, MARITIME RISKS AND SHIP high-priced resource may soon result in BASED POLLUTION local overfishing. Without stock assess- The world's major transport route for hy- ment. however, it is not possible to deter- drocarbons passes through the Gulf of mine the MSY. Aden and the frequency of tanker move- It is difficult to estimate the effects of ments poses a constant threat of oil spills the present level of shark fisheries oni the of any magnitude in the event of an acci- local populations. Shark stocks are un- dent. The risk of a major oil spill may be low. but the consequences could be very known and since the collapse of govern- serious. There is neither a Contingenc ment no fisheries statistics have been col- yerio de Il poltiontingency lected. The fact that sharks are often Plan to deal with oil pollution emergencies lcaugte. Te rote harashars thae poften nor a spill response capacity in Somalia. caught in remote areas and that exportI 118 Strategic Action Programmeefor the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden Ross (1987) proposed a draft Contingency portant source of marine pollution. Waste- Plan for Somalia. Technology and capabil- water is mostly collected in septic ity for cleaning up spills is lacking within trenches. Untreated sewage may contami- the country and the Marine Emergency nate groundwater. A comparatively small Mutual Aid Center in Djibouti. whicil amount of wastewater reaches the sea di- should cover the Gulf of Aden coast of rectly and is probably' not a major source Somalia, is awaiting re-activation. Accord- of marine pollution. In the absence of anv ing to UNEP (1987), some 590 million monitoring, it is not possible to estimate tons of oil travel anilually along the coasts the amount of toxic leachates and patho- of Somalia. With the absence of siirveil- genic organisms entering coastal waters. lance capability in the area, tankers rou- Allocation of limited freshwater resources tinely discharge oily ballast and annual with inadequate concern for water conser- discharges from these operations were es- vation and inadequate maintenianice of dis- timated at 33,000 metric tons (UNEP, tributioll systems affects surface and 1982). Tar balls are regularly found on cer- groundwater reserves. taim sections of the Somali coastline, above In rural and urban areas, management all oni the Ihigh-energy beaches in the west- of solid waste is either inadequate or lack- ern sector. Marine vessel sewage and dis- ing. Near human habitations, especially in charge of solid waste pose additional Bosaso. Berbera and Saylac, solid waste is threats. In the absence of waste reception d o t facilities at the ports, ships dispose their cusing e to cstl and mint e lea waste offshore. Heavy maritime traffic and aun derating . asthe tic. During pen limited navigational devices result in con- ods of heavy rain, leaching of substances stant risks of ship collisions and ground- from dumps near the shore poses a poten- mg. tial hazard. The inadequate and unsanitary In general, pollution of the marine en- disposal of human feces, possibly infected, vironment is limited and does not pose a in rural and urban areas is probably a ma- serious threat. However, there are repeated jor source of contamination of ground and anecdotal reports of illegal dumping of surface water supplies. Improper waste hazardous wastes along the coast of Soma- disposal is a serious health problem. It at- lia. These reports occasionally appear in tracts domestic animals, rodents and flies the international press (e.g., Anon., 1996). which spread disease. In most areas basic Although the extent is unknown, there can- sanitation is virtually absent. The level of not be any doubt that illegal dumping of fecal coliforms in drinking water and in toxic wastes poses a major threat to the the sea remains unknown. Skilled person- coastal and marine environments of Soma- nel, monitoring and analysis laboratories lia. Illegal disposal of hazardous sub- and equipment are lacking. A general lack stances obviously constitutes a major con- of awareness aggravates this problem. cern. OTHER CONCERNS INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN In some areas, above all near the urban DEVELOPMENT centers, there is beach mining for lime- There is no heavy industry along the Gulf stone, sand and gravel in the coastal zone. of Aden coast of Somalia. The only refin- This activity destroys coastal vegetation ery. located in Berbera, is currently not and results in increased erosion and silta- operational. However, the urban popula- tion. tion is growing rapidly and urban devel- . . opment~~ in BoaoadBrer,slrey Agricultural practices place additional opment in Bosaso and Berbera IS largely pesr ntecatlevrnet pressure on the coastal environment. uncontrolled. Adjacent to major population Overgrazing by livestock results in in- centers, domestic sewage is a locally im- creased siltation in coastal waters due to Country Report - Northern Coast of Somalia 119 erosion of coastal soils and sand dunes. pear is of major conceri. All over Somalia, The destabilization of coastal sand dunes is some 465O000 hectares of formerly stable the single most important hazard. The ac- dunes have been reactivated in coastal ar- celerating rate at whicih active dunes ap- eas (UNEP. 1987). Table 4: Threats to the Coastal and Marine Environment and Resources Issue Symptoms I Immediate Root Causes Extent Severity Impacts Causes Habitat Destruction . ,,, Mangrove Deterioration of man- Grazing by Lack of regula- Localized Low to destruction grove habitat, de- camels, wood tions and man- Moderate creased fish and collection, agement, lack of shrimp catches, re- awareness, lack of duced water quality alternative fuel Living Marine Resources Potential Decline in shark Increased Lack of reguia- Throughout Severe overfishing of catches fishing efforts tions the area sharks Illegal fishing by Decline In catches, Lack ot sur- Lack of govern- Throughout Severe foreign vessels destruction of sub- veillance and ment the area tidal habitats by trawl- regulations Illegal shark Decline in shark Increased Lack of surveil- Throughout Severe fisheries for catches, bycatch of fishing effort, lance and regula- the area foreign shark fin turtles, dolphins and high profits tions market, by finfish foreign vessels__.____ Potential Decrease in average Increased Lack of stock as- Localized Moderate overfishing of size fishing efforts sessment ham- lobster in limited ar- pers resource eas management, lack ______________________ ~~of regulations _ _ _ _ Collection of Decrease in nesting Need for sub- Lack of pubiic Localized Possibly turtle eggs by populations sidiary food awareness, lack of severe artisanal supply alternative food fishermen sources. lack of regulations Navigation and Maritime Risks Navigation risks Extensive and routine Limited navi- Heavy maritime Throughout Low to risks of ship collisions gational de- traffic the area, moderate and grounding vices particular in Dort areas Mvlarine vessel Localized marine and Discharge Inadequate on- Throughout Moderate sewage beach pollution from ships board treatment, the area lack of port recep- tion facilities Ship discharge Solid waste on shore- Discharge of Inadequate dis- Throughout Low of solid waste line solid waste posal facilities, the area from ships lack of regulations and enforcement, lack of port recep- tion facilities Petroleum Development and Transport Potential small Beach contamination, Tanker clean- Lack of reception Localized, Low oil spills damage to coastal ing, discharge facilities at ports, near ports (< 20 mt) and marine biota of ballast and inadequate con- bilge water, trol, lack of en- discharge of forcement waste oil, bunker oil spill Potential Beach contamination, Small acci- Lack of control Localized, Low to medium oil spills damage to coastal dents at sea and monitoring, throughout moderate (20-1 00 mt) and marine biota lack of regulations the area and enforcement 