The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ethiopian Roads Authority = 2 / International Development Associationiao L iVote ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS OF THE FIVE ROADS SELECTED FOR REHABILITATION AND/OR UPGRADING WOLDIYA-ADIGRAT-ZALAMBESSA ROAD '.L,~~~~~~. . ..y Final Report October 1997 PLANCENTER LTD [r jJ Opastinsilta 6, FIN-00520 HELSINKI, FINLAND Phone +358 9 15 641, Fax +358 9 145 150 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................... i ABBREVIATIONS ...................... iv GENERAL MAP OF THE AREA ...................... v EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................... vi 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background .... I 1.2 Location of the Study Area .......................... I 1.3 Objective of the Study ........................... I 1.4 Approach and Methodology of the Study ....... . 2 1.5 Contents of the Report ........................... 3 2. POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ... 4 2.1 Policy Framework Frarne..work 4 2.2 Legal Framework Frarnew..ork 6 2.3 Institutional Framework..................... I 8 2.4 Compensation and Resettlementtion.... ..............12 2.5 Public Consultation 15 3 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED ROAD PROJECT .16 4 BASELINEDATA ...18 4.1 Description of the Road Environment ................. 18 4.2 Physical Environment ......................... 20 4.2.1 Climate and hydrology .20 4.2.2 Physiography .21 4.2.3 Topography and hydrography .21 4.2.4 Geology .22 4.2.5 Soils and geomorphology .22 4.2.6 Seismicity and earthquakes .23 4.3 Biological Environmentlogical ..........iro23 4.3.1 Land use .23 4.3.2 Flora .23 4.3.3 Fauna .23 4.4 Human and Social Environment .24 4.4.1 Characteristics of the population living by/along the road .24 4.4.2 Housing situation .26 4.4.3 Local economic activities by the road . 30 4.4.4 Social acceptability of the project .31 4.4.5 Construction camps 32 5. POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ... 36 5.1 Physical Environment . .36 5.1.1 Soil and erosion .36 5.1.2 Hydrological conditions and water quality ... 39 5.1.3 Nuisancenoise .39 5.1.4 Air quality .39 5.2 Natural Environment and Biodiversity . .40 5.2.1 Loss of terrestrial vegetation .40 5.2.2 Destruction of wildlife habitat and impediment to movement of wildlife .40 Plancenter Ltd i October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report 5.2.3 Encroachment into ecologically sensitive areas40 5.3 Human and Social Environment: Social Issues 40 5.3.1 Social acceptability ..................... 40 5.3.2 Resettlement/displacement of people ....... 40 5.3.3 Demographic changes .................. 41 5.3.4 Change in way of life ....... ........ 41 5.3.5 Impacts on women ..................... 41 5.3.6 Impacts on indigenous peoples ...... ...... 42 5.3.7 Induced development ................... 42 5.3.8 Conflicts between locals and immigrants . ... 43 5.4 Human and Social Environment: Economic Issues .44 5.4.1 Loss of agricultural lands .44 5.4.2 Loss of grazing land .44 5.4.3 Loss of property....................... 44 5.4.4 Employment opportunities .45 5.4.5 Change in economic activities .45 5.4.6 Effects on public and private services . 45 5.4.7 Impacts on national economy .46 5.5 Human and Social Environrient: Other Issues .46 5.5.1 Cultural, religious and historical areas . 46 5.5.2 Health and sanitary issues .46 5.5.3 Road safety .47 5.5.4 Public consultation .47 6. ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES . .48 7 MITIGATION MANAGEMENT PLAN ...49 7.1 Physical Environment . .49 7.1.1 Soil and erosion .49 7.1.2 Hydrological conditions and water quality ... 50 7.1.3 Nuisance noise .511 7.1.4 Airquality .51 7.1.5 Construction spoils .51 7.2 Natural Environment and Biodiversity . .51 7.2.1 Loss of terrestrial vegetation .51 7.2.2 Effects on wildlife and wildlife habitat . 52 7.3 Human and Social Environment: Social Issues .53 7.3.1 Social acceptability .53 7.3.2 Resettlement/displacement of people .53 7.3.3 Demographic changes .53 7.3.4 Change in way of life 54 7.3.5 Impacts on women .54 7.3.6 Impacts on indigenous peoples .54 7.3.7. Induced development .54 7.3.8 Conflicts between locals and immigrants ....54 7.4 Human and Social Environment: Economic Issues .55 7.4.1 Loss of agricultural lands .55 7.4.2 Loss of grazing land .55 7.4.3 Loss of property .55 7.4.4 Employment opportunities .56 7.4.5 Effects on public and private sector 56 7.5 Human and Social Environment: Other Issues .56 Plancenter Ltd ii October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report 7.5.1 Cultural, religious and historical areas ...... 56 7.5.2 Health and sanitary issues ....... ........ 56 7.5.3 Public consultation ....... ...... 56 8. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PLAN ..................... 62 8.1 Soil and Erosion . .62 * 8.2 Terrestrial Vegetation . .62 8.3 Agricultural Land .62 8.4 Health and Safety . .63 8.5 Nuisance Noise and Dust . .63 8.6 Equipment Fueling and Maintenance . .63 8.7 Cleanup . .63 8.8 Monitoring of Social and Economic Issues . .63 9. TRAINING NEEDS ..... ........ 64 APPENDICES Appendix 1. List of Team Members Appendix 2. References/Baseline Documents Appendix 3. List of Organizations, Institutions and Persons Met/ Interviewed during the Work Appendix 4. Field Visit Programme Appendix 5. Minutes of the Public Consultation Appendix 6. NGO Questionnaire Appendix 7. Scoping List for Environmental Impacts Appendix 8. Baseline Data/Physical and Natural Environment Appendix 9. Baseline Data/Human and Social Environment Plancenter Ltd iii October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report ABBREVIATIONS ADLI Agricultural-Development-Led-Industrialization EA Environrmental Assessment EELPA Ethiopian Electric and Power Authority EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EIRR Economical Internal Rate of Return EPA Environmental Protection Authority EPE Environrmental Protection of Ethiopia (Proclamation 1/1995) ERA Ethiopian Roads Authority ETCA Transport Construction Authority EU European Union FA Farmers Association FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia m.a.s.l. meters above sea level MEDAC Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation NGO Non-governmental