Education and Social Policy Department The World Bank March 1994 ESP Discussion Paper Series No. 21 Environmental Issues in Secondary Education Bojana Bol 'WtMIE COPvY 2ke ESP Dicuo PaperSens ai m m Limul of rtoorlde Apg, roace, ud Wi.1 for *e pvodac gfhe EAucatkm and So ADelPo"&~yDpwiisws *pmgnz 21eW nepmeswd hem ar e odsawkom h and shoud Nm he asudiiad to die W/odd Bw* or in Bawd ofREcw=v Di,rMm or die ooiawines iy pm& I ABSTRACT This paper, one of a series of study on science and technology issues, discusses the status, issues and provides recommendations for improvement of secondary school environmental education, especially in relation to natural science teaching. Therefore, the common environmental problems are discussed in order to identify environmental education needs. Environmental secondary school curricula are analyzed, and suggestions for improvements are made. Two possible approaches to introduction of environmental education into school curricula are discussed - the integral and the infusion approaches - and examples are given of different possibilities for infusing environmental topics into teaching of science. Besides the environmental education contents, examples of methodological approaches are presented, which can improve the quality of teaching. Teacher training is a critical component in both introduction and improvement of environmental education. Status and strategies of pre-service and in-service environmental teacher training are summarized, followed by an analysis of environmental curricula in teacher training. Deficiencies are identified and suggestions are listed for supplementing and/or upgrading both, the environmental content and the methodology courses for secondary school science teachers. The World Bankc efforts in environmental education are summarized, with the proposal to introduce/strengthen the environmental components of the Bank educational projects in developing countries. Finally, examples of environmentally-related science curricula, teaching units and practical activities are given in 10 case studies together with a bibliography. I TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT I FOREWORD V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS VI EXECUTIVE SUMMARY WITH CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Tailoring environmental education for solving environmental problems VII- Designing environmental education curricula and a teaching methodology, VIII Improving environmental teacher training IX The World bank role Ix INTRODUCTION Trends of teachting science and technology 1 An overview of environmental education problems and needs 1 Planning for improvement of environmental education and training 5 Developing an environmental curriculum 6 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION NEEDS Enviromnent, development and environmental education 8 Population growth, development and the environment 9 Water pollution 9 Air pollution 10 Soil and agricultural problems 10 Natural habitats and loss of biodiversity 11 Solid and hazardous wastes 11 The greenhouse warming effect 12 Energy consumption 13 Ozone depletion 14 Conclusions 14 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION CURRICULA Goals 15 Which approach: integral of infusion? 16 Environmental education: contents at the secondary level 17 Examples and themes for infusing environmental content into secondary school subjects 29 What is the essential knowledge in secondary/high school environmental education? 36 Fundamental scientific knowledge 37 Applied scientific knowledge 38 Environmental issues: problems and solutions 39 Conclusions 40 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO ENVIRONMENTAL TEACHING Environmental education goals 41 Cross-disciplinary, problem solving approaches 43 Examples of non-traditional teaching methods and techniques in environmental education 45 Inquiry metlhods 46 Communication methods 47 II Audiovisual techniques 47 Information sources 48 Practical laboratorv instruction 49 Field trips and excursions 50 Project work 50 Conclusions 51 TEACHER TRAINING Forms and strai,ies 52 Pre-service training of teachers 52 In-service environmental training 54 Which environmental skills are essential for secondary school science teachers? 56 The methodology of environmental education 60 Conclusions 64 CASE STUDIES Case study 1: An environmentally related chemistrv program for high schools: ChemCom (Chemistry in the Community) 65 Case study 2: An environmentally related integrated science program for junior secondary schools: FACETS (Foundations and Challenges to Encourage Technologv-Based Science) 74 Case studv 3: An environmental teaching unit in Chemistry: Burning Fuels - how can chemistry help us minimize waste materials and energy 78 Case study 4: A cross-disciplinary environmental education teaching unit: Solid waste management 81 Case study 5: A science/environment teaching unit based on observation, experiments and construction activities: The solar energy 83 Case study 6: Examples of environmental experiments and activities 85 Case study 7: Environmental research projects in secondary schools 90 Case study 8: A comprehensive environmental teaching manual for secondary school teachers: Sourcebook in environmental education for secondary school teachers 98 Case study 9: An interdisciplinary environmental education unit for secondary science teachers: Energy - an interdisciplinary theme 104 Case study 10: Examples of environmental kits and packs 106 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND THE WORLD BANK The Bank and the environment 108 The Bank and education 109 The Bank and environmenital education 109 Conclusions BIBLIOGRAPHY I r4 III LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Solid waste generation in the cities 11 Table 2: A comparison of single subject and infiusion approachles 16 Table 3: Structure of the UNESCO enviroiunental education curriculum for secondarv schools 18 Table 4: Suggestions of teaching methods aiid resorurces for the main four instructional levels 42 Table 5: Examples of inquiry methods in enviroiinenital teaching 46 Table 6: A comparison of UNESCO pre-service and in-service teacher traming modules in environmental education 56 Table 7: Main topics in the UNESCO-UNEP environmeintal education methodology course for teachers 61 Table 8: ChemCom analysis: enviromunental components, scientific concepts and practical activities 66 Table 9: The structure of FACETS curriculum 74 Table 10: Student activities in the FACETS Acid Rain teaching module 76 Table 11: Examples of simple enviroiuneital experiments and activities using available resources around the school as a part of science teaching 85 Table 12: Examples of simple ecology field study tecluiiques 87 Table 13: Examples of action-oriented enviroiunenital education prograins anud activities from different countries 94 Table 14: Structure of an envirorunental teaching manual for secondary school teaclhers, prepared by recognized Asiani specialists from different environunentally related disciplines 98 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Organization of ChemCom Curriculum development 7 Figure 2: Energy consumption per capita 13 Figure 3: Average anunual growth in energy consumptioni 13 Figure 4: Environmental elements in the World Bautkl loanis, by sector - an example for the fiscal year 1989 109 Figure 5: Sector distribution of the envirorunental education components of the World Bank} projects in Africa 110 Figure 6: Main enviromnental education fields of the World Baiik- projects in Africa Ill Figure 7: The target enviroinmental education audience of the World Banik- projects in Africa 112 IV FOREWORD Environmental education has two broad purposes. The first purpose is to promote environmental literacy among citizens on matters directly affecting their daily lives, so that they can make knowledge-based, environmentally sound decisions, and can actively participate in the improvement of local, national and global environmental conditions. The second purpose is to build up the environmental scientific and technological knowledge and skills for the future workforce, and to prepare students in higher education for environmentally-related careers. With the introduction of environmental issues in secondary school science teaching, important gains can be made in the environmental competence of the students. At the same time, the quality of science teaching itself can be upgraded by illustrating fundamental scientific concepts with important environmental processes and environmental problem solving. Given the potential benefits, provision of quality environmental education to all children may have far-reaching consequences for the national development process, improving not only the state of the environment and the utilization of natural resources, but also of health, nutrition, family planning, agriculture, forestry, tourism and industry. This paper is a follow-up to two earlier environmental education studies: 'Environmental Education in Asian Countries," in ASTPH* (Boh, 1991), and 'Environmental Education in the Central and Eastern European Countries - Problems and Prospects' (Boh and Komhauser, 1992), supervised by PHREE and financed by EMTEN. The paper is not region specific. It focuses on the status of and issues in secondary school environmental education, discusses trends, problems, curricula, methodological approaches, teacher training and the role of the Bank in supporting environmental education in secondary schools. Based on analysis and discussion of examples and key studies, the paper provides recommendations for improvements, especially in relation to natural science teaching. Fmally, it serves as a source of information, particularly for Bank staff working on secondary school, science teacher training and environmental projects. Erik Thulstrup and Lauritz Holm-Nielsen Senior Science and Technology Specialists Education and Social Policy Department Ihe World Bank * ASTPH=Asia Technical Department, Human Resources Development Division. PHREE=Population and Human Resources Department, Education and Employment Division. EMTEN=Europe and Central Asia, and Middle East and North Africa Regions Technical Department, Environmental Division. V ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Erik