120 Strategic Actioni Programnme for the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden Table 4 continued Issue Symptoms I Immediate Root Causes Extent Severity Impacts Causes Potential large Destruction of coastal Rupture of oil Insufficient tanker Localized, Moderate oil spills and and marine habitats tanks in colli- safety specifica- throughout to severe disasters and biota, devasta- sion or tions, poor naviga- the Region (> 100 mt) tion of beaches wreckage tion aids Urban Development Surface and Excessive exploita- Excessive Allocation of water Localized Low to groundwater tion of surface and pumping of resources with moderate groundwater for mu- groundwater, inadequate con- nicipal use cern for water conservation, in- adequate mainte- nance of distribu- tion systems Discharge of Groundwater im- Lack of sew- Lack of pollution Localized, Low to untreated or pacts, threat to public age treatment control regula- urban areas moderate insufficiently health plants tions, monitoring treated sewaqe and enforcement Disposal of solid Damage to coastal Improper dis- Lack of adequate Localized Low to waste in coastal and marine life, dete- posal waste disposal moderate areas, disposal rioration of aesthet- regulations and of human feces ics, threat to human enforcement, lack health of a waste man- agement system, inadequate public awareness, lack of sanitary facilities Other Concerns Siltation from Destruction of Grazing by Lack of regula- Mainly in Severe grazing vegetation cover, livestock, fu- tions and man- western resulting in elwood collec- agement of part of mobilization of dunes tion coastal grazing coast and sand sheets Illegal disposal Damage to living Lack of sur- Lack of govern- Throughout Severe of hazardous coastal and marine veillance and ment the area waste by foreign resources, threat to enforcement vessels human health Recent, Current and Planned coastal and marine environments. Human Environmental Initiatives resource development must be an integral component of all activities listed below. In the present situation there are no envi- Priority actions for the Gulf of Aden coast ronmental initiatives, but even before the of Somalia are summarized in Table 5: collapse of government, such initiatives were hampered by lack of knowledge . Measures to control the illegal dump- about resources and habitats, and a lack of ing of hazardous waste by foreign ves- legislation, training and monitoring capaci- sels along the coast of Somalia should ties. urgently be introduced. It is suggested to establish a joint Priority Actions "Coastal and Marine Environment Although since 1988 the situation in Committee" with representatives of Somalia has changed drastically, recom- the Regional and Local Councils, mendations for improved management of NGOs and international agencies. This coastal and marine resources made by Committee should coordinate envi- UNEP (1987) remain valid. There is a ronmental initiatives and assess the clear need for strengthening the skills of ability of major marine resource sys- the human resource base to improve as- tems to support sustainable develop- sessment, planning and management of ment. Cozrntry Report - Nortlier n Coast of Sonmalia 121 There is an urgent need to establish . Current navigation charts should be objectives and policies and to promote reviewed, hydrographic re-surveys appropriate legislation for the man- conducted and updated charts prepared agement of coastal and marine habitats for key areas along shipping routes and resources. A Coastal Zone Man- and in vicinity of key ports. agement Plan should be prepared and . Navigational aids and radio commun- implemented as soon as this becomes cations in nortlern Somali waters feasible. slhould be improved, especially on ma- A feasibility study for the establish- jor shipping cilainels. ment of Marine Protected Areas An Oil Spill Response Contiigencv should be conducted. Conservation Plan needs to be developed and im- management should be introduced as plemented withii the fraimework of the sooii as feasible. The Saad ad-Din area Marine Emergenc' Mutual Aid Center and~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~am Emergenc Islaial shoul beenter and Maydh Island should be given il Djibouti. This activity must include highest priority, response capacity building. * The extent and status of mangrove ar- . In the medium term, a feasibility study eas and present use of mangrove prod- on the development of port reception ucts needs to be assessed. A manage- facilities and waste management sys- ment programme for sustainable use of mangrove resources should be devel- porte oped and implemented for the benefit of traditional resource users. This pro- * Near major population centers, levels gramme should include alternative of pollutants and their effects on living sources of fuel. marine resources and human health . . ~need to be monitored. Wastewater col- * Measures against illegal fishing activi- nectind tbetmenit facities iero- ties y foeign esses areurgetiv ection aind treatment facilities in Ber- ties by foreign vessels are urgently bera and Bosaso should be developed. needed. * A fisheries management plan should There is an urgent need for baseline be prepared for sustained fisheries de- surveys of marine ecosystems upon bevpreloparent. Any sustainagment feri - which to base the effects of oil, toxic vgropment Any mhar anagement pro-l chemicals, pathogens and other forms gramme for sharks and rays, bony of pollution. A database containing in- fishes, and crustaceans must be basedfomtnonblgiareucsad on a cmprehesive asessmet andformation on biological resources and on a comprehensiv asse and the environment should be developed. critical evaluation of pelagic and A monitoring programme should be demersal stocks. set up to support management and en- * A poverty alleviation programme forcement activities. Institutions for should be developed for fishing com- applied research and monitoring need munities. This would include provision to be established. of basic fishing gear and reasonable The development of sub-regional access to markets. This programme maritime regulations is proposed. Ex- should be coordinated with present ac- isting legislation should be revised for tivities by FAO and NGOs in the area. ain appgmcation the Gulf of Aden man- agement area. 122 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden Table 5: Priority Actions Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Special issue Introduction of control measures Gulf of Enforcement against illegal dumping of haz- Aden Coast ardous waste by foreign vessels Environmental Establishment of a joint Coastal Gulf of Capacity building ** management and Marine Environment Com- Aden Coast Technical assistance mission Technical develo_ment Environmental Preparation and implementation Gulf of Legal framework ** management of a Coastal Zone Management Aden Coast Capacity building Plan Planning framework Environmental Feasibility study for establish- Gulf of Legal framework management ment of Marine Protected Areas Aden Coast Management information Manaqement programme Environmental Development and implementa- Gulf of Capacity building management tion of conservation and man- Aden Coast Management information agement plans for Maydh Island Management programme and Saad ad-Din Island Habitat Development of a mangrove Gulf of Management programme * conservation conservation programme and Aden Coast identification of alternative sources of fuel Living marine Introduction of measures against Gulf of Enforcement ... resources illegal fishing activities by foreign Aden vessels Coast, Lo- cal Living marine Stock assessment for shark fish- Gulf of Management information ... resources ery Aden Coast Management programme Living marine Stock assessment for finfish and Gulf of Management information resources lobster fisheries Aden Coast Management pro9ramme Living marine Development of a management Gulf of Technical