Organization NPV Net Present Value PA Peasants Association RGRRO Regional Government Rural Road Organization RSDP Road Sector Development Program TCDE Transport Construction Design Enterprise TOR Terms of Reference TFR Total Fertility Rate TGE Transitional Governent of Ethiopia Plancenter Ltd iv October 1997 * , PROPOSED ROAD UNDER RSDP TRUNK ROAD Phase 1 Phase 2 - ¢holt Uoqoiog Roo _ AOPt unodiog Rxd G!.M _ pg0 ux d' Rood - Gni u0-dIiN Rod _A=hrot Re'notb- Rxd Aoehe RoNOMAJOR LINK ROAD Phase I Phase 2 I- Moholt ucro,n s Ro-d G,oM upg disnq Rond GrooM upnrding Rood AsphO.t ogr~oog ROAD NEW CONSTRUCTION MAJOR LINK ROAD Phase I Phose 2 N- eN Chroo NRe Const-flioh ALL WEATHER ROADS - / ' ; t(t~~MKELE., !' P-de Rox G i J \ y lQ~~~~~~~~~~~~~-i ADIGRAT Adwa Axum Mariartj Abreha Astbhca MEKELE Kwiho, 4620 t RAS DEJEN _ Maychew Mt.Abune Yosel lM Gelowdios 4190 ,/ Werc to 4231 Lalibela Or4. Mt.GUNA 6 ~~WOLDIYA Gishen Maryom \= 6 Estifanos 4100 DESE ° Mt.TALO 4C70 Mt. HOKE LEGEND FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF ETHIOPIA g Major Tourist Areas 6 Monastery ETHIOPIAN ROAD AUTHORITY Minor Tourist Areas _ Mountain Peak THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE FIVE Historic Route/Project Road 0 Ruin ROADS SELECTED FOR REHABILITATION AND /OR UPGRADING ArOther Roods WOLDIYA ADIGRAT-ZALAMBESA PLANCENTER Ltd. Finland Major Batte Site TOURIST SITES Church Figure L.1 | Dote EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report The road from the Woldiya to Maichew is very slippery, because material used is fine and becomes a "mud cake" when it rains. The driving is very difficult on Alamata Mountain and in Gira Kasso area where many accidents happen due to the soil. The road causes 20-30 major accidents annually between Woldiya and Maichew. During a dry season dust is a problem to pedestrians and drivers not only here but along the whole gravel road. After Maichew road goes through Adishehu, Ambalaje and Betmara towns in the terrain with very difficult uphills and downhills where the driving conditions are also very difficult. After Betmara the road goes over the flatter part of Tigray. The road goes through Hiwane, Mainebri, and Adigudom, and also from here there is an access road to the Lalibela-Adwa road. After Quiha the road reaches Mekele, the capital of the Tigrean Regional State. This part of the road to Mekele is in a very bad condition and inconvenient to drive. The old Italian road is surfaced and visible most of the time. The road condition between Maichew and Mekele towns is so bad that it creates problems for the Maichew administration "even run the Government business" since the vehicles are broken during the trip from Maichew to Mekele. Also the consultants saw a number of vehicles, mainly trucks and trailers, broken on the road due to its condition at a time of a field visit. Before Mekele the road has already a new alignment going around the new international airport which is under construction. The road entering the town is also planned to have a new realignment which would be a part of the ringroad in the future according to the Master Plan to Mekele town. At the end of the town one road goes to the north-west to Hagere Selam and eventually to Adwa. The road from Woldiya up to Maimekden is a gravel road except in Mekele town. Also Mekele has been one time capital of the Empire and Emperor Yohannes's palace has been turned into an interesting museum housing manuscripts, books, and furniture from the emperor's time. It is also here where the camel caravans climb up from the Danakil Depression, carrying tablets of salt. Salt trade by the Afars may not be any more the most important source of money to the Afars, but historically this trade has been important from Danakil Depression to the highlands. The depression is one of the hottest places on the earth, with many points more than 100 meters below sea level. It is the site of famous dry salt lake from which the Ethiopians since time immemorial have obtained their bars of salt or amoles used both for consumption and as 'money'. Mined by the Afar people, the salt is loaded on camels and taken up into the highlands, where it is in considerable demand and fetches good price. From Maimekden to Adigrat the road is a good asphalted road recently maintained. After Maimekden the road crosses Agulai, Wukro, and Negash towns. According to the tradition it was in Negash where the Muslims got a shelter during Profet Muhamred's time when they fled in fear of persecution by the Meccans. After Negash the road goes to Frewoine, where some houses were already marked to be demolished. Before Adigrat the road goes through Edagahamus town. Adigrat is the administrative center of Misrakawi/EasternTigray Zone. It is also an important business center. In Adigrat there is also a fuel depot for the northern region; fuel is imported here from the Massawa port. Also a drug factory is under construction in Adigrat. PJancenter Ltd 19 October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report less than 600 mm (Zalambessa). There are two distinct rainy seasons along the road that is the main rainy season (June - September) and Belg (March - May) Climate is the principal cause of flows since the annual mean rainfall decreases from Woldiya to Zalambessa correspondingly frequency of perennial rivers decrease similarly. The high run off coefficient of sedimentary and crystalline rocks is the main cause of high floods of seasonal rivers during the rainy season. In addition human activity that is high deforestation is the main reason for high floods in the area and low flow or no flow during dry period of the year. Deforestation of upper catchment have produced high sedimentation and siltation on the road section from Robit to Alamata. The rainfall of the study area is divided into two seasons: the rainy season (Kiremt), between the month of June and September, and a dry season from October to March (Bega). In the month of April and May minor rains (Belg ) often occur. The total annual rainfall varies from 990 mm, 615 mm and 540 mm in Woldiya, Mekele and Adigrat respectively. The June - September rainfall varies between 200 mm and 800 mm along the road corridor. The average annual precipitation in the project area decreases in general from 990 mm in South to 540 rmm