Thuistrup for the opportunity to work on environmental education issues, for the thoughtful reading of the drafts, and for sharing his rich experience and knowledge in many interesting, enjovable and fruitful discussions during mv work. I am also grateful to Lauritz Holm Nielsen for his valuable comments and suggestions. Finally, I would like to thank Kin Bing Wu and all colleagues from the Education and Social Policy Department who have shared their experiences, provided information, advice and helped in technical procedures for publishing this paper. VI S,tmn,arv of conclusions and recommendarions EXECUTIVE SUMMARY WITH CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Tailoring environmental education for solving environmental problems Some environmental problems are universal, but the most acute differ in high- and low- income economies, and in different climatic regions. Therefore, no general environmental education curriculum could be directly adopted as most appropriate for all parts of the world. There is no universal best approach for all environmental education situations, for all learners and for all countries. Environmental education programs have to refer to local conditions and should be designed to address both local and global environmental problems. Teachers must be free to select the most appropriate teaching styles, methods and techniques for any given situation. A good environmental education program may have strong, positive and long term environmental effects, such as: - reduction of uncontrolled population growth, - improvement of health, especially in prevention of waterborne and other infectious diseases, - efficient use of natural resources and materials, - introduction of energy efficient technologies in industry and agriculture, - energy conservation programs in building construction, traffic and households, - reduced indoor air pollution in poor countries, - reduced emissions of greenhouse, acid rain and ozone depletion gasses, - source reduction of wastes (waste minimization in industry, agriculture, and in households), - awareness of the damage associated with the incorrect use of agrochemicals, - improvement in manufactured products durability, - elimination of excessive packaging in industrialized countries, - improved waste management (better collection and sorting, improved processing, safer disposal of wastes), - conservation of natural habitats and wildlife, protection of species, - introduction of environmentally sound policies and investments for a sustainable national development. To achieve long-lasting effects, environmental education has to transcend the traditional memorizing of basic ecological concepts, and go beyond the simple promotion of an awareness of environmental problems. The main goals of contemporary environmental education are: vI Surnmarv ofconcluions and recommendaiiorLn (1) to develop environmental scientific and technological literacy, (2) to encourage students - future citizens - to actively search for environmentally sound solutions in their daily lives and as participants in the political system, (3) to provide experience in responsible environmental decision-making. Designing environmental education curricula and teaching methodologies Secondary school environmental teaching has to provide a well balanced combination of: (1) fundamental scientific knowledge necessary to understand the na.tral processes, (2) applied knowledge for understanding every day life situations, and (3) specific environmental knowledge about environmental problems and possibilities for their solution. In addition to solid theoretical background, students need to acquire practical experiences in science-related environmental laboratory and field work, as well as skills for data gatherinF, evaluation of information, communication, problem-solving and decision making. Practical activities, especially laboratory expe:iments, field work and excursions, are of high importance but are often neglected. Exampies of cost-effective solutions prove that most of the scientific and environmental concepts ca2 b;?. illustrated with modest equipment and in relative simple surroundings. Several studies show that two methods, the sirgle subject and the infusion approaches are appropriate for the introduction of environmental e-ducation into secondary school curricula, though the infusion seem to be more common. Tine choice dz pend on the existing educational policy, curriculum time frame, existing school subjects, and teachers' qualifications. In the infusion approach, environmental concepts may be introduced through a variety of school disciplines, such as biology, chemistry, agriculture, health education, home economics, physics, mathematics, geography, history/social studies, economics, technology and engineering, safety at work, religion/ethical education, languages and arts. Environmental education as a separate school discipline (single subject approach) is sometimes introduced in specialized technical schools with relatively short science programs. Environmental education curricula should constantly be updated with new discoveries, experiences and methodological approaches. Therefore, a cooperation of teachers and educators with scientists, researchers, engineers and other specialists is essential. Through the infusion of environmental concepts into science, traditional science teaching approaches can be enriched and become more relevant to the majority of students, who do not intend to continue their studies in a scientific direction. VIII Summarv of conclusions and recommendations Improving environmental teacher training Insufficient teacher training remains the most critical constraint in the improvement of environmental teaching methodologies and in the introduction of hands-on environmental science. In each country, mechanisms need to be introduced to motivate, support and supervise environmental teacher training and the quality of environmental teaching at schools. In most countries there are at least some basic environmental concepts in pre-service and/or in-service training of science teachers, though there are exceptions with no environmental teacher training at all. Most of the traditional curricula for training of science teachers cover the basic concepts of ecology and briefly discuss environmental problems. New environmental concepts and issues have to be brought into environmental teacher training, such as waste minimization and energy conservation concepts; new materials, technologies and agricultural practices; global environmental issues; and possible solutions and actions for solving environmental problems. Another important deficiency in teacher training is the lack of contemporary methodological approaches to environmental education, which stresses active learning, cross- disciplinarity, adaptation to local conditions, and orientation towards understanding and solving environmental problems. In formal pre-service teacher training, environmental education can be taught as an integral course or infused into all specialized and general teacher training subjects. By infusing environmental components, the quality of existing teacher training programs can be significantly upgraded. While there is a strong need to reform pre-service environmental teacher training, an even more urgent priority seems to be the introduction of appropriate continuing in-service environmental education, adapted to local needs and resources. As the initial priority, the environmental education competence of teacher educators at universities and teacher training colleges has to be upgraded and improved. The World Bank role The Bank supports a large number of environmental activities, varying from direct environmental projects and environmentally-related elements in different lending operations, to the preparation of country specific, regional or sector oriented environrmental studies. At present, most of the Bank environmnental activities in developing countries focus primarily on agriculture and rural development loans, followed by energy, transportation, water and sewerage, industry and urbanization projects. Ix Srunrnrarv ofconchi.Onns and recommendaionsr The possibilitv to introduce environmental issues into school curricula has been overlooked in most educational projects sponsored by the Bank. The direct participation of the Bank in a variety of large scale education projects in developing countries - from primarv to postgraduate levels - provides a unique opportunity to promote the strengthening of environmnental education. Such programs might significantly improve the environmental literacv and thus provide a long-term support to a sustainable, environmentally balanced development in borrower countries. x Introduction INTRODUCTION Trends in teaching of science and environment In the past, science was widely taught in schools with the primary goal and purpose to train future scientists and specialists in different branches of technology. Contemporary approaches to science teaching in most countries target a scientific literacy for all students - what every person should know and understand about science and be able to use in life. Similarly, environmental science and technology for a long time remained specialist subjects in training of ecologists and environmental engineers. In the last two decades, accumulated environmental problems led the education planners to stimulate the introduction of environmental concepts into primary and secondary schools. At these levels, the main goal of environmental educational programs was (and still is in many cases) environmental awareness. Along with the new concepts in science teaching, a new concept of environmental education is being developed: environmental education for all students, aiming at preparing them for every-day problem solving and environmentally responsible decision-making. The motto of these efforts has been: "Think globally, act locally - start with yourself, change your habits and values, act as an environmentally conscious consumer and citizen." An overview of environmental education problems and needs In several countries, there is a gap between actual environmental problems and the contents of environmental education in schools. Environmental education is often limited