study resources programme for fisheries, includ- Aden Coast Management information ing marketing Management programme Production proqramme Community Development and implementa- Gulf of Feasibility studies development tion of poverty alleviation pro- Aden Coast Technical assistance grammes in fishing communities, Technical development including provision of basic fish- ing gear Navigation risk Review of current navigation Gulf of Capacity building charts, conduct of hydrographic Aden Coast Technical development re-surveys and preparation of Local Management information updated charts for key areas along shipping routes and in vi- cinity of key ports Navigation risk Improvement of navigational aids Gulf of Capacity building * and radio communications in Aden Coast Technical development northern Somali waters, espe- Local ciallv on major shipping channels Petroleum Development and implementa- Gulf of Capacity building ** development tion of Oil Spill Contingency Plan, Aden Coast Technical development and transport in the framework of the Marine Local Emergency Mutual Aide Center (MEMAC) in Djibouti Industrial Preparation of feasibility study Local Feasibility study development and development of port recep- Capacity building tion facilities for Berbera port, in Technical development the medium term Urban Development of wastewater col- Local Feasibility study * development lection and treatment facilities in Capacity building Berbera and Bosaso, in the me- Technical development dium term Counter Report - Northern Coast of Sonmialia 123 Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Applied Establishment of database for Gulf of Capacity building ** research biological resources and envi- Aden Coast Management information ronmental information: prepara- tion of a programme for environ- mental monitorinq Applied Development of a proposed sub- Gulf of Legal framework * research regional maritime law and pro- Aden Coast Capacity building posed revision of legislation for application in the Gulf of Aden Coast manavement area References Sheppard. C.R.C. and S. Wells. 1988. Di- rectorv l: f Corail Reefs of 17lternactio71crl Anoni. 1996. "Toxic cargo worries Somla- f o I Importance. Vol. 2: Indlial Ocean1 Re- lia." Daiu Nation (31.3.1996): 36 gi.on. IUCN. Gland anid UNEP, Nai- Elder, D. 1987. Sectoral report o01 marine robi. 389 pp. protected areas and reserves. Coastal Simonetta, A.M. and J. Simonetta. 1983. and miiarinile environmiiental problems of "An outline of the status of the Somali Somalia. UNEP Regionial Seas Reports fauna and of its conservation and man- and Studies 84 (Annex V): I11- 130. agement problems." RivistadiAgricol- FAO. 1995. Towards a Strategy for Agri- tura Siubtropicale e Tropicale 77: 457- cultuttral Developmnent in Somnalia, frton 483. Relief Rehabilitation anid Reconistruc- Swallow, J.C. 1991. "Circulation in the tion to Development. Food and Agri- northwestern Indian Ocean." In: culture Organization of the United Na- Smith. S.L. Arabian Sea Progress tions. Rome. 168 pp. Study, U.S. JGOFS Planning report FAO. 1988. Fishery Country Profile. So- No. 13: 37-48. Woods Hole Oceano- malia. Food and Agriculture Organiza- graphic Institute. Woods Hole. tion of the United Nations. Rome. 5 UNEP. 1987. Coastal and marine envi- PP. ronmental problems of Somalia. Feidi. I.H. 1981. Project proposals to suip- UNEP Regional Seas Reports and port r egional fisheries development Studies 84. Two volumes. (Red Sea and Gulf ofj Aden). UNEP. 1982. Environmental Problems of RAB/77/008/19, 49 pp. the East African Region. UNEP Re- Kelleher, G.. C. Bleakley, and S. Wells gional Seas Reports and Studies 12. (eds.) 1995. A Global Representative Wilkinson, C.R. 2000. Status of Coral System of Marine Protected Areas. Reefs of the World. 2000. Global Coral Vol. 3. Central Indian Ocean. Arabian Reef Monitoring Network and Austra- Seas, East Africa and East Asian Seas. lian Institute of Marine Science. IUCN/World Bank. Washington D.C. Townsville, Queensland. 363 P. Ross, S.L. 1987. Sectoral report on marine oil and chemical spills. UNEP Re- Acknowledgments gional Seas Reports and Stuzdies 84 The following are gratefully acknowledged (Annex III): 5 1-86. for providing advice and infonnation: Mr. Sainlos, J.C. 1987. Sectoral report on ma- Ali Hajji Aden. UNDP Somalia, Nairobi; rine environmental legislation. UNEP Dr. Talib Ali. FAO Somalia, Nairobi, Mr. Regional Seas Reports anid Stuidies 84 Muahmmad H. Barri, Executive Council (Annex VII): 189-215. of Bari Region, Bosaso: Mr. Lawrence 124 Strategic Action Progranmne for the Red Sea and Gudf ofAden Christy, FAO, Rome; Berry and Howard Clarcke, EU, Berbera; the staff of COOPI. Berbera; Mr. Muhammad A. Dhimbil, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Planning, Hargeisa: Mr. Omar H.A. Dubbad, Minis- try of Fisheries and Coastal Development, Hargeisa: Dr. Lincoln Fishpool, BirdLife Internationial, UK: Mr. Gary Helseth, UN Coordination Officer, NE Somalia, Bosaso; Captain Edward Johns, Ports Au- thority, Berbera; Jacqueline and Albrecht Luft, UNDP Somalia, Nairobi: Mr. Eras- mus Morah, UN Coordination Officer, NW Somalia. Hargeisa; Mr. Yusuf A. Nur, Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Devel- opment, Berbera; Mr. Ahmed H. Omane., Vice Minister of Fisheries and Coastal De- velopment. Hargeisa; Mr. Richard Porter, Birdlife International, UK; Shaikh Yusuf Ali Said, Chairman of Executive Council of Bari Region, Bosaso; Ms. Gwi-Yeop Son, UNDP Somalia, Nairobi; Mr. Ahmed A. Yassin, Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Development, Berbera, Mr. Abdu- lahi M. Yusuf, Executive Council of Bari Region, Bosaso. This document was prepared by: Ali Farah Ali, Fisheries Biologist and National Coordinator, UNOPS, Bosaso, Somalia. Yusuf Omar Ali, Marine Biologist, RPC International, London, UK. Friedhelm Krupp, Marine Biologist, UNDP/SAP Chief Technical Consultant. Country Report Republic of the Sudan Introduction pared by a Task Force includinig PERSGA member states, the Islamic Development The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden represent a Bank, the United Nations Development complex and unique tropical marine eco- Programme (UNDP), the United Nations system with extraordinary biological di- Environment Programme (UNEP), and the versity and a remarkably high degree of World Bank. Financial support has been endemism. This narrow band of water provided by the countries of the Region, shared by a number of coastal states is also the Global Environment Facility (GEF) an important shipping lane linking the world's major oceans. While large parts of hanseaproed so for implemnt.aTion the Region are still in a pristine state, envi- of the SAP, which will be complemented ronmental threats-notably from habitat by funding from a variety of international destructioni, over-exploitation and pollu- and domestic resources. tion-are increasilg rapidly, requiring immediate action to protect the Regioni's The present country report provides coastal and marine environment. To this background information to the SAP proc- end, a Strategic Action Programme (SAP) ess at the national level. It is based on in- has been prepared through a continuous, formation from publications and reports, consultative and cooperative process listed at the end of this report, and a rapid among the coastal states, coordinated by assessment survey by the authors of this the Regional Organization for the Conser- report. vation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA). Background The SAP is a programmatic approach The Sudanese Red Sea coast is about 750 to the development of country based re- kilometers long, including bays and inlets. gional environmental projects, providing With an average annual rainfall of 111 and benefiting from linkages with ongoing millimeters (varying from 36 millimeters regional seas initiatives and major intema- at Halaib to 164 millimeters at Suakin) the tional waters projects. This will