in North. Yearly Rainfall for Selected Location In The Project Area is shown in Table I in Appendix 8. Temperature The mean annual temperatures is between 14.1 and 22.1 IC along the road corridor (see Table 2 in Appendix 8). Water Resources The primary sources of water is rainfall. Though there are no major perennial rivers along the road corridor between Woldiya and Zalambessa, there are a number of streams and catchment areas with the potential to produce very strong and intensive floods. Lake Ashengi near Korem is located about 3 km away from the road. Ground water From Woldiya to Robit extensive fractured aquifer localised at fault zone and fractured areas of high productivity. Static water level greater than 20 meters. From Robit to Alamata alluvial unconfined aquifers static water level greater than 20 meters. Alamata to Hiwane fractured localised aquifers with static water level greater than 20 meters. Hiwane to Zalambessa fracture aquifers confined with static water level greater than five meters. 4.2.2 Physiography 4.2.3 Topography and hydrography The road traverses different topographic terrain of hilly mountainous, rolling and undulating hilly plains and flat plains. The road crosses the Awash, Danakil and Tekeze river basins drainage. Plancenter Ltd 21 October 1997 ,, ..vvv*.-VV q,, . . ¼v v 7 V t , ..-'S-,."i,o"...:.-.'2.........S 7 m +n ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~14' 3r ,-rrr-,-Vr.. rV r-- ,r- - - w - - ~ - + 1 B Q 9X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ VV 49IN, VVVt7 VVv-V IVI j VVVVtV,t VW7S 1W . fid Ste * YZb~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 23 Q~n&t4..y SedIm* + Ei BmJ tl,w.Cdr.1t.d IODY-DGA-ZLM EA RA _ --P ( m- ----------- Ms o I,aj. )iueq7IDt Dogali 6mtIOo.D.o.t ?orli,AUo, ~~~~~~~~~~~~TU~~Th212 ~~ Dabi.hab For~~~aUoa 1.. 8.a Sari.. 5sgz)ng~- - -r- - - - - * Alkaline lk.alt sad Sy.nit.~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I W Mo L E G E N D ~ uppar nMP ~ 1 LACNTRLT. itai - pSei OIA=FEEA GOEOLOGICA OFEAPOI - Otpa RoaDsU FRCAgureMCN Lt d.Fnate 3v. Be, Be ~~~~~I-Be 7 digrat - / 9 ~~~~~~~Be E- + ~Meke' ;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. q F L .. .. . LA- :< Chromic Eutric and Calcic Cambisols N Eutric Nitosols E~7h Dystric and Humic Cambisols CaLmbic Arenosols Vetric Cambisols and Vetric Luvisols Humic,MoUic and Vetric Andosols Lithosols Chromic and Pellic Vetrosols Caleric and Eutric Fluvisols Haplic, Calcic and Luvic Xerosols Chromic and Orthric Luvisols Project Road Other Roads P H A S E S 1 Lithic W Stoney Flooding FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF ETHIOPIA THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE FIVE ROADS SELECTED FOR REHABILITATION AND/OR UPGRADING WOLDYA-ADIGRAT-ZALAMBESA ROAD PLANCETER Ltd. Finland SOIL MAP Figure 4._3 Date EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report 4.2.6 Seismicity and earthquakes The road section from Woldiya to Korem is found in seismic and earthquake active part of the Ethiopian rift system. 4.3 Biological Environment 4.3.1 Land use The present land use of the road corridor between Makmati Iwir and Zalambessa is intensively cultivated and this include rainfed cultivation, grazing on unimproved pasture and fallow. The major crops in the cultivated areas include teff, wheat, barley, maize, sorghum, millet and horse bean. Bushland and shrubland occupy the area between Woldiya to Michew and mostly found on the side slopes and footslopes. Figure 4.4 shows the general land use - land cover along the road. 4.3.2 Flora The natural flora of the study area between Woldiya and Zalambessa has disappeared due to over exploitation of forest resources, due to population growth, increased demand for agricultural land, encroachment for grazing, feulwood and construction practices. The original vegetation cover is evident along this section of the project area. Figure 4.5 shows the land cover that would have developed in the absence of human influence. Gumburda - Grakas forest is one of the National Forest Priority area covering 26,000ha. Table 3 in Appendix 8 depicts the major tree and shrub species found in the project area. There are plantation forest along the road corridor and the dominant exotic tree species commonly planted are identified as Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus grandis, Cupressus lusitanica, Acacia albidas, Acacia saligna, Sesbania sesban, Leuceana leucocephala, Casuarina equisitifolia, Melea azadiracbta and Shinus molle. 4.3.3 Fauna The wildlife population and native wildlife habitat have been significantly impacted by subsistence agricultural practices in the project area and this has resulted in low wildlife population diversity in the region. However, in the Simien National Park and the Shire wildlife reserve, both west of the project area, have a diverse wildlife population. Figure 4.6 shows the wildlife conservation areas located around the project road. A list of occasionally and accidentally seen wildlife species in the area are given in Table 4 in Appendix 8. 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'.':.':...';".,:,.... , ,:.,:'..,' :.'. . .::.................." ;...... y. . .. .,- : y y.........: . : . . ............. -:aB.{-. .y-:. .: . . -' . '..., .,i... *. ::w,.0'''ye 4 , ...................',"' ..'.',",..'''.,.'',...'''.''''i. : :- .. .: .-............. .. . 2 Y l I - ii aa E~~~~~~~~~. . ......E >ffigt-*Q-em,--~~~~~~~..s .... ....... .. :f a i 1 Y 3~y .i:--y:aY 40' 2>0 ;d z ......... . te ............ |FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF ETHIOPIA =e GOtBhSE § ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ETHIOPIAN ROAD AtJTHORRrY -..gr :) ......................... ... lTHE ENVIRONMENZAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE FIVE - I YA | ~~~~~~~~~~~~ROADS SELECTED FOR REHAILITATION AND /OR UPGRADING , /=Ft _ ,~~~~IY ,,! %~~~ ~ ~~ERSA I WELDIYA-ADIGRAT-ZALAMBESA | ~~~~PUMCNTER Ltd. rN I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~LAND USE _ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ | Fig~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~T5ure 4*LL I Date 5 3 3 eAdi kRyn 3~~~~~~ - AL_M)ESA 3 ;t ~SF0di'9 1 ADrGRAT Howzen 4 5 i A 7 Sinka to LEGEND CONIFEROUS FOREST 2 ir 3 MEKEL /- 3 n. Juniperst / -0 5di H udem( Podocerpus 4 5 WOODLAND & SAVANNAH 3 juniperus 2 Acacia -- . MOych,w Kor? GRASSLANDS _ ato STEPPE 1 2 4 Lalibela\ Project Road Other Roads 2 § I t Reginol City 2 WOLDI A o Other Toens 2 J @ ~~~~~~~~~Hayx k 2 1 DESE 4 \ FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIAN ROAD AUTHORITY THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE FIVE ROADS SELECTED FOR REHABIUTATION AND /OR UPGRADING WOLDIYA-ADIGRAT-ZALAMBESA PLANCENCER Ltd. Finlond CLIMATIC CLIMAX VEGETATION MAP Figure 4., |Date Adi keyih j 1 R~~~~~~~~~~~DIGRAT\ Hawzen f \ tt\Sinktot 2 Wikro 3 ~~~~~~~MEKECIO Ma ekden Semen Mountains Kwih Adi Gudem 4 Maychew H SokoW Kobo' Lcfblib, el J 5 .W LDIAY/ )Hayk . . . - DESE V: .'