to traditional ecology courses, pollution monitoring and visits to national parks. Programs which would link environmental education with everyday life situations are rather rare (e.g. improving human health, energy conservation, environmentally friendly products, materials recycling, cleaner technologies, waste minimization). Little emphasis is put on global environmental issues. Today, environmental education is expected to transcend the simple awareness of issues and should incorporate direct training for problem remediation. Jntroduction In many cases, the existing curriculum still follows the traditional wavs of teaching. Teaching methods in science are often formal and based on theoretical studies. Their descriptive character does not attract the majority of students. The emphasis is on memorizing instead on understanding environmental processes and their concepts. Higher levels of environmental teaching should develop the knowledge skills necessary to investigate and evaluate alternative solutions, make responsible decisions and act for resolving environmental problems. Environmental education materials are often not adapted to specific local conditions. Currently, environmental education is rarely linked with the solution of local environmental problems. Environmental education materials are often general, not reflecting local environmental problems and not preparing students for coping with them. Little emphasis is put on strengthening the individual's responsibility for improving local and global environmental conditions. There is a need for tlexible teaching units, based on interdisciplinary and problem-solving approaches, which could be adapted to local needs and linked with global environmental protection. Exchange of such materials at regional and international levels might quickly improve the situation. Incorporation of environmental issues throughout the educational system lf is not systematically done. In most educational systems, environmental issues are infused into teaching of traditional school subjects. Many authors agree that infusion is a relatively simple process to understand, but complex to accomplish. The infusion plan at each educational level has to respect the integrity of scope and sequence, otherwise the instruction cannot proceed logically across content areas. In practice, the infusion approach meets several obstacles. (1) The environmental themes are often taught as isolated facts, and the information is scattered and fragmented. (2) There is a lack of coordination of environmental topics across the school subjects. (3) Natural sciences and technology curricula often include few separate environmental teaching units, but humanity subjects usually avoid environmental issues. At the university level, priority is often given to specialized environmental courses. 2 Introduction Practical experiences in environmental education are often neglected. Students cannot be expected to change their behavior and become effective and environmentally responsible citizens when only lectures and textbooks are used in the teaching- learning process. Effective verbal forms of environmental education (student reports and seminars, interviews, role playing, simulations, panel discussions, etc.) which help to develop skills for decision- making and environmental problem solving are rarely used. Environmental excursions to natural ecosystems, environmental centers, waste treatment plants, industry, agriculture, etc., are not given sufficient attention. Teachers are often not aware of the rich and cost-effective resources that are available in the local community. Laboratory and field experiments tend to be "executing cookbook procedures". In teacher training a stronger guidance is needed on how to develop efficient practical environmental education teaching units, using the local natural and urban environments and the low-cost, locally-produced teaching equipment. Teacher training in environmental issues and problem solving methods is the kev to an improvement of environmental education. In some countries with relatively short or weak teacher training programs, there is a need to introduce or upgrade the basic environmental knowledge. Many teachers who already have received traditional environmental training are not sufficiently trained in interactive cooperative learning and problem-solving teaching methods and techniques. Work on practical environmental problems always require a multidisciplinary approach, and thus the cooperation between teachers of different subjects. Programs for teacher training which involve an interdisciplinary group of experts from environmental research and development institutions, local industries, agriculture, forestry, health care and social sciences, need to be developed. There are many opportunities for action-oriented approaches, e.g. for improving health conditions, energy conservation, waste minimization, introducing cleaner technologies, recycling of materials, processing of hazardous waste, and protection of species. Short in-service training courses, commonly of one tor two days' duration, which give overviews of selected environmental topics, are frequently provided but they cannot replace a systematic training in basic and applied aspects of environmental science, technology and management for sustainable development. 3 lnrroducrion There is a need for guidelines for teacher training programs in environmental education at regional levels, including advice on their adaptation to local needs and their practical implementation. However, the development of environmental education implies not onlv training of teachers, but also training of higher level personnel, responsible for educational direction, inspection and planning, who in practice may strongly influence the process of innovation, has turned out to be essential for the introduction of new approaches and concepts in environmental teaching. Finally, there is a need for improving the environmental knowledge of managers, policy- makers, politicians, journalists, specialists in governmental and voluntarv organizations. Insufficient cooperation Common drawbacks in the improvement of environmental education are insufficient coordination and cooperation at all levels. A better coordination of environmental activities between subjects in each school, on national and regional levels, an accelerated exchange of successful environmental education materials and valuable teaching experiences, and a stronger cooperation of environmental specialists in different fields, might improve the quality of environmental teaching fast. A non-priority subject In some cases, environmental education is still considered a non-priority subject, and is not included in important assessment procedures, such as university entrance examinations. In low income countries and in countries facing major political transitions, severe socio- cultural changes and acute economic problems, environmental issues are usually given low priority. Unfortunately, the potentials of environmental education are often overlooked in research, planning and implementation of international environmental and health programs. For instance, comprehensive studies have been made on how malnutrition, inadequate diet and helminthic infections adversely affect the child development, health, and learning capabilities in low-income countries. Proposed solutions to this serious problem include procedures for monitoring deficiencies, and action plans for the distribution of deworming drugs and supplementary feeding to combat protein-energy malnutrition, iron, iodine and vitamin deficiencies (Levinger, 1992). Another strategy to improve health and nutrition may be launched from the opposite direction - from improved education towards better nutrition and health (Thulstrup, 1993). In this case, education on how to prevent helminthic infections, how to introduce better balanced diets and .4 Introdurction how to improve cooking procedures to retain the nutritional value of the available food as high as possible, may become an additional component of health and nutrition projects. Another example of overlooking the importance of environmental education is the World Development Report 1992 - Development and the Environment (The World Bank, 1992), which profoundly analyses and explains the environmental issues, and sets five environmental priorities for actions to support the development: water, air pollution, solid and hazardous wastes, land and habitat, and atmospheric changes. Environmental education, as an essential component in the implementation of any environmental program, is not among them, neither is discussed in another context in the report. However, the World Development Report 1993 - Investing in Health, pays more attention to the importance of education in health issues, recognizing the fact that schooling affects health through changing personal habits and life-style. Educated people tend to make choices that are better for their health, and also better for the environment. The effect is even stronger when the education of women is improved. According to the study, educated women are important part of the reason for the impressive health achievements of China, Costa Rica, India's Kerala State, and Sri Lanka, despite relatively low incomes (World Bank, 1993). Planning for the improvement of environmental education and training When planning the improvements of environmental education, the following key questions have to be discussed and resolved: What are the main environmental problems of the local conununity and the country (in addition to aglobal environmental problems)? In this context, what is missing in the existing environmental education and training? Which parts of environmental education programs have to be changed (extended, reduced, qualitatively improved?) Which are the target groups for different activities? What are the possible formal and informal programs for different target groups? What are the existing resources and which new materials have to be developed or adapted to fulfill the needs? How can new programs be introduced into the existing educational systems? What additional training is needed for teachers and other trainers? Who will develop/adapt and finance new teaching programs: curricula, textbooks, manuals, equipment, and teacher training ? 