assure a wide, shallow coastal plain is very dry. It concerted approach to transboundary prob- lies within the desert and semi-desert sub- lems, and the realization of regional and zone. Numerous freshwater streams drain global benefits. The SAP has been pre- the Red Sea hills, but there is no perennial water flow in the lower reaches of the 125 126 Strategic Action Progranmmefor the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden coastal plain. Only after the torrential rains Abdellatif (1993), El Hag (1994), and that occur mainly in November and De- Krupp and others (1994).] cember, is there occasional freshwater in- The Red Sea State of Sudan borders flux into the Red Sea. The largest stream, the entire coastline and has a total area of Khor Baraka, reaches the sea via the vast 221,000 square kilometers. According to the 1993 census, its population is about The widest and deepest parts of the 685,000 people, with an average house- Red Sea lie off Port Sudan. In most of the hold size of 5.0 persons, below the na- Sudanese Red Sea, the water is extremely tional average. The difference in house- transparent, sometimes as deep as 70 me- hold size between rural and urban areas is ters. Surface temperatires range betweeni minor. Some 54 percent of the population 26.2 and 30.5°C, and salinity is rather higih live in urban areas. Port Sudan is the larg- (39-41 ppt). From May to October, surface est coastal city with a population of about currents flow in a southerly direction; for 390,000. The Red Sea State is home to a the rest of the year they flow northwards. complex ethnic blend of people. The in- The maximum tidal range is about 55 cm digenous Beja group is largest of the tribes (Scliroder, 1981, 1983; Sheppard and in the State. It is divided into several sub- Wells, 1988: Krupp and others, 1994). groups, the Amarar, Besharin, Hadandawa, Typical features of the Sudanese Red Beni Amer and Halaga. The Hadandawa is Sea are coastal lagoons and sheltered bays by far the largest group. It occupies the (marsas) that form natural harbors and fish area south and east of Sinkat and Haiya up landing places. Several of these lagoons to Tokar. They are primarily nomadic and are fringed by mangroves (Khalil, 1994, pastoral. The Besharin and the Amarar are Khalil and Krupp, 1994, Salih and others, also nomadic and occupy the northe part 1994. Wilkie, 1995). The black mangrove, of the State. Other important tribes are of Avicen1nia marina, is the only species oc- Arab stock, the largest of which is the curring in the area. Well developed man- Rasihidiya. They are also nomads. Follow- grove stands were reported at thirteen sites ing the 1980s drought, the settled rural (see Map of Sudan at end of volume). Sea- population moved to the urban centers or ,rass beds are frequently found in the shal- reverted to temporary nomadism. low waters of marsas and in lagoons be- The State is well endowed with natural tween the coast and the fringing reef. The resources, but its inhabitants are compara- Sudanese coast is characterized by the tively poor, especially those living in rural most diverse reefs of the Red Sea. Most of and marginal urban areas. At present, the the coast is bordered by fringing reefs 1-3 natural wealth of the Red Sea is largely kilometers wide separated by deep chan- underexploited. There is no offshore oil nels from a barrier reef 1-14 kilometers exploitation and the contribution of fisher- wide. The outer barrier drops steeply to ies and tourism to the GNP is negligible. several hundred meters depth. One of the In 1993-94 all fisheries, forestry and agri- most unique reef structures of the Red Sea cultural services contributed less than is Sanganeb Atoll (Krupp, 1990). Its steep 3 percent to the GNP. The backbone of the slopes rise from a sea floor more than 800 local economy is maritime transport, with meters deep. Coral reefs of the Sudanese the national shipping company, Sudan Red Sea are described in more detail by Line, of major economic importance. It is Betz and Otte (1980), Schroder and others expected that the resources of the Red Sea (1980), Vine and Vine (1980), Schroder (1981, 1983), Schroder and Nasr (1983), Mergner and Schuhmacher (I 985) 1 For updated descripions and impacts to the coral reefs Sheppard and Wells (1988), Musa (1 991), and associated habitats for Sudan., refer to Wilkinson, 2000, pp 35-54. Countri' Report - Sudan 1277 IBRD 30702 3715 37i6 37 79' 951 \ . 19-45 SUDAN ' 9 a -Sangoneb r X sSj r 1 1/~~~~~1 916X4-, '. 737 646 1.~~~~~ .1u~~~T 796 796 SVangneb 6 i 6 1 82.5 4 / i ; / -*"- rf ,-71 91 <75 /22 ll Z jFs J53 %$ > t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~jl5 '- s .-.- __ r-? / O 1 2 3 4 5 kv 8xl 8,1'\ ,f,. , i\.,, t1-. .,.[i549 769 ? 27 0 1 2 3 4X 5k \' 4.5 t. C- . S March 2C00 ;s.s .. x .. . __________________________ Figure 1. Map showing reefs in the vicinity of Port Sudan (from Mergner and Schuhmacher, 1985, modified). will rapidly gain importance in develop- The main source of employment statis- ment planning. tics is the 1993 population census. In the Red Sea State. the total population age ten Coastal and Marine Resources and over was given as 434,000. Of this The major economic sectors along the Su- group. 49.7 percent were defined as eco- nomically active. Out of the total eco- danese Red Sea coast are maritime trans- nomically active population, 79 percent port and port-related activities. At present, were employed. The majority of the fisheries and tourism play a minor role at were employed. wrie thenatona leel,alhouli ubsstece 21 percent who were unemployed were the national level, although subsistence seeking work for the first time. Of those fisheries are locally important. Both tour- semploy 70.3 perc we ivin in ur- ism and fisheries have enormous growth b employed, 70.t percent were living in ur- potential. Shrimp farms are being planned ban and the rest in rural areas 33.2 percent and a considerable expansion of industrial worked in agriculture and fisheries, production in the coastal zone is expected once the planned Free Zone project is im- vices. 16.4 percent in transport and storage plemented (FZD, 1994). and 13.9 percent in wholesale and retail plemented (FZD, 1994). services. The manufacturing sector em- 128 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden ployed only 7 percent of the labor force. change with improvement in the country's Females made up 8.7 percent of those em- economic conditions. The recent creation ployed. For both sexes, 54.2 percent of the of the Red Sea State provides new em- labor force (excluding those seeking work ployment opportunities in government de- for the first time) consisted of employees, partments. Port Sudan also provides the 4.2 percent of employers, 331.5 percent most employment in both the formal and were self-employed and 8.0 percent were informal sectors. The private sector, in- working unpaid for family members or cluding banks and industries, is an impor- others. The percentage of employees has tant employer. There are fourteen larger increased (34.5 percent in 1983), while industrial plants in the State. all of which that of employers has declined (8.5 percent are located at Port Sudan. in 1983). Self-emploved workers have also i. At the time of tle study in 1996, sala- deciined (46.4 percent in 1983). In urbani r a w areas the majority of the labor force were ries and wages were geaieralls low wprile emplovees, whiile in rural areas the major- per month W ag pole aes by ter itv (0 perent) ere slf-emloyedper inontli. Wage policies are set by the itv (60 percent) were self-employed, government. The minimum basic monthly It is estimated that duriig the intercen- wage for an unskilled laborer was sal period (1983-1993) the growth rate of SDDI0,000. This could reach SDD50,000 the labor force was 5 percent per year for a government official. The private sec- while employment increased by 3 percent tor might offer higher salaries than the per year. During the same period unem- government, with a minimum basic ployment grew by 20 percent per year, monthly salary of SDD30,000 for an un- partly because of a decline in imports and skilled laborer and up to SDD200,000 for a exports since 1989 and partly because of senior employee. The average cost of liv- the increasing number of new entrants into ing for a household of five persons was es- the labor market. Out of the unemployed. timated to range between SDD50,000 and 14.4 percent had worked before. 