.'::..'.'.':1.. .' .'.':':... .: ....::' ::: .....::,:---........ LEMEN 1. PANGOUN E NATIONAL PARKS FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF ETHIOPIA 2. ARDVARK NATIONAL PARKS UNDER ESTABUSHMENT ETHIOPIAN ROAD AUTHORIY 3. SIMEN FOX WILOUFE RESVES THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE FIVE 4. CELAA aABOON CONTROLED AREAS ROADS SELECTED FOR REHABILITATION AND /OR UPGRADING . OTHER ROADS WOLDIYA-ADIGRAT-ZALAMBESA REGIONAL cry PLANCENTER Ltd. Finland O OTHER TOWNS WILDLIFE CONSERVATION AREAS Figure +^ | Date EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report 4.4 Human and Social Environment 4.4.1 Characteristics of the population living by/along the road Settlement pattern The whole survey area is very densely populated. The towns and rural people are quite evenly distributed along the road. Majority of people still live in the rural areas. However, there are about twenty towns along the road. The urbanization in the woredas along the road is quite high when compared with the other Ethiopian areas. Only in three woredas out of 12 the rate is below ten percent of total woreda population. Five out of these twelve more than one quarter are urban. Also the existing 'small' towns are considerable, the population, only in two towns the population is less than three thousand inhabitants, while six has the population over ten thousand. The biggest towns along the road are Mekele (100,000 pop.), Adigrat ( 40,000 pop.), Alamata (26,000 pop.), Woldiya (25,000 pop.), Kobo and Maichew (20,000 pop. each). (Table 1, Appendix 9) In most woredas along the road nearly all urban population live in the towns which have been developed by the road. The houses are often attached to each others by the road although also in the towns the detached housing units are more common (56-57%). In the countryside villages are formed from the detached houses with the compounds around. Size of Population along the road The people living in the towns through which the road goes are directly affected by the road. The town population along this road amounts to over 300,000 persons. Many people living in the rural areas of the woredas along the road are also directly affected in their everyday life. The total population in these woredas is about 1,200,000 persons. The indirect impacts of the road are felt by nearly 3 million people who live in the zones by the road. (Table 1, Appendix 9). Sex Ratio The sex ratio is balanced only in Semen Wollo Zone, in all the other zones and in all the woredas there are more women than men from S1 to 52 percent of the total population. In the urban areas the ratio is even more biased in favour of women the average being 54-55 percent of urban population from 52 percent in Woldiya and Robit to 58 percent in Alaje woreda. Female headed households Female headed households in the whole Amhara Region forms 20 percent of all households. In rural areas the share is little less or 19 percent, while in the urban areas the figure goes up to 42 percent. In the Tigray Region the percentage share of female headed households is higher, 31 percent of total households, 27 percent in the rural areas and 50 percent in urban areas. This means that half of the urban households living by the road are also economically dependant on women and their income. Hotels, restaurants, bars, talla and taj houses by the road are mainly run by women (93%) many of which are heads of their families. The Plancenter Ltd 24 October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report better road is anticipated to increase the transitory traffic and hence benefit also these households. Fertility and the population under 15 years of age The total fertility rate (TFR) of 5.355 for the Tigray Region is quite high. Although the urban rate is lower it is still quite high being more than 4 even for urban areas. Also the share of population under 15 years of age is high in Tigray Region. More than half of population are under 15 years of age in Egda Hamus town near the Eritrean border. The lowest share can be found in Woldiya town where one third are below that age. The average share is also lower in Semen Wollo Zone than in Debubawi and Misrakawi Tigray Zones. Also the total fertility rate is lower. The population growth seems to be slower in the southern part of the road and quite strong in Tigray. (Appendix 9, Table 2, Table 1) Average household size The average regional household size is smaller in Tigray (4.3) than in Amhara (4.8) region. However in the first part of the road in Semen Wollo and Debub Tigray it is smaller being 4.1 persons per household. In the northerm part the family size increases to 4.4 persons in a household. The urban families have approximately less than 4 persons (Appendix 9, Table 3). Ethnicity The road goes from one ethnic region to the other, from the Amrhara Region to the Tigray Region. The Tigraways form a clear majority in their own national region and the Amharas in theirs. The share of Amharas decreases very rapidly after Alamata woreda towards the north and the share of Tigraways increases being nearly hundred percent in the northern part of the road (most 'Eritreans' are also Tigraways). (Appendix 9, Table 4). There are several ethnicities, about 30, living along/by the road, most represented by few persons, some by tens or hundreds, very few with thousands. However, the Sahos and Afars do; they are indigenous (or maybe here more 'traditional') people to the east from the road in the Danakil Depression area. The Saho tribes live in the coastal depression south of Massawa and most of them have been herdsmen like