5 Introduvion Developing an environmental curriculum The Unesco-UNEP discussion guide on procedures for developing an environmental education curriculum, prepared as a part of a comprehensive environmental education series, recomnmends the following schedule for environmental education curriculum development within a country (Hungerford and Pavton, 1986): 1. Organize a curriculum core development team: a) choose members (selected teachers, teacher coordinator, representatives of admmiistrators), b) establish tasks and timelines, c) collect appropriate resources (e.g. curriculum materials and professional references), d) identify the constraints that will impinge upon the curriculum development effort and plan for resolving same. 2. Identify professional consultants who will serve as a recommendationi support team (curriculum development specialists. environmental education specialists, environmental scientists, commnunity representatives, program evaluation specialists*): a) estabiish tasks and timelines, b) identify liaison procedures to be used between core development and recommenidation support teams 3. Develop curriculum scope and sequence: a) define curriculum goals, b) define concepts, skills alnd attitudes to be incorporated as objectives into the curriculum (the scope), c) assign objective components to appropriate grade levels and content areas (the sequence). 4. Evaluate the existing school program with respect to potential infusion of environmental education elements: a) identify environmental education objectives which already exist in the present curriculum, b) identify materials in present curriculun which could be modified to meet environmental education objectives, c) identify deficiencies in present curriculum where new materials must be selected or developed to complete the proposed environmental educatioii scope and seqtuenice. 5. Inventory amd evaluate the community/regional resources available for use in the environmental education curriculum. 6. Prepare the environmental education curriculum: a) review and evaluate the materials which have been collected for potential adaptation or adoption, b) organize writing teams to adapt or develop environmental education materials needed to complete the curriculum. 7. Develop plans for both pilot and full scale implementation. 8. Develop a comprehensive evaluation program. 6 Introduction * A more complete group of consultants outside the field would in addition include (1) scientists from natural and social sciences who can contribute new achievements from their disciplines and advise on infusion possibilities, (2) engineers from different industrial and agricultural fields, who can enrich the program with technical viewpoints, problems and proposals for solutions of environmental issues; (3) environmental lawyers and economists, who can supplement the environmental science with illustrations from even-day conflicting situations of balancing environmental and short-term economic benefits. A good example of developing, testing and optimizing an environmentallv-related science curriculum for high school students is the history of ChemCom (Chemistry in the Community - first edition ACS, 1988, second edition 1993)'. The project began in 1982. Initial materials were designed by high school teachers, piloted in the schools by a larger group of teachers, and rewritten as a result of teacher and student feedback (Ware, 1989 and 1992). The materials were then evaluated in a field test (school year 1985-86), which allowed the developers to find out practical advantages and problems of specific topics and approaches. According to Ware, 1992, the field test revealed that the greatest problem in the curriculum was the teacher acceptance of the two curriculum emphases of "everyday coping" and "science, technology, and decisions". Teachers, used to the traditional science teaching, worried about the quality of science introduced through practical issues from every day life situations. On the basis of field test, the text was revised for the classroom evaluation by a team of chemical educators both from high school and college levels. The scientific (chemistry) content was verified by industrial and academic specialists - who, on the contrary to teachers, expressed great enthusiasm for the "everyday coping" approach. The introduction of ChemCom was strongly accompanied by teacher training. About 250 teachers were trained as ChemCom Resource Teachers for further training of several thousands of teachers in their own communities (Ware, 1992). Figure 1: Organization of ChemnCom curriculum development (Ware, 1992) (CUUdCUUMDEVELOPMENT TEACHliER FEEDBACK E 'rAI ) NEWEXAM Curtiulum Emph2scs: l CLASSRO(M EXPERIENCE Scicncc, technology, and decisions Scientific skill dcwlopmc=t The analysis of CbemComn curriculum, with emphasis oll environmnental components, scientific concepts aind practical activities, is given in Case Sttudy 1. 7 Ennwronmneral oroblems and environmentol education needs ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION NEEDS Some environmental problems are universal, but the most acute and those with highest prioritv differ in high-income and low-income economies are different. According to the World Development Report (The World Bank, 1992), the most immediate and life-threatening environmental problems facing poor countries are: (1) unsafe drinking water, (2) inadequate sanitation, (3) soil depletion, (4) indoor smoke from cooking fires and (5) outdoor smoke from coal buming. These problems are different from major environmental problems in highly industrialized countries, such as: (6) high carbon dioxide emissions, (7) depletion of stratospheric ozone, (8) photochemical smog, (9) acid rain and (10) hazardous wastes. Environment, development and environmental education Despite progress over the past decades, more than I billion people still live in acute poverty and suffer from grossly inadequate access to the resources and information - education, health services, infrastructure, land, and credit. Poverty reduction requires an accelerated economic growth, which may put much pressure on the environment. In this respect, good environmental education may prevent that mistakes of the past are not repeated. Environmentally educated societies and citizens can choose policies and investments that are better adapted to their specific environments and enable more efficient use of resources. They can adopt cleaner technologies and practices, select environmentally friendly products and introduce effective programs for waste minimization, materials recycling and conservation of natural habitats. The World Development Report (The World Bank, 1992) states that "Without adequate environmental protection, development will be undernined; without development, environmental protection will fail". 8 Env,ronmnetal problems and environmental education neetds It might be added that without scientificallv and environmentally literate citizens, both negative consequences will occur. Only informed consumers, producers and citizens have a choice of doing the environmentally right things. If they do not understand the relevant concepts, their behavior will never be consistent (Thulstrup, 1993). Population growth, development and the environment By mid-century the rate of population growth in developing countries had risen as mortality decreased and life expectancy increased. World population growth peaked at 2.1 percent a year in 1965-70, the most rapid rate of increase known in historv. As more countries have begun a transition toward lower fertility, population growth slowed down to 1.7 percent, but nevertheless - the world population is increasing bv 93 million a year. Even with the optimistic scenario regarding population growth, the world population would more than double from current level of 5.3 billion. The World Bank (1992) estimates that the population would stabilize at about 12.5 billion around 2050; 95 percent of population growth would take place in developing countries. Most of these people will be born into poor famiiies. Already now, more than I billion people live in poverty (The World Bank, 1992). The population growth influences the environment strongly, especially since it increases (1) the demand for goods and services, (2) the need for employment and livelihoods, (3) the demand for natural resources and (4) the enviromental damnage (higher amount of waste, destruction of natural habitats, extinction of species. etc.). Water problems Industrial and agricultural water pollution Especially in some of the middle-income countries, intensive agriculture and industries based on old technologies are still heavily polluting rivers, lakes and oceans. Major pollutants are toxic and hazardous chemicals, pesticides, heavy metals, surfactants and waste oils. Water in the Baltic sea, for example, contains strongly increased concentrations of cadmium, mercury, nickel, and over ten-times increased levels of zinc, copper, lead, cobalt, iron, PCB, hydrocarbons from oil derivatives and nutrients (Boh and Kornhauser, 1992). Lack of drinking water and sanitation One billion people in developing countries do not have access to clean water and 1.7 billion lack access to sanitation. According to statistics, 900 million people suffer from diarrheal diseases every year, 200 million from schistosomiasis or bilharzia and 900 million from hookworm. Cholera, typhoid and paratyphoid also continue to spread. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, contaminated drinking water and poor sanitation contribute to more than 60 percent of all deaths. Out of 3 million deaths of children caused by diarrhea, 2 million lives could be saved if adequate sanitation and clean water were available (The World Bank, 1992). 9 Enviromnneral prohlenis and envwronmenral education needs A strong environmental education in combination with health care programs could substantially reduce the spread of waterborne and other infectious diseases. Several studies have proved a strong correlation between education of the population (especially education of women) and human health (World Bank, 1993). Water scarcity Globally, fresh water is abundant, but twentv-two countries a'-1ady have renewable water resources less than 1,000 cubic meters per capita, which is regarded a.