300,000 per month. Employment opportunities in the State Major trade routes link the Red Sea are largely limited to the urban centers, State to the rest of the country and the out- above all Port Sudan and Tokar. Although side world. Port Sudan and Suakin are the agriculture and fisheries provide some em- two main ports. Port Sudan also has an in- ployment opportunities for the rural popu- temational airport. A highway and a rail- lation, these sectors are of minor impor- way link Port Sudan to Khartoum and tance as compared to urban employers. other parts of the country. The fisheries sector, while potentially im- LIVING COASTAL AND MARINE portant, does not employ a large number of RESOURCES people. The reasons are: limited marketing opportunities, inadequate transport facili- About sixty-five species of bony fishes are ties, lack of cold storage, and inadequate currently considered to be of economic policies relating to fish resource utiliza- importance, in addition to sharks, rays, tion. At present, fisheries rank very low in shrimps, lobsters, crabs, mollusks and sea the resource utilization priorities of the cucumber (Sanders and Kedidi, 1989, Red Sea State. Mishrigi, 1993). In artisanal fisheries, the Port Sudan provides considerable em- nine following taxa account for 60- opportunities for casual laborers. 70 percent of the catches: gushar (grouper, ployment Epinephe/us spp.), bohar (twinspot snap- although there has been some decline in per, elus spp.), asmoot snack port-related activities over the past few rper, Lutjanus boar), asmoot (humpback years. This, however, is considered a tem- snapper, Luthanus gibbus) shaoor (em- ' ' . . ~~~~~peror, Lethrinus spp.), bayad (iacks, Ca- porarv phenomenon which is expected to .' n ( rangidae), najil (roving grouper, Plectro- Counttr Report - Sudan 129 ponmius inaculatus), farisi (green jobfish, . Credits, which were mainly available Aprion7 sp.). abu garin (bluespine unicorn- from the Agricultural Bank of Sudan, fish, Naso unicornis), arabi (bluespot mul- became too expensive. let, Valam1u(gil seheli) and sharks (mainly The Fisheries Admi.istration and local Carcharhinidae and Splhyrnidae). fishermen at Suakin reported that catches According to the Fisheries Administra- of bohar, farasi and koraib (crimson job- tion. the estimated Maximum Sustainable fish, Pristipoinoides filcawientosuis) de- Yield (MSY) of artisanal fisheries amounts creased by about 50 percent. According to to 10,000 metric tons, wiliie the present the same source. average fish size also de- annual production is only around 1,200 cdined. These observations. whicih need to metric tons. Aninual production increased be substanitiated by fishieries surveys, significantly from 555 metric tons in 1975 might idicate local overfishing. Shark to 1.489 metric tons in 1984. After the catches. currently a small-scale sector of 1984 peak, a decline of almost steady the Sudanese artisanal fisheries, show a magnitude was recorded. with landings declining trend. Landings decreased from dropping to 1.048 metric tons in 1994-95 90 metric tons in 1982 to just 13 metric (Figure 2). This is a 30 percent decrease tons in 1992. Shark catches by foreign ves- within ten years (O'Riodan, 1982' sels are not included in these statistics Mishrigi. 1990-93, 1993). Possible expla- (Mishrigi, 1990-1993). nations are: Within this pe- riod. develop- 1600 - ment projects 1400- - (FAO. 1980-85. ODA. 1975-90) 1200 - - were phased 1000 out. Most of the paid services 800 that these two 600- - projects pro- vided to the de- 400 -- velopment of 200 - - the artisanal fisheries sector 0° were discontin- 1975 1980 1982 1984 1990 1992 1993 1994 1995 ued, and suis- tainability had Figure 2. Total artisanal finfish landings (in metric tons) not been built between 1975 and 1995. into the pro- Five fishing companies, including a jects. semi-public one. are currently operating as Production costs (for example, for fish traders. None has experience in fisher- fuel, boat maintenance, ice) increased ies management and they are unable to as- constantly, and imported equipment, sist in developing the fisheries sector. Bet- such as engines, spare parts and fish- ter fishing methods and services are re- ing gear, were less readily available. quired in order to improve catch rates. Fishermen had no choice but to use Most fishing companies, however, limit huris, 4 meter dug-out sailing canoes, their activities to the exploitation of re- limiting their efficiency. newable resources by hiring local artisanal fishermen with minimum investment. In some cases, for example in Mohammed 130 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf oJAden Gol, they monopolize the market, benefit- scientists. Improved growth rates allowed ing from their "no-competition" status. for partial cropping after only two years, Most of the products they collect are ex- rather than 3-4 years as was the case in the ported. Najil is the key target species of past. Fishermen from the Dongoniab area the export market. obviously rely on an expansion of oyster Another important renewable resource culture as their main source of inicome. is kokian, or giant spider conch (Trochus Market prices, which were at SDDI,600 dentatus). Traditionally, the Suakin area per kilogram at the time of the study, are was the center of kokian fisheries, but it encouraging. However mortalities are still seems that centher ofmkokail procis ariesa bt i high (up to 50 percent) and it is recoin- seemns that the maini productioni area re- mienided to shift from thie present bottom centlv shifted to Mohammed Gol. Anlnual export rates of kokiani during the 1991-95 culture to floating rafts, despite the high period varied between 306 and 535 metric costs in establishinig this technique. The periodThe foarer ODA project introduced traditional oyster culture site at Dongonab toils. expoitaio of sea introduced has limited carrying capacity. Exceeding the exploitation of sea cucumber (b&he- maximum densities leads to mass mortali- de-mer) alonig the Sudanese coast. Produc- ties, as happened in 1 969. This hias to be tion is mainily based on two species (Holo- considered when plannini6o future expant- thuria sp. and Actinopyga sp.). In 1981, 15 p p metric tons of dried sea cucumber were sion of oyster cultures. OXFAM exported. Thereafter, production stopped UK/Ireland currently funds oyster farms because of low prices on export markets under the supervision of the Marine and difficulties in collecting. However, in Fisheries Research Center (FRC) as part of the present situation of declining fish and a community' development project kokian landings, sea cucumber exploita- (FRC/FAO, 1985, Mishrigi 1993) tion has resumed in the Marsa Ashat area Industrial fisheries are under- south of Suakin. developed. There are some 700 square The sadaf or pearl ovster (Pinctada kilometers of trawlable grounds off the ma is a valuable resource. Tra- southern coast of Sudan, mainly in the To- niargaritifera) i s a resDongona- kar delta and Gulf of Agig areas. In 1990, ditional productioni areas are Dongonab experimental trawls by twenty'-seven for- and Mohammed Gol. In 1971 a peak pro- eign trawls by tripsy-seven for- duction of 11 8 metric tons was reached, eign vessels (fifty-two trips within a three but the average annual landing of wild month period) produced 544 metric tons. ovsters declined to 25 metric tons in sub- 75 percent of which was lizard fish (Syno- rfarming flourished