Afars. Sahos' seasonal migrations have taken them up to the plateau where some have permanently settled on the eastern slopes (and many adopted Tigrigna as their language). Also the Afars' share is bigger in the north, and especially in Agula town where they form one tenth of the total population. Religion The Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity is the major religion along the road. Most Tigraways and Amharas are adherent to it. The share of Christians is more than 90 percent in all other woredas than Alamata where it is less than 80 percent of total population (78%). Here every fifth person is a Muslimn. Also in Wukro woreda the share is more than ten present, in every other less than that. The share of Muslims is increasing, however, in urban areas, being 40 percent in Agulai town. (Appendix 9, Table 5). There are few Protestants in this area and the share of Catholics is increasing near the Eritrean border; in Adigrat and Zalambessa their share is 3 and 4 percent of total urban poulation, respectilvely. Plancenter Ltd 25 October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report Literacy rate About three quarters of urban men are literate, the share increases towards the north. The share increases also in the rural areas as well as among urban and rural women. (Appendix 9, Table 6). Migration About half of the urban population are migrants, 52 percent of urban population in Debubawi Tigray and 48 percent in Misrak Tigray. In the rural areas, where the movements in absolut numbers is biggest, the percentage share of migrants among the total population is only 9 in the northern part and 16 percent in the southern part of the road. In urban area 20 percent of all migrants moved to the area within one year or less before the national census 1994 shows that the growth of towns is very much dependant on migration in the whole survey area. (Appendix 9, Table 7). Future growth of towns along the road The growth rate for urban areas is assumed to be 3.7 percent annually and in the rural areas 2.1 percent. However, taken into consideration the migration to the towns in the survey area, the urban growth might easily be higher than projected. The new road is also anticipated to benefit the economic activities in the area, the fact that would pull more people to the towns. High fertility rates and high shares of population under 15 years of age in the survey area will put great pressure on the farming lands which will push out more people to the towns. Urbanization in the survey area has totally depended on the present road and the trend will continue even without the upgrading. However, good road will benefit to the living standards and increase economic activities through better transportation of people and goods. 4.4.2 Housing situation There are nearly 690,000 housing units in Tigray, out of which nearly half in the zones by the project road; and 60 percent of the urban housing units can be found in these two zones. In urban areas of the Tigray Region nearly all houses are permanent (95 %) and nearly half of the houses (44%) are attached with two or more housing units. Mainly due to the climatical (and partly ethnic and cultural) reasons the type and construction of houses vary in this region. Most houses in Tigray are traditionally built from stone and mud (72%) showing the fact that the forests have been absent for a long time. Especially the rural houses are built from stones (76%) while the urban houses are using more wood and mud (or mixture of mud/dung/teff straw) and less than a half of urban houses are of stone (48%). Debubawi Tigray stone houses constitute 56 percent of all houses and 36 percent are made of wood and mud. The share of stone houses increases towards the north and in Misrakawi Plancenter Ltd 26 October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report Tigray the share is as high as 86 percent and only 10 percent are of wood and mud of all housing units. However, in the urban houses more wood is used than in the rural areas. In the urban areas in the southern part of the road half of the houses (52 %) are made of wood and mud and in the northern part one fifth (19%). Most roofs in the survey area are from traditional materials such as thatch, wood and mud, and to a lesser extent of bamboo or reed. Iron corrugated sheets are more common in the south (24%) than in the north (13%) where most tin roofs can be seen in urban areas (82%). The iron sheets are also showing the better economic situation due to its price compared to the traditional thatched roofs. The main material used for floors is mud (81- 85%). 55 percent of houses in Tigray Region is one room houses and 28 percent have two rooms. the comparative percentages for Amhara Region are 70 and 22 percent, respectively. In Tigray there are in average 4 persons per urban housing units. In big towns the average increases and also in Zalambesa near the Eritrean border. There are also more households than housing units in the whole survey area. In the whole Tigray 1.05 households in average live in one housing unit. Bathing facilities In the urban areas the bathing facilities are available only to 4 percent of all housing units. It is a little bit higher than regional average due to the big towns along the road. People bathe themselves taking water from the taps where available or by rivers, ponds and lakes. Toilet facilities Very few people have any toilet facilities in rural areas. The share of all toilet facilities is decreasing when going towards north. The availability of toilet facilities is bigger in urban than rural areas. However, the share of available toilet facilities decreases with the growth of town. In the small and medium size towns the share goes up (Edaga Hamus 92%) and in the bigger towns down (Mekele 47%, Maichew 51%, Alamata 63%, and Adigrat 75%). Electricity for lighting Nearly half of the urban households (48%) in Tigray use electricity for lighting. The share is same in Misrakawi Tigray zone while in southern zone 58 percent use electricity for lighting. All towns along the road have electricity. However, the distribution of its use is very uneven. In Mekele the share is 85 percent and in Adigudem less than one percent use electricity for lighting. (Adigrat 79%, Maichew 57%, Wukro 62% and Alamata 38% of