- -'vere water scarcity level. Additional eighteen countries have less than 2-000 cubic meters per c: rngerous little in years of short rainfall (The World Bank, 1992). Most of the countries .ited renewable water resources are in the regions with the fastest population growth. Water scarcity is becoming an increasing constraint not just in households, but on the economric activity in general. Decision-makers and water managers often have to make choices between water quantity and qualitv. For such decisions a deep environmental knowledge is needed. On the level of individual households and farms, environmental education for more efficient water use and water conservation strategies may be introduced. Air pollution According to the World Bank reports, in the second half of 1980s about 1.3 billion people worldwide lived in urban areas with air that did not meet the WHO standards for particulate matter (airborne dust and smoke). If emissions could be reduced to the WHO acceptable values, an estimated 300.000 to 700.000 lives could be saved each year, and many more people would be spared the suffering caused by chronic respiratory difficulties. Unfortunately, pollution by soot and .moke is still worsening in poor countries, but is improving in middle and high-income economies. An estimated I billion of people live in cities with air that exceed WHO standards for sulfur dioxide. High levels of lead, primarily from vehicle emissions, have been identified as the greatest environmental danger in a number of large cities in the developing world. For hundreds of millions of the world's poor citizens, smoke and fumes from indoor use of biomass fuel (wood, straw, dung) pose much greater health risks than anv outdoor air pollution. The health effects, especially for women and children, can be equivalent to those of smoking several packs of cigarettes a day. In such cases environmental education can contribute to a reduction of the air pollution by encouraging the introduction of more efficient (and cleaner) heating and cooking practices (e.g. design of better cooking stoves in poor countries) and through the introduction of alternative fuels (e.g. alternative fast-growing fuel plants). Soil and agricultural problems Soil degradation is the cause of stagnating or declining vields in most of the countries, but especially on lands from which the poorest farmers attempt to wrest a living. Estimates on soil depletion suggest that in some countries this causes loss equivalent to 0.5 to 1.5 percent of the GDP per year (The World Bank, 1992). Soil erosion and desertification are the most visible and dramatic symptoms of this phenomena, but gradual degradation of agricultural soils, especially in drylands, 10 Enviromnnnetal probliems and envwronmzenial eduication neecis and waterlogging combined with salinization in highly irrigated areas, are also serious problems and even more widespread. Agricultural intensification (monocultures, intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides) causes increased problems in Europe. North America and Eastern Asia. Environmental education on (1) different soil conservation strategies (contour farming, terracing. strip cropping, shelter belts. minimum-tillage), (2) improved irrigation strategies, (3) more efficient use of fertilizers, and (4) introduction of less toxic pesticides or bio-insecticides might result in a better land use and help protect the natural environments. Natural habitats and loss of biodiversity Some of the natural habitats, especially tropical forests, coastal and inland wetlands and coral reefs are being degraded or changed at high rates. Tropical forests, for example, have decLined by one-fifth in this century. In many regions, the deforestation rates are still accelerating due to fuel wood collectors, farmers, ranchers, logging and mining companies. The loss of forests not only causes an extinction of animal and plant species, and affects indigenous forest dwellers life, but also has severe ecological and economic costs for the country and contributes to global environmental problems. The biological diversity provides material wealth in the form of food, fiber, medicine, and *nputs into industrial processes. e.g. as a valuable genetic pool for potential future biotechologies. When species become extinct, an irreversible loss occurs. Unlike previous extinctions, the present one is caused principally bv human activities: fragmentation and loss of wildlife habitats, overexploitation, environmental pollution anid enforcement of man-selected species. Environmental education programs for all different groups involved in these problems (e.g. rural people, farmers, industrial managers, policy-makers) should give a strong evidence of the short and long-term consequences and negative effects of habitat depletion and wildlife extinction. They should clearly show not only the ecological losses and ethical issues, but also the long-term economical losses and the irreversibility of these processes. Solid and hazardous wastes Many cities generate more solid wastes than they can collect or dispose of. Statistics show that the volume of wastes depend on the average income (Table 1). Table 1: Solid waste generation in the cities (data from Worldwatch, 1987) WASTE COUNTRYiCITY ANNUAL AMOUNT 7(kg per person) LUSA - New York 564 Japan - Tokvo 502 REFUSE France - Paris 400 in the cities Hong Kong 309 Italy- Rome 251 Tunisia - Tunis 203 Colombia - Medellin 197 India - Calcutta 1S6 Nigeria - Kano 167 11 Environmnetal problems and environmentol educarion needs Poor neighborhoods generate lower amounts of solid wastes per capita but typically a larger proportion of the waste remains uncollected. Even when the collection of waste is complete, safe disposal often remains a problem. In many developing countries open dumping and uncontrolled land filling are still the main disposal methods. Municipal solid wastes are often mixed with industrial and hazardous wastes and with human excreta. This results in pollution of drinking water with toxic substances and in spread of diseases. Generation of hazardous wastes is increasing, and varies enormously among countries. Industrialized countries produce on average 5.000 tons for every billion dollars of GNP, while for manv developing countries the total amount is only a few hundred tons. For example, Singapore and Hong Kong combined generate more toxic heavy metal industrial wastes than all of Sub-Saharan Africa without South Africa (The world Bank, 1992). Another problem are toxic chemicals, used in agriculture, industry and households. In a survey carried out by FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) thay found that highly toxic pesticides were widely available in more than 85 developing countries. Furthermore, most of these countries have no adequate system to approve, register and monitor the toxic materials. There is a lack of information about the possible hazards and people are not trained on how to properly use and dispose of toxic chemicals. FAO estimated in 1986 that because of incorrect use and disposal of pesticides, about one million people (most of them farmers in the third world) suffered from the acute poisoning, and an estimated 20,000 people died each year. As an extreme example, in the Philippines the widespread use of toxic pesticides by rice farmners in Nueva Ecija, Central Luzon, increased the mortality by 27 percent (Aspiras, 1990). Environmental education can contribute by informiing on methods for: (1) proper use of toxic chemicals in agriculture, industry and households, and potential replacement of them by less harmful products; (2) safer disposal of wastes - e.g. better collection of wastes; sorting of waste for more efficient disposal (recycling of recyclable materials, composting of organic waste); prevention of uncontrolled dumping and disposal; education for more conscious disposal of agrochemicals, hazardous household products and laboratory chemical waste; (3) source reduction of wastes - e.g. elimination of excessive packaging, designing products to last longer, marketing reusable consumer goods, recycling, and waste minimization in agriculture and industry. The greenhouse warming effect Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel buming and other greenhouse gases (water vapor, methane, nitrous oxides, chlorofluorocarbons and ozone), which are primarily a consequence of contemporary lifestyles in industrialized parts of the world, may raise average temperatures on earth. The energy absorbed from the sun must be balanced by outgoing radiation from the earth. Greenhouse gases absorb a part of this energy and re-emit it back to the earth. The size of the effect still remains unclear (global warming from less than 20C to more than 50C are predicted for the 21st century). There is even more uncertainty about the consequences - the climate may change dramatically, the sea level might rise as the ice caps melt, natural ecosystems may not adapt easily, and the agricultural systems may have to be changed significantly. 