in dontidae). In 1991, two shrimp trawlers sequentgyears. Oysere did seventeen trips within nine months. Dongonab, where up to 65 family farms, Maximum shrimp catches amounted to with 130 local beneficiaries, were estab- Maxic s,iplus ameted to lished. Followingmassmortalitiesin 1969, 14.7 metric tons, plus 14 metric tons of ligshled following massmorto altiesg in - 1969 cephalopods. Six shrimp species of poten- large-scale farming stopped although ex- tial commercial importance were recorded: port continued, mainly based on wil Penaeus semisulcatus (56.2 percent), P. populations. Between 1966 and 1989, the latisulcatus (21.3 percent), P. japonicus. P. average annual export rate was 37 metric c aonodonand Me1 a ene), moncus tons. In 1992-93 production amounted to monodon and Metapeneus monocerus about 40 metric tons. During the last two (19.3 percent), with M stebbingi account- years, the Dongonab oyster culture scheme ing for the rest. The projected annual has been revived and Mohammed Gol shrimp catch has been calculated at 30 added as an additional site. Local villagers metric tons. Over the past ten years, most were entrusted with operating thirty-six trawlers pulled out of the area, because farms in Dongonab and fifteen in Mo- shrimp catches, the major target group, hammed Gol. The farms, which grow were considered too low. Only Egyptian some 6,000 oysters each, are supervised by trawlers remained in the area fishing for Country Report - Sudan 131 lizard fish. Egypt is the only market for The potential for agriculture in the this resource. coastal zone is limited. The most important There is a commercial potential for agricultural scheme of the Red Sea State is purse-seine fisheries. Fishligic, grounds are based at Tokar. About one third of the total mainly hltenotl aesarea of the Tokar delta is flooded annually mainly in the niorthiern areas, including n a ecr d h xtn n oa Foul Bav near the border with Egypt. The and of be crod wa tel'c and in present annual landinigs amount to some I 1-300 metric tons and the MSY is esti- the Baraka River, are unpredictable. De- mated at 2,300 metric toins. Catches are pending on the area flooded, land is dis- mainly composed of spotted sardinella tributed in small tenancies. The number of teniants varies fromi year to year, averaginlg (50.8 perceiit), Inidiaii mackerel ( 18.5 per- teiat vaisfomya_o_er veaj cent)( gold striped sardiimelia (18.9 per- abouit 10,000, mostly from the inidigenious cent) goldstmaeriped sardndcad (12.9 per- Beni Amer and Hadandawa tribes. The cenit), hiorse mackerel anid scads ( 12.9 per- maocrp owireoti,srgui, cent) (Brandford, 1979: Feidi, 1981; Sand- major crops groZw are cotton, sorghum. millet and vegetables. The delta has a great ers and Kedidi, 1981, 1989). potential to produce food and cash crops, A Sudan Integr-ated Fisheries Project but requires improvements in infrastruc- (SIFP) has been proposed by the "German- ture, flood control, water and environ- Arab Fisheries Company," whicil includes mental management and institutional ser- the establishment of several industrial fa- vices. cilities along the Red Sea coast, in particu- Animal husbandry is the primary eco- lar near Port Sudan. A tuna cannery with a nmiactivitynof mh the popuation capacity of 40,000 metric tons per year, a nomic activity of Sa uchn of the populatio shrimp processing plant (30,000 metric in the State. Seasonal movement of live- tons per year), a fishmeal plant (24,000 stock is relatively low. While some herds metric tons per year)* a feed plant produc- remain permanently in the coastal area. most livestock descend from the Red Sea ing 60,000 metric tons of shrimp feed per motlvsckdcedfmthRdSa ya 6000 metric tonso shrimp fee per hills in November to graze on the coast un- year, aild ani ice plant producinig 200 met- til April when they return to the hills ric tons per day are included in this pro- where they rely on water from wells and ject. Another component of the SIFP is the wadis. establishment of ten shrimp farms, includ- ing hatcheries and growing ponds. These NON-LIVING RESOURCES ponds will cover an area of 4,500 hectares Exploitation of mineral resources along the between the northl of Port Sudan and the Red Sea in Sudan is still minimal. Metahll- Tokar delta. The project requires fifty-six ferous mud is a promising resource. Stud- months to construct ponds and industrial ies for joint exploitatiosi by Sudan and facilities (CFCL, 1995). ie1o on xllainb ua n Saudi Arabia in Sudanese territorial waters Marketing of fisheries products is a have been completed (Thiel and others. serious problem, partly because of a lack 1986), but no steps toward implementationl of cold storage. Most facilities are owned have been taken thus far. by the private sector and have limited ca- The Red Sea State is one of the best pacity. Transportation is an additional ThecRe Sea for isaons in st problem, particularly for fishermen far prospective areas for hydrocarbons in Su- from Port Sudan, the main fish market of dan. Oil exploration began in the early the State. A number of companies and in- 1970s. Natural gas was found in the Tokar dividual merchants buy fish from fisher- and Suakin areas. Offshore reserves are men and sell it in Port Sudan. These com- located in the Suakt16 Archipelago. Exploi- panies provide ice, cold storage and trans- tation amounted to 16.1 million cubic feet port to fishermen and small-scale fish trad- per day. ers. 132 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gzdfof4Aden Most of the demand for salt in Sudan 3.000 to 4,000 persons per year, is not op- is met by solar evaporation plants in the erational at present and hotels in other Red Sea area, where climatic conditions coastal towns are below the standard ex- are ideal for this process. Production of pected by international tourists. Most tour- freshwater through seawater desalination is ists are transferred directly from the airport still very limited in Sudan. Currently, only to diving yachts, because of a lack of in- two industrial installations have desalina- frastructure on land. In spite of outstanding tion plants. attractions, tourism is not well developed MARITI IME TRANSPORT and plays a very limited economic role, During the 1993-94 season 600 foreign Maritime transport is the major commer- tourists came to tie State, in 1994-95 the cial sector in the Red Sea coastal area of number increased to 1,000, and in 1995-96 Sudan. In 1994-95 a total of 920 vessels to ],200. In 1996-97, however, the number called at Port Sudan harbor, of whicIll I I dropped to almost zero. were oil tankers. Passenger ferries link Suakini with Jeddah and Massawa, with an Legal and Institutional Framework average of four ships a day arriving at Sudan has ratified the following Conven- Suakin. Imports througlh Sudanese ports ruain.e Imrts throu Sese ports tions and Protocols relevant to the marine ranged from 3.7 million metric tons in 1990-91 to 2.6 million metric tons in 1994- environment: 95, while exports ranged from 0.1 to 1.0 . Bamako Convention on the Ban of the million metric tons over the same period. Import into Africa and the Control of Oil imports dropped slightly from 1.5 mil- Transboundary Movement and Man- lion metric tons in 1990-91 to 1.4 million agement of Hazardous Wastes within metric tons in 1994-95. Over the same pe- Africa (1993). riod the number of passengers increased from 86,000 to 182,000. A new oil termi- , Convention Concerning the Protection nal and a new container terminal for the of World Cultural and Natural Her- next generation of container ships are in tage (1974). the planning stage. . Convention on Biological Diversity MARINE AND COASTAL TOURISM (1995). . Convention on International Trade in In general, the Red Sea State has a great Endangered Speies ao Wild Fn potential for tourism. There are numerous andFlora (1982). and widely diversified tourist attractions. The main activity is SCUBA diving and . Protocol Concerning