households) Plancenter Ltd 27 October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report In many towns there are some street lights and/or shops and bars have lights during the night. The increased used of street lighting especially would make the road safer for pedestrians. The high price of electricity is, however, discouraging fact even in their present use. Availability of radio, telephone and TV Radio is more common in Tigray Zones than in Amhara Region: it is available in about 15 percent of houses in the whole Tigray and in urban areas in about 40 percent of households, and for more than half of the housing units only in Mekele. In the rural Amhara areas about five percent of households have a set and in towns about every third household has a radio The availability of television is very rare in the survey area. In all the other towns except in Waja and Adigudem some sets can be found. Only in Mekele seven percent of housing units have a TV set. Every Monday morning there is a half an hour long radio program about traffic and traffic safety. The program is prepared by the Ministry of Information and Culture in collaboration with the Road Transport Authority. The program was earlier transmitted between 6.30 -7.00 but now it is sent after the 8.00 morning news. Due to the change of transmission time many people are now unable to listen it, because they are already working at that time in the offices or children attending school etc. The earlier time reached more people. However, more than a half of housing units in most towns and quite a considerable number of rural people are potential listeners in the survey area. Very few people have the access on TV sets which could be also used for traffic education and information about traffic behaviour. Now there are no programs concerned about traffic problems/ education/ behaviour. There are telephone connections to every town along the project road. In Mekele the frequency is highest: nearly five percent of housing units has a connection. In Adigrat nearly four and Korem and Maichew about two percent have connections. Ownership and cost of houses Less than half of the houses in the towns in Tigray are owned by the households living in them. In Debub Tigray Zone 45 percent owns their house while only 38 percent do so in the Misrakawi Tigray Zone. The kebeles are renting very few houses in these towns; in northern part less than one percent is rented from kebele and in the south five percent. The houses are often rented from the other private households, in the north half of the households live in a house they rented from the private market and in the south nearly forty percent (38%). (Appendix 9, Table 8). Most houses, especially in rural areas, are built from local materials, mainly stones and mud, and the material is and has been collected often by the houseowner. In the towns the wood houses are common, and wood and mud houses cost about 800 birr per square meter and the hollow block houses about 1200 birr per square meter. The transportation costs for cement add the costs about 30 percent. The moderate house of hollow blocks costs about Plancenter Ltd 28 October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report fifteen to twenty thousand birr. Also the (eucalyptus) poles used to the mud houses are getting more expensive and must be transported sometimes long distances as well. Rents. The average monthly rent per housing unit for the whole Tigray region is 35 birr per month. The rents, however, varies a lot in the survey area. Highest average can be found in Mekele where the monthly average for rents is 60 birr. The lowest average rents are in Waja where it is 9 birr. (Appendix 9, Table 8). Type offuel usedfor cooking Nearly all households are using more than one type of fuel for cooking (Appendix 9, Table 9). By far the most common fuel is still fire wood and leaves, which are more or less the only fuels in the countryside but also in the urban areas where, however, also some other fuels are used by few households. Urban households prefer charcoal due to its smokelessness; more than half of the households use it. The share of electricity (used mainly by electric metads for injera baking) is negligible. Only in Mekele and Adigrat about five percent is using electricity for cooking. Kerosine is used by ten percent of housing units in Adigrat. In the northern towns kerosine is used a little bit more than in the southern part of the road, only in Alamata and Maichew its use is more than one percent. Dung is used for cooking, especially in Korem (30%) and Zalambessa (28%). . Growing population and increasing urbanization along the road will increase the use of fire wood and will have a clear impact on the natural habitat along the road. The increase in use of alternative fuels is too slow to slow down the share of fire wood (partly due to the increased price of electricity and now non-subsidised kerosine). As a rule use of fuel wood increase with the modern fuels which are not substituting wood. The road is used to fuel wood transportation by different means. Mainly women but also animals carrying the wood loads to the markets or home is a commnon sight in the survey area. The future construction camps will put more pressure to the trees and forests in the area. The road construction with construction camps will increase the use of wood and charcoal considerably. Drinking water Majority of people (71-74%) in Tigray region get their drinking water from the unprotected springs, rivers, ponds and lakes. However, less people in the zones in the survey area are using unprotected water sources than what is the regional average (78 %).The possible accidents with the hazardous materials/chemicals on the road/bridges might cause the pollution of water on which many people might be dependant on. In the towns the tap water is used by 66 percent of population, in the towns in the two zones by 76 percent of urban population. In most of the towns the drinking water is supplied from boreholes. Plancenter Ltd 29 October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Repon 4.4.3 Local economic activities by the road Agriculture In the whole survey area agriculture is the main economic activity. The farm sizes are small and the crop farming is mainly subsistence farming based on the