12 Env'ironmnetal prohle,ns and environmental education needs Environmental education about the greenhouse effect often focuses on possible global climate changes. In addition, it should point out and explain all the human activities that contribute to the generation of greenhouse gases, and suggest possible alternatives to these practices. Energy consumption Energy consumption is strongly related to income (Figure 2). The average per capita energy consumption is 15.2 times higher in high income economies than in low-income economies, and 3.8 times higher than in middle-income group of countries. However, consumption of commercial energy in developing countries is rising rapidly and will soon dominate energy markets worldwride (Figure 3). Figure 2: Energy consumption per capita Figure 3: Average annual growth rate in energy consumption 50M ~~~~~~~~51 64_ Low- :d- Hgh- Low, Middle- Hig_ h income kwome income income income income Source: The World Bank- (1992). Without a change in policy and practice, pollution from fossil fuel generation of electric power will rise tenfold in the next forty vears. and more than fivefold from vehicles, industrial emissions and wastes (The World Bank, 1992). Environmental education might support the introduction of (1) cleaner technologies for energy generation, (2) energy efficient industrial processes and agricultural practices, (3) energy- saving programs in construction of buildings (e.g. better insulation), (4) rationalizations in traffic (public transportation, vehicles consuming less fuel), and (5) household energy saving programs. GNP per capita: higlh income economies $7,620 or mnore, middle-income group of countries S610-7,619; low-income economies S610 or less 13 Eywironmnetal proble,ns and enviromnental eduication needs Ozone depletion The increase in ozone depletion is mainly a result of increasing atmospheric concentrations of chlorine resulting from chlorofluorocarbons - synthetic compounds used in many industrial processes and products. A serious consequence of ozone depletion is an increase in the amount of solar ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth's surface. The long-term consequences are harmful for the human health (increase in skin cancer, eye damage, suppressed immune systems in people of all skin complexion) and for the wealth of marine and terrestrial ecosvstems. The decrease in the protective ozone layer seems to have occurred more quickly than anticipated and will probably continue for at least a decade, in spite of the restrictions in chlorofluorocarbons production. (The World Bank data, 1992). Where introduced, environmental education warnings against CFCs products seem to have successful effects on reducing the production and consumption of CFS. In regions where increased solar UV radiation have occurred, inforrnation on how to protect against exposure to the sun rays could be stressed. Conclusions: 1. Some of the environmental problems are universal, but the most acute environmental problems differ in high- and low-income economies. 2. No general environmnental education curricula could be used in all parts of the world. Environmental education programs must refer to local conditions and be designed to address both local and global environmental problems. 3. Environmnental education may have strong positive effects on how different environmental problems are dealt with, for instance: - reduction of population growth, - prevention of waterbome and other infectious diseases, - better use of natural resources and materials, - introduction of energy efficient technologies in industry and agriculture, - energy conservation in building construction, traffic and households, - reduced indoor air pollution and reduced emissions of greenhouse, acid rain and ozone depletion gasses, - source reduction of wastes (waste minimization in industry and agriculture, elimination of excessive packaging, improvement of durability of goods), - improved waste management (better collection and sorting, improved processing, safer disposal of wastes), - conservation of natural habitats and wildlife, protection of species, - introduction of environmentally sound policies and investments for a sustainable national development. 14 Environmnental educotion curricuia ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION CURRICULA Goals Several authors discussing new procedures for developing environmental education curricula stress that it is not sufficient to tell students about ecology, or to present them wvith an awareness that environrmental issues exist. The curriculum must take them beyond these levels and allow them to discover how they interact with the environment themselves. They should assess their own impact on the environment, and must be allowed to develop investigative, evaluative and action skills by using these processes as well as leaming about them (UNESCO, Hungerford and Peyton, 1986). In order to train citizens in problem solving for the remediation of environmental problems and for a better planning, environmental education curricula must provide opportunities for students to experience all dimensions of environmental problem solving. Curriculum developers need to have access to a diversity of case studies which present environmental issues at the individual, local, national and global levels. Research has shown that the transfer of knowledge and skills is more likely to take place when students (1) have experiences with a diversity of problems, (2) learn how to discriminate between relevant and irrelevant features of situations and to discard irrelevant elements, (3) have the opportunity to use knowledge in a variety of situations. The transfer and use of acquired knowledge in problem-solving and decision-making situations are not the unique endeavors of environmental education. On the contrary - these are aims of all school disciplines. Several authors report on a diminishing interest at secondary and tertiary level natural sciences, which students find difficult, too academic and not relevant to real life situations. Through the infusion of environmental concepts into science, traditional science teaching approaches may be enriched and will appear more relevant to the majority of students, who do not intend to continue their studies in a scientific field. An example of such an "environmentalized" science program is ChemCom - Chemistry in the Community, a project of the American Chemical Society (ACS, 1993). Several other environmentally-oriented science courses have been launched during the last decade all over the world (Ware, 1992). For instance, there are integrated science courses in Botswana, Jordan, Nigeria, Thailand and USA'; natural science courses in Venezuela and Spain; chemistry and biology in the Netherlands; chemistry courses in Australia, Caribbean, and Philippines; and vocational education programs in Sweden. For furtler details on FACETS integrated science curriculiun see Case Study 2. 1 Enwironmental eduicoaion cumcula Which approach: integral or infusion? Is it better to develop a separate (new) environmental subject or to infuse environmental issues into teaching of the existing school disciplines? This is usually the first dilemma in connection with environmental education. There is some confusion in terminology associated with the two models (interdisciplinary - single subject vs. multidisciplinary - infused model), since the standard use of terms has not yet been fully implemented in the environmental education literature. Several discussions and analyses of advantages and disadvantages of both educational formats have not lead to a firm conclusion on the best approach, vet in practice the infused model seem to be more frequent. Table 2: A comparison of sinle subject amd infuision approaches (fromn UNESCO, Huw2erford and Pevton, 1986) Consideration Single subject approach Infusion approach Ease of c-an be implement if time pennits the more flexible timewise (may be effectively implementation and introduction of an additional subject to an implemented with minimal demands on demand on already crowded curricultun. existing clrrictlar load) curriculum load Teacher training needs fewer teachers but require more in- training of more teachers but for a shorter depth training in environmental education period Curriculum components easier to identify and sequence components must be effectively identified, development sequenced, and accommodated by the existing curriculum Evaluation easier comprehensive evaluation difficult Age level more appropriate for secondary than primary appropriate at all levels appropriateness school level Effectiveness in requires special eflorts to efTectively teach for when properly used, teaching for transfer is teaching for transfer transfer inherent; infusion permits decision-making to into real life tak}e in other disciplines in an environmental situations context Monetary a sophisticated course with many field very dependent on the nature of subjects in considerations excursions or laboratory equipmenit may be the curriculum and on the coordination; may costly rely on existing equipment 16 Environrnenzol educorion curricuiv Followers of the single subject (interdisciplinary) approach claim that (1) cutting environmental education into pieces for infusion into other subjects can endanger the integrity of both, scope and sequence of the prograrn; (2) teaching an integral course would require fewer teachers to be trained in the content, skills and methodology associated with the program, and (3) many organizational problems at schools would be avoided. Some authors also feel the environmental education deserve a discipline status, since it is no less an academic discipline than biology, chemistry or social studies. The followers of an infusion (multidisciplinary) approach have made the following arguments: (1) In most cases, it is difficult to add a new subject on top of the existing ones and change (increase) the agreed amount of teaching hours per year. (2) infusion into different disciplines, such as natural science, health, agriculture, home economics, social studies, languages and arts, does usually not hurt the subject contents, on the contrary, (3) if environmental education is taught as a separate subject, there is a possibilitv that becomes a traditional style monodiscipline, isolated from the real world. The multidisciplinary approach keeps it more in touch with real life situations; (4) the cross-disciplinary infusion approach provides numerous possibilities of highlighting environmental issues from different perspectives, thus preparing students better for an active participation in problem-solving and decision-making processes. Environmental education: contents at the secondary level Traditional environmental education curricula, still in use in many secondary school systems, focus primarily around (1) the basic concepts of ecology, (2) the brief introduction to problems of population growth, shortage of food, resources and energy, and (3) the declaration of enviromnental problems such as destruction of forests, soil erosion, accumulation of garbage, and pollution of air and water. In technical schools, a simple description of selected environmental technologies is only rarely added. Traditional environmental curricula are descriptive in nature and aim mostly at providing environmental information. Some of the improved versions have an additional task - to develop environmental awareness. Only a few environrmental programs went a step further - train students for environmental problem solving and responsible decision making. A comprehensive secondary school environrmental education curriculum has been designed under the Unesco-UNEP International Environmental Education Program as a prototype curriculum for middle school environmental education (Hungerford, Volk and Ramsey, 1989). The authors have developed a three vear integral syllabus, which can also be adapted for infusion into existing school disciplines. The first year is devoted to the ecological foundations. The second year, students learn about environmental problems and possible solutions to them. The entire third year is used for environmental issue investigations and citizenship action training. The main environmental chapters and themes with possibilities for infusion of their environmental contents across the secondary school subjects are given in Table 3. 