Regional Coop- Sudan has several of the best diving sites eration in Combating Pollution by Oil in the entire Red Sea and even worldwide. and other Harmful Substances in Cases In addition, there are beaches and opportu- of Emergency (1984). nities for a variety of water sports; recrea- * Regional Convention for the Conser- tional areas in the Red Sea hills, and a vation of the Red Sea and Gulf of number of historical and archaeological Aden Environment (1984). sites, the old town of Suakin being the most important. United Nations Convention on the Although Port Sudan is accessible by Law of the Sea (1985). sea, air, road and railway, connections are See also Table 1. irregular and unreliable. Most hotels are MARPOL has not yet been ratified, located at Port Sudan, where a five star ho- because of a lack of port reception facili- tel is under construction. The tourist vil- ties. In 1994, Sudan attended the Meeting lage at Arous, which had been planned for of African Environment Ministers in Nai- Country Report - Sudant 133 robi and a year later the Arab Environment . The Ministry of Environment and Ministers' Meeting in Cairo that discussed Tourism was established in 1994 withl environmental conservation issues in the the mandate of coordinating environ- Red Sea area. At these conferences par- mental conservation and promoting Table 1: National Laws and Regulations related to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources Law Ordinance, Regulation Year (in force) Government Agency Concerned Marine Fisheries Ordinance 1937 Marine Fisheries Administration Amendments to Marine Fisher- 1975, 1978 Marine Fisheries Administration ies Regulations Sudan Marine Conservation 1975, 1995 Ministry of Environment and Tourism Committee Requlations Environmental Health Act 1975 Ministrv of Health and Local Councils Sudan Maritime Law Draft proposal 1996 Maritime Administration Environmental Policy Act Draftproposal 1996 HCENR and Attornev General ticipating countries agreed to envi- tourism. The followinig institutionis op- ronmental conservation programmes for erate under this Ministry: the Red Sea. 0 The Higher Council for the Envi- Sudanese Fishery Ordinances and ronment and Natural Resources Regulations date back to 1937 and were (HCENR) is the technical branch amended in 1975 and 1978. They prohibit in charge of coordination, policy overfishinlg, collection of corals, shells and making, and international coopera- aquarium fish, and dumping of any refuse. tion. It has two branch offices so including oil, into the sea. In Port Sudan, far and it is planned to set up Suakin and Sanganeb, signs have been branches in all states. erected informing visitors of these regula- tions. The Sudan Marine Conservation isTheNaonal Tourism Corporation Committee played an important role in irespons oftourpai n formulating the amendments. The Envi- promotion oftoursm. ronmental Health Act of 1975 prohibits the 0 The General Administration for dumping into the sea of any item that is Wildlife Conservation is charged harmful to humans or animals. Vessel with the protection and manage- owners or captains are being informed and ment of wildlife, including pro- have to sign forms. The Marine Fisheries tected areas. This administration, Ordinance gives police, customs officers, however, lacks experience in the and local authorities the right to board and marine field. Its efficiency is ham- search a vessel, and detain any craft ac- pered by the fact that it is techni- cused of violating the regulations. A Mari- cally under the Ministry of Envi- time Law for Sudan has been drafted by ronment and Tourism, but admin- the Maritime Administration. It is still istratively under the Ministry of awaiting approval and implementation. Interior (employees are part of the According to the Comprehensive National police force). Strategy (CNS, 1992-2002), Sudan is committed to the pursuit of sustainable de- 0 The Antiquities and Museums velopment and environmentallv sound re- Corporation is in charge of histori- source management. cal and archaeological sites, among them the old town of The following institutions are directly Suakin and archaeological excava- involved in the use and management of tions on offshore islands. coastal and marine areas and resources: 134 Strategic Action Progranmne for the Red Sea and Gulf ofA den The Ministry of Animal Wealth is in . The National Forests Corporation charge of animal production and fish- (NFC) is responsible for the manage- eries. The following agencies belong ment of mangrove areas. A recent to this Ministry: FAO mission recommended a conser- 0 The Marine Fisheries Administra- vation programme for the mangroves tion, which is under the Red Sea to be implemented by NFC. State Ministry of Animal Wealth. . The Plant Protection Directorate su- manages fislheries resources and pervises. among other activities, the controls the observation of fisher- locust control programme. It controls ies regulations. the use of pesticides. 0 The Marine Fisheries Research . The Tokar Agricultural Corporation Center (FRC), whiclh is unlder the conducts the largest agricultural Federal Ministry, provides scien- scheme in the Red Sea State in the To- tific information for the manage- kar Delta, whichl opens into the Red ment of fisheries resources. Over Sea. the last 1 5 years. it has been con- The Ministry of Defense is in charge centratina~~~~~~~~~~ ohe pearlr oyfe producI-mchrg centrating on pearl oyster produc- of the Naval Forces in the Red Sea tion. area. The Navy is responsible for secu- O The Wildlife Research Center is in rity in coastal and marine areas. It is charge of providing the scientific the most experienced and effective in- background for wildlife conserva- stitution in enforcing fisheries and tion and management. maritime laws and regulations. More specific training in marine conserva- In Port Sudan. the Ministry of Trans- tion issues and public awareness port has the following branches: would be desirable. The Navy has a 0 The Sea Ports Corporation is in boat and two soldiers stationed at San- charge of all aspects of maritime ganeb Marine National Park; giving transport. It is linked to the Mari- more responsibility to the Naval time Administration, which had Forces for the policing of Marine Pro- been based in Khartoum until it tected Areas (MPAs) should be con- moved to Port Sudan in March sidered. 1996. It is responsible for the im- . The Naval Academy includes marine plementation of Coastal Zone environmental conservation in its cur- Management Plans which cover riculum. maritime transport. * The Ministry of Aviation and Survey 0 Sudan Line is a commercial ship- is in charge of aerial surveys along the ping company that plays an impor- Red Sea coast. tant role in observing maritime traffic at high sea. In the absence . The Ministry of Industry, Standards of a surveillance system, this is of and Meteorology is entrusted with major importance. checking all imports before they enter the country. * The Ministry of Energy and Mining coordinates coastal and marine mining . The Sudan Meteorology Corporation activities, oil and gas explorations. provides weather forecasts for the area. * The Ministry of Agriculture and For- ests is in charge of mangrove stands * In the Red Sea area, the Ministry of and agricultural projects in the coastal Commerce is represented by two insti- zone. tutions: Countr1i Report - Sudan 135 0 The Sudan Free Zones and Mar- students and conduct research in the kets Corporation. Red Sea area: 0 The Quality Control Laboratory. 0 The Suakin Marine Laboratory is engaged in marine biological re- The Ministrv of Interior is in charge of the Police Forces. The Wildlife Force is u.lde admiistrative supervision ofate and graduate students from the is under administrative supervision of Universities of Khartoum, Juba, El this Ministrv (see above).NianadOmuanhiaTe Niiaiui, anid Omdurnnan Ahhia. The The Sudan Marine Conservation laboratory has reasonable facilities Committee (SMCC) is a coordination but no resident research staff be- body with representatives of all gov- cause of a lack of fuiidinig. ernment institutions, the private sector. . T aiid some NGOs conceriied witli tile 0 The Institute of Enivirolimieiital an som NGO cocre ,vth Studies conducts research on1 envi- Red Sea environment. It has played an ronmen issueseand ervis important role in raising awareness ronmental Issues and supervises and in formulating regulations, par- graduate students. ticularly in the 1970s. The SMCC is in 0 The Faculty of Economic and So- need of reactivation and capacity cial Studies has several depart- building. It is at present the only ave- ments that conduct research on re- nue for the private sector and NGOs to sources and development, includ- participate in policy making and law ing coastal and marine areas. The eniforcemenlt. Faculty trains students at the un- e The Red Sea University at Port Sudan dergraduate and graduate level. was founded in 1993. Some of its sub- 0 The Departments of Geology and units are active in marine research and Botany have also been involved in education: studies in the Red Sea area. 0 The Faculty of Marine Sciences . Active NGOs in the Red Sea area in- and Fisheries grew out of the for- clude the Sudanese Environment Con- mer Institute of Oceanography. It servation Society which has branches trains undergraduate students in at Port Sudan and Suakin, the Sea marine and fisheries sciences. Stu- Friends Association at Port Sudan, and dents have to conduct small re- OXFAM United Kingdom/Ireland search projects for graduation. with offices in Port Sudan and Tokar. 0 The Facultv of Earth Sciences. I ~~~~~Threats to the Environment 0 The Faculty of Economics and The Sudanese Red Sea environment is still Maritime Transport Studies. in a largely pristine state. However, with 0 The Marine Research Institute is present growth rates of the coastal popula- being established to revive the re- tion, marine transport and industrial devel- search activities of the former In- opment, threats are increasing rapidly (see stitute of Oceanography (see Table 2). Anthropogenic pressure is par- above). ticularly high in the vicinity of the two coastal cities, Port Sudan and Suakin, and . The University of Khartoum has a laboratory in Suakin. The Departments i the mangrove areas. of Zoology, Botany and Geology train 136 Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gulf ofjAden Table 2: Threats to the Coastal and Marine Environment and Resources Issue Symptoms I Immediate Root Causes Extent Severity Impacts Causes Habitat Destruction Coastal devel- Dredging and filling, Urban, industrial Inadequate environ- Local, in Port Severe opment destruction of coral and port devel- mental planning, limited Sudan and reefs opment use of environmental Suakin areas assessment Mangrove de- Deterioration of Grazing by cam- Lack of regulations and Throughout the Severe struction mangrove habitat, els, wood collec- management, lack of area, especially decreased fish and tion, decreased awareness, lack of al- south of Port shrimp catches, re- freshwater sup- ternative fuel, damming Sudan duced water ualitv lv, of wadis Physical dam- Loss of coral habitat Anchor damage, Poor navigational con- Local, throughout Low to age to coral and decline in reef ship grounding, trol systems, lack of the area moderate reefs associated fauna damage by fish- moorings, destructive ing nets fis~hinmthods Damage to Coral breakage, de- Trampling of Lack of management Localized Currently coral reefs by cline in reef associ- shallow reef flats, and enforcement, lack low visitors ated fauna coral breakage, of environmental marine souvenir awareness collecting, anchor damaae Living Marine Resources ____________ Potential over- Decrease in average Increased fishing Lack of stock assess- Throughout the Moderate fishing of najil size efforts, landing ment and reliable statis- area (Plectro-pomus) beyond MSY tics hampers manage- for export mar- ment kets Illegal shark 85% decline in na- Increasing fishing Lack of surveillance Throughout the Severe fisheries for tional landings over effort, use of nets and enforcement of ex- area foreign shark fin past 10 years, car- in shark fisheries, isting regulations market by for- casses on islands, high profits eign vessels bycatch of turtles, dolphins and finfish, damage to reefs from nets Potential over- 80% decline in an- Increased fishing Lack of stock assess- Southern coast Severe fishing of nual landings over effort ment hampers resource and Mohammed kokian (Tro- past 3 years management Gol area chus, Strom- bus, Lambis) for local and export markets Potential over- Decrease in average Increased fishing Lack of stock assess- Localized, Moderate fishing of sea size efforts in limited ment hampers resource southern coast cucumber for areas management export markets Collection of Decrease in nesting Need for subsidi- Lack of public aware- Offshore islands Low to turtle eggs by populations ary food supply ness, lack of alternative Moderate artisanal fish- food sources, lack of ermen enforcement Planned shrimp Irreversible conver- Pond construc- Poor planning and in- Localized, with Currently and fish farming sion of coastal habi- tion, mangrove adequate EAs growing potential low, may tats, mangrove de- destruction, pos- become struction, declining sible use of severe water quality chemicals, hor- mones and nutri- ents Navigation and Maritime Risks Navigation risks Extensive and rou- Limited naviga- Complex navigational Throughout the Moderate tine risks of ship col- tional devices hazards, heavy mari- area, particular in to severe lisions and ground- and poorly sepa- time traffic port areas, ing rated traffic emerging prob- lem near pro- posed Free Zone Coun-a' Report - Sudan 137 Issue Symptoms I Immediate Root Causes Extent Severity wwc _ wwwCauses_________________ ______ Marine vessel Localized marine Discharge from Inadequate on-board Throughout the Moderate sewage and beach pollution ships treatment, lack of port area reception facilities Ship discharge Solid waste on Discharge of Inadequate disposal Throughout the Moderate of solid waste shoreline, in man- solid waste from facilities, inadequate area grove areas and ships surveillance and en- coral reefs forcement. lack of port reception facilities Petroleum Development and Transport Small oil spills Beach contamina- Tanker cleaning, Lack of reception facili- Localized, Moderate (< 20 mt) tion, damage to discharge of bal- ties at ports, inadequate throughout the coastal and marine last and bilge control, lack of en- area biota water, discharge forcement of waste oil, bun- ker oil spll Medium oil Beach contamina- Discharges from Inadequate control and Localized, Moderate spills tion, damage to terminals, small monitoring of proce- throughout the to severe (20-100 mt) coastal and marine accidents at sea dures, equipment and area biota personnel, inadequate Potential large Destruction of Rupture of oil Insufficient tanker Localized, Severe oil spills and coastal and marine tanks in collision safety specifications, throughout the disasters habitats and biota, or wreckage poor navigation aids Region (> 100 mt) devastation of beaches _ Industrial Activities Surface and Excessive exploita- Excessive pump- Poor regulation of water Localized in in- Moderate groundwater tion of surface and ing, inadequate exploitation dustrial areas, use groundwater for in- concern for water emerging issue dustrial use conservation in Free Zone Industrial pollu- Decline in water Chronic release Lack of enforcement, Localized, Currently tion quality of pollutants inadequate technology emerging issue moderate in Free Zone Waste oil dis- Soil and groundwa- Improper dis- Lack of proper oil dis- Localized Currently posal ter pollution posal of used posal and recovery op- low to motor oil tions, lack of effective moderate regulations and en- forcement ULrban Development w _ _________