traditional farming methods. Most farms are rainfed, and if the rains are in time and last long enough the yilds are good. However, this is also the area were the shortage of food is felt easily due to the failure in crop production. There are some irrigated farms near Robit town and few plans for increased irrigation. Crops here are typical to the highlands: teff and other grain, beans and peas, oil seeds, vegetables, and in some localities also banana and/or fruit trees are grown. Animal husbandry Most cattle in the survey area is needed for the crop farming system in the whole survey area. Animals are walking on the road when they are taken .to drinking places or to markets or to the compounds for night. In the survey area a little over ten percent of the households keep their livestock during the nights inside the house/room where also people sleep. Industry In big towns there are many small industrial enterprises such as garages, different workshops etc. while bigger industry is located in Mekele, where also a new cement factory is under construction. In Adigrat a drug factory is near completionL The better road is expected to increase also industrial activities through better and cheaper transportation. Service sector is considerable especially in the towns where it serves mainly local needs but road is also important to the sector when transporting raw materials to the service sector enterprises and their ready made products to other localities. Good hotels can be found in Woldia and Mekele where also international airport is under construction. Small hotels, restaurants and bars exist in every town along the road serving not only local people but also transitory traffic. These activities are extremely important to women who are running these businesses. Since many of these women are sole supporters of their families (50 percent of urban families are female headed) many more are dependant on these activities. The urban households are also served by many women who are carrying fuel and other necessities to the markets. Economically active population and unemployment Economical activity is higher in the countryside than in the towns where about half of the men are economically active. Men are more active than women both in urban and rural areas. The economical activities do not include reproductive work (such as fetching fire wood or water, cleaning house or making food) which partly explains the lower rate for women. Plancenter Ltd 30 October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report Men's unemployment rate varies from town to town, from seven in Wukro to 20 in Edagahamus where also women's unemployment is highest or 20 percent. The lowest unemployment rate, little over one percent, for women can be found in Adishehu. Although the unemployment rates are lower to the rural areas, there will be no problems to hire the unskilled labour to the road construction project. Status in employment The information about the status of employment or major industrial divisions are not available separately for the zones. However, it is assumed that the regional shares give some kind of idea about the situation also in the zones which all include also towns with more than ten thousand people (Appendix 9, Table 10 and 11). The unpaid family workers form the largest status group about half of all economically active persons. Especially women work as unpaid labour for the household. Self employed and unpaid family members together is more than 90 percent of labour force, showing that family based private enterprices (shops, bars, farms) is the biggest form of ownership of means of production. The government employees are mainly located to the towns and about one third of them are women. 4.4.4 Social acceptability of the project Social acceptability of the project to rehabilitate / upgrade the present road is very high. All people and organizations interviewed as well as all participants in the public consultation in Mekele gave a clear acceptance to the project. The only concerns are related to the construction period. However, the longer term benefits are expected to be much bigger than the temporary problems caused by the construction period. Both the people living by the road and those using the road for transportation/ transitory traffic see the road be vital and beneficial to their communities, local business and national economy. The project and the pavement is anticipated to increase the benefits. The project would free the local people from the biggest problem, dust, caused by the present gravel road. The improved condition of the road is anticipated to speed up the transportation, decrease considerable the costs of transportation due to less breakages and other failures, and increase the traffic safety. Benefits for the local residents Although the road is mainly constructed to connect/link the far away places for transportation of goods and people, most road users are pedestrians who use the road very locally. For them the access on many local facilities and services is more important than long distance mobility. Road is extensively used for local social and economic activities as well as local transportation needs, very often by traditional means. The road gives better access on health and education facilities and other services and to the administrative centers. The buildings for these institutions are usually by the road due to the accessibility by motor vehicles. Plancenter Ltd 31 October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report The better road helps especially women because they are the main local users of the road. They take care of many social tasks (such as sickness in their own family or death occurrence in some other) also during the times and better road is seen to be also safer road. Many women move to the relatives or familiar families who live by the road for better and quicker access to the clinics for delivery. The school attendance by girls is also bigger in towns and by the road and better road is anticipated to increase enrollment. The road is important to the local economic activities. The road makes commercial activities possible/profitable for the permanent shops and bars and creating the road side trade and markets. Many people come from the far away villages to the towns and market places or simply to the road side to sell/barter whatever they have. Charcoal, fuel wood, animals, grain, vegetables, nug-oil, or whatever people have to sell. One of the justifications to rehabilitate/upgrade the road is the assumption that the agricultural production would increase due to the better marketing outlets. Already now the road is important for agricultural inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides etc. and outputs for transporting the farm products such as grain, etc. to the other areas. Especially the present and future planned irrigation plantations need road to bring their products to the national markets. The proper pavement would bring also minibuses to the road serving local transportation and making the travel fees cheaper. Benefitsfor the transitory traffic The acceptance of the present road itself by those who use it for transitory traffic and/or for long distance transportation is natural, and the plan to pave the road was very much welcomed. The road is an important import/export link from Eritrea to the inland of Ethiopia. Also the national and international tourism is anticipated to increase in the survey area especially with the better road. Problems with the present road Dust is one of the biggest problems for the locals and for the drivers. With the better roads accidents due to the dust are expected to decrease. Costs due to the poor condition of the present road are very high and the accidents common. 4.4.5 Construction camps Construction camps are one of the characteristic features of any road construction project. Although not yet present on this road, but once established, the camps will have several impacts on the surrounding environment of the camps. Many of the previous camps have with time developed into real towns. Earlier the camps were simply called 'ERA camps', most construction work done particularly for the last two decades by ERA. According to the FDRE's policy, the construction work is mainly done by private contractors and is open also to foreign tenders. However, no big changes are to be expected in the camp practice; new construction camps follow more or less the previous ERA camp models and practices. Changes may be expected in the (decreased) number of workers residing in the camps. Plancenter Ltd 32 October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report The camps are situated usually outside the towns and often (sometimes kilometers) away from the existing roads. Although ERA has the right to occupy any site for road construction sites (suitability of place, rents etc) are discussed and agreed together with the local administration. The first persons to arrive to the site are carpenters, masons etc. who start the construction of the camp. They first stay on perdiem basis in the towns near the camp site. When the offices, residences, ware houses, main workshops, kitchen and mess-hall and all other required buildings are ready, the construction labour move in. There are normally 150-250 people residing in the main camp. All of them are professional and skilled workers and move from outside to the camp. The personnel include technical as well as clerical staff. The camps themselves turn out to be like small towns which are headed by a Camp Administrator. The rules and habits in the camp are mainly to keep discipline and order. For example, no alcohol is allowed in the camps. Neither are the families of the workers allowed to stay overnight in the camps. It is also more economical way to lodge all the workers in one place than have dispersed lodging in the surrounding area. The kitchen serves all staff at the fixed times. Most food items such as meat, grain, vegetables, etc. is bought from local markets to the camp kitchen. Sometimes bigger quantities of items either not locally available or due to the increased local prices, are bought and transported with trucks from the nearby bigger towns. Fire wood is sometimes bought from the construction site if the site is situated in bushy land or it is bought from local markets. The fact that all workers live in the camp makes it also easy to transport them to the construction sites in time and back to the camp. The workers usually stay in the camp one month and every fourth week-end they are taken to the town for asbesa/shopping week- end. The local economies benefit from these visits, but social and personal conflicts are also common. Although the camp administration does not allow temporary huts and houses to come too close to the camp to avoid looting or other misbehaviour, drinking houses and small markets sprout up selling whatever is wanted by the construction workers. Because of the increased demand on goods and services many people settle down near the camp to do their business. Many of them are without any farmlands and some of them stay even after the camp is demobilized. The camps have also impacts on the physical environment. The increased need for fire wood and charcoal rises also local prices and more trees are cut down to be sold and even more wood is wasted to produce charcoal with inefficient local methods. The supply area might be considerable especially along this road because of absence of real forests. Not only the camp workers but also other people residing near need fuel wood and other sources. The inflation of prices do temporarily benefit business people while at the same timne the poorer sections of the communities will suffer even more. The people who settle down are also putting some pressure to the local public services. The drinking water situation might be difficult in some places, and the boreholes are needed to Plancenter Ltd 33 October 1997 EA Report for the Woldiya-Adigrat-Zalambessa Road Final Report construction camps. The location of boreholes should be such that they can later benefit the local people. Although the camps have their own health units for minor health hazards, the more serious cases or cases not belonging to the camp sanitarians, the workers and migrants put also pressure to the local health services. These impacts are directly felt only so long as the camp exist. The main camp will stay for one or two years at the same place, while the 'advance camps' will be established maybe after 60-1 00 kilometers away. Sometimes there are also smaller 'satellit