17 Environmental educoation ctrricula Table 3: Structure of the UNESCO environmental education curriculun for secondary schools ( modified from Hungerford, Volk and Ramsey, 1989): INFUSION SUBJECTS: SC = natural science. HE = health. SS = social studie HO = home econonicm. AG = agiculture. MA = maithematics LA = lanes CONTENTS S HT E Ho A M L (amount of time recomnnended is given in parentheses) C E S 0 G A A YEAR I: ECOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS I. Introduction (S%)_ Definition of ecology I The role of er,ologists (scientific research, environmental impact assessment . urban development, agricultural practices, forestry, commercial fishing, mining, industry, energy production, transportation, sport and recreation) II. Individuals and populations (7.5%) Individual as an organism Population as a group of organisms Interaction of organisms in communities; macro- and micro-communities Ecosystem (biotic and abiotic variables; influences and interactions) Biomes (deserts, grasslands, deciduous forests, coniferous forests, tropical rain forests, fresh water. marine, tundra) Blosphere_ -I'mportance of ecosystem concept in ecology Components of ecosystems: Biotic variables (food producers; food consumers: herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, decomposers) Abiotic variables (physical factors: sunlight, shade, wind, precipitation, soil moisture, topography) Biogeochemical factors (carbon cycle, oxygen cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle) The critical nature of biogeochemical cycles (circulation of chemicals; waste reduction in natural living systems) Ecological niches in ecosystems (generalist and specialized niches; food- related niches) Competition in ecosystems (intraspecific and interspecific; competitive exclusion principle and survival of species) Tolerance ranges and limiting factors in ecosystems (law of tolerance: optimumr, stress and intolerance ranges; the limiting factor principle, examples) Summary of the ecosystem concept FS HS H A M L Icl E S 01 GI A A_ 18 Envronmental education cnmciua INFUSION SUBJECTS: SC = natural science. HE = health. SS = social studies. HO = home economics, S H S H A M L AG =agriculture. MA = mathematics, LA = Ianguages C E S O G A A IV. Energy and ecosvstems (20%) Energy as a driving force in ecosvstems The sun as the source of energy Green plants as the basis for energy production (photosynthesis, food chains) Energy losses in food chains Net primary productivity in ecosystems V. Ecological succession: Ecosystems change over time (7.5%) Succession as a natural phenomenon Characteristics of successions Primary and secondary succession (sequential development, examples, implications of man activities) A comparison of early and late succession stages VI. Populations and their dynamics (20%) Species populations form communities Characteristics of species populations (interactions, reproductive units, natality, mortality, imnmigration, emigration, population density, spatial distribution, age structure) The importance of population (rather than individuals) Interactions between populations (commensalism, mutualism, parasitism, predation - characteristics and examples) Interactions within populations (cooperation, social behavior, competition) Population stability and instability (biotic potential, environmental resistance, carrving capacity, cyclical populations, eruptive populations, homeostasis - characteristics and examples) VII. Man as an ecological factor (20%) Man: adaptability, environment and economic gain, environmental preservation Man as an eruptive population (history, present population growth, a question of carrying capacity) S !S|I |AI MI L C19 I G A A 19 Enwronmentol eduicoanon cu rncrda INFUSION SUBJECTS: SC = natural science. HE = health. SS = social studits. HO = home economics. S Hf S H A NM L AG = agriculture. MA = mathernatics. LA = languages C E S 0 G A A Consequences of erupting human population vs. finite resources:' Man as builder - urbanization: man's communities and natural communities, habitat destruction, food and energy in man's communities, urban decay. povertv, crime, urban deterioration and slums, potential solutions, Man as producer of food - agriculture: agricultural systems, monobiotic agriculture, demands for commercial fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides, consequences of agriculture (soil pollution, ground water contamination, soil erosion, soil salinization, depletion of aquifers. desertification, amplification of toxic chemicals in food chains, retrogression) Man and the world's soils: Impact of overgrazing (degradation of grasslands - reasons, problems and possible solutions) Impact of row crop production (demand for more agricultural land, destruction of habitats. loss of topsoil by erosion) Man and the world's forests Destruction of forests (gaining agricultural land, logging for fuel, wood as building material) Consequences of deforestation (loss of habitats, soil erosion rate, decreasing water absorption capacity of soil, local climatic changes, desertification) Problems and possible solutions Man and the world's wetlands Types (swamps, bogs, tidal marshland/estuaries, flood plains/river bottoms, ponds) Importance of wetlands (ground water reserves, flood control, fishing, habitats for many species) The status of wetlands in the country (USA) International consequences of wetland degradation Man and the world's wildlife Importance of wildlife (ecological importance, food and oxygen production, climate moderation, filtration of toxic substances, waste decomposition, recycling of nutrients, control of crop and disease pests, storage of genetic material) Status of the world's wildlife (extinction rates) Impact of losses on man Reasons for wildlife losses (loss of habitat, pollution, killing for food, profit or sport, the pet trade, predator and pest control, introduction of alien species) Protecting wildlife (intemational laws and treaties, wildlife refuges, gene banks, preserving ecosystems) Potential for reducing wildlife losses and difficulties in attaining solutions 20 Envrronrnenzao educotion curricuia INFUSION SUBJECTS: SC = natural science. HE = healhh SS = social studies. HO = home economic. S H S H A M L AG = ariculture, MA = mathematics. LA = languages C E S 0 G A A Critical considerations in regarding man as an ecological variable Reproductive potential Cultural limitations (social, religious, political and economic values) Individual beliefs and values Man's abilities to change the ecosystems (simplification of ecosvstems - monobiotic agriculture; usage of energy and invention of technologies to modifv natural and maintain artificial ecosvstems) _ _ _ _ _ - YEAR TWO: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND I s I HI sI HI Al M] L ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 1. Man: His history and resource consumption (8%) Early man: hunters and gatherers (age, survival demands, food, mobility, few material possessions, low levels of stress, low population levels, infant mortality, life expectancy) Agricultural societies (domestication of plant and animals, agriculture, urban societies, environmental impact - loss of forests and grasslands, soil erosion, waste disposal problems) Industrial societies: Industrial revolution (steam engine and change, intemal combustion engine and change, increased energy consumption) Environmental impacts (hazardous wastes, pollution of air and water, environmental degradation, species extinction) The relationship of population to resource use, pollution and environmental degradation: Human population growth (in developed and developing countries) Population resource use/abuse (cultural beliefs, renewable resources, nonrenewable resources) Environmental degradation and resource consumption (the commodity concept, implications and risks) Pollution and resource consumption (biodegradable and non-biodegradable pollutants, exposure to pollutants, pollution control in developed and develocvny countries) Interrelationship between population, resource use, technology, cultural beliefs and values II. Soils and allied problems (5%) Inorganic and organic components of soil Man's dependency on soils Soil formation, categories and characteristics of soils (loams, sandy soils, clay soils) 2S E S H 21 Enwronmenaol ediucaion curricula INFUSION SUBJECTS: SC = natural science. HE = health. SS = social studies. HO = home economics. S H S H HAMI L AG = agriculture. MA = mathematics. LA = language, C E S 0 GJA Soil erosion: Natural erosion (wind, water) Erosion speeded up by man Erosion around the world (locations and causes of erosion problems) Population growth and soil erosion (increased demand of agricultural products, increased use of land, conversion of natural ecosystems to farmland) _ _ Soil conservation strategies (minimum-tillage and no-till farming, contour farming, terracing, strip cropping, shelter belts, maintaining soil fertility - animal and green manures, compost, crop rotation) m. Water and allied problems (10%) The world's water supply Renewing water supply (water cycle, use of surface and ground water) Problems with water resources: Drought (population variables, poor land use, environmental degradation) Excess water (flooding, effect of deforestation, overgrazing, cultivating marginal land, urbanization) Irrigation problems (salinization, water logging soils)I Management strategies (benefits and problems of dams and reservoirs, water diversion projects, using ground water, desalinization, other strategies) Water conservation (water conservation strategies: wasting iess water at home, in the industry, reducing irrigation; importance, potentials) IV. Food production and hunger (10%) WoThe food (plants : animals) Food chain losses when meet is produced for human consoption Charactenistics of major world agnicultural systems (labor intensive subsistence farmning; land intensive slash and burn agriculture and nomadic herding; land, capital and fossil fuel energy intensive industrialized agriculture) World food problems:____ Population growth vs. food production Nutritional problems (malnutrition, undemutrition, obesity) Food storage/distribution problems Poverty (inability to buy food and to purchase land) Environmental effects of food production (overfishing, overgrazing, soil erosion, salinization/waterlogging, waterborne diseases, deforestation, extinct and endangered species, pollution, loss of genetic diversity, climatic changes, health risks from food additives) S H S H A MI L C E S O G A A 22 Environ,nenwol education cuirricula INFUSION SUBJECTS: SC = natural science. HE = health. Ss = social studies. HO = home economics, HS S I H A M L AG = agriculture, MA = mathmatics LA = language c E S LO0 G A A The green revolution: (new hvbrids, potentials and limitations (increased need for fertilizers and water, soil fertility loss, diminishing return, loss of genetic diversity) The use/cultivation of unconventional food plants: plants with potential (winged bean, cocoyam, quinoa, others) and cultural biases against new foods Increasing utilization of fish: world fishery, overfishing, fish farming and aquaculture, increasing fishery production (regulating overfishing, turning to new/unconventional species, constraints to increasing yields) Sustainable agriculture: self-sufficiency in food production; China as a world leader in sustainable agriculture; potential benefits in the developed nations; reducing enormous waste of food in the developed nations) Responsibilities of the individual for reducing world hunger. V. Forest resources (05%) Importance of forest resources (commercial and ecological benefits, climate and pollution control) Short term vs. long term benefits of forests: economic vs. ecological values The world's forests: locations, loss of forests (clearing land for agriculture and ranching, firewood crises, cormercial logging), forest management VI. Plant and animal resources (10%) Arguments for preserving plant and animal species: Economic and human needs: food. medicines, soap, scents, oils, waxes, insecticides, fuel, fiber and paper, sport fishing and hunting; Aesthetic/recreational importance Ecological importance (maintaining ecosystems, recycling nutrients, pest and disease control, genetic pool) Ethical importance (the inherent right of an organism to survive; man's inabilitv to understand his relationship with nature) Extinction/endangered species: Natural and man caused extinction rates The role .'f tropical rain forest destruction in extinction Endanaered species (loss of habitat, commercial hunting, predator and pest contrcl, pLi'tion, the pet trade, abuse by selected zoos, introduction of alien species) Protecting species from extinction (international law and treaties, wildlife refuges, the role of zoos, gene banks, preservation of ecosystems) The individual's responsibilitv for preserving plants and animals _ _ _ C E S 0 G A A 23 Environmentol education curricula INFUSION SUBJECTSS: SC = natural science, HE = health. SS = social studies. HO = home economicsm S H SH A M L AG = agriculture, MA = mathematics, LA = languages C E S O G A A VII. Air pollution (8%) Sources of air pollution (transportation, coal burning power plants and heating, smelters, refineries. pulp and paper mills) Major pollutants (particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, lead, hydrocarbons. radon) Impact of air pollution on human health (increased death rate, chronic and acute respiratory diseases, cancer, heart diseases) Acid precipitation ("acid rain"): definition, sources of acid rain pollutants, extend of the problem worldwide, effects (on lakes, plants, reduction of crop yields, deterioration of buildings and statuary), intemational dispute, remedies Indoor air pollution: radon gas, products of combustion (carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulates - smoke) Stratospheric ozone depletion from the use of chlorofluorocarbons VIII. Water pollution (10%) Sources of freshwater surface pollution: point sources, non-point sources (soil erosion, sedimentation, construction activities, animal feedlot runoff, pesticide and fertilizer runoff, street/parking runoff, acid mine deposits, acid rain), thermal pollution of rivers and lakes from power plants Human disease traced to water pollution Diseases: form bacteria (typhoid fever, cholera, enteritis), viruses (hepatitis, polio), protozoans (amoebic dysentery) and parasites (schistosomiasis) Inorganic substances: arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury and their effects on human health Synthetic organic substances: benzene, carbon tetrachloride, dioxin, PCB, vinyl chloride, and their effects on human health Oceanic pollution: threats to the ocean's ecosystems, ocean dumping, ocean oil pollution Ground water pollution: ground water as a source of drinking water, sources of ground water contamination, detection and prevention of ground water pollution Waste water treatment: Sewage treatment: septic tanks, sewage lagoons, alternative sewage treatment for rural conununities, urban sewage treatment (primary, secondary, tertiary), disposal of sewage effluent and sludge, alternatives to large-scale treatment; The individual's role: safe disposal of household toxic chemicals, recycling waste oil, the use of low-phosphate detergents. limited use of pesticides, bleaches, inorganic fertilizers, using less water SH S H A MI L C E S O G A A 24 Env,ronm7enal educanon cuirrwclo INFUSION SUBJECTS: SC = natural science. HE = hcahh SS = social studies. HO = home econornics. S H S H A M L AG =agriculture. MA = mathematics, LA= languages C E S 0 G A A IX. Noise pollution (05%) Sources and levels of noise 'm the environment Effect of noise on the human organism (hearing loss, stress. effect on unbom children, effect on leaming and work performance, sleep disruption, noise and safety) Noise control: municipal noise control. individual opportunities (sound absorbing materials, wearing ear protection, supporting local ordinances designed to control noise) X. Solid waste disposal (10%) Solid waste - definition Sources of solid waste: agriculture, mining, industrial, municipal Municipal waste: paper, food, yard wastes, grass, metals, wood, plastics, rubber/leather, textiles Solid waste produced by different nations _ _ _ _ U Methods of municipal waste disposal: water dumping, open dumping - littering, sanitary landfills, incineration, composting, resource recovery (recovery plants, sources separation at homes and businesses) Source reduction of wastes: marketing reusable consumer goods, elimination of excessive packaging, designing appliances to last longer, beverage container deposits Issues surrounding solid waste management The individual's obligation/opportunity to help resolve solid waste problems XI. Hazardous waste (7%) Definition of hazardous waste Sources of hazardous waste: chemical industries, machinery and transportation equipment industries, motor freight transport, petroleum refining, metals production and fabricating industries, electric, gas and sanitary service industries, household hazardous wastes Hazardou. waste disposal in the past Altematives of hazardous waste disposal today: secure chemical landfills; physical, chemical, and biological treatment; deep well injection, incineration, recycling. "midnight dumping" Issues surrounding hazardous waste disposal - _ The individual's opportunity to help resolve hazardous waste problems (rational decision-making, enforcement of environmental laws, using less household chemicals, cautiously disposing of household hazardous waste) 2: HI S H A L C I0GE S OG AA 25 Enwronnenral eciucanron cnrricul/a INFUSION SUBJECTS: SC = natural science. HE = health. SS = .social studies, HO = home economics. S H SHA M L AG = agriculture. MA = mathematics, LA = languages C E S O1G A A Xn. Human population growth and control No population can sustain limitless growth Human population dvnamics: birth and death rates, total fertility rates, life expectancy, infant mortality, annual population change rate, doubling time, migration patterns Population age structure World population size and growth: arguments in favor and against population growth Economic development and population changes in developed and developing nations Advantages of family planning combined with economic development: educational and clinical services, results of family planning in India and China, costs of family planning services Immigration and population dynamics: legal and illegal immigration, consequences and restrictions Birth control and population dynamics: preventing pregnancies, terminating pregnancies, future possibilities for birth control _ _ Major issues associated with global/national population growth and control |_____ YEAR THREE: ISSUE INVESTIGATION AND ci El S Ol G I Al A CrITZENSHIP ACTION TRAINING ll[Jl I. Environmental problem solving (15%) Human-environment interactions Quality of life vs. quality of the environment = - Environmental problems and issues: characteristics of problems and issues, the role of human values and beliefs Issue analysis: identification if issues, players. their positions and beliefs; analysis of belief statements for underlying values _ _ _ _ Examples (models) of issues Applying issue analysis skills to discrete issues IL Identifying issues and preparing research questions Identifying environmental issues: local, regional, national, international Identifying variables associated with: human environmental behavior, beliefs and values, socio-cultural implications, ecological implications l l l l - Writing research questions for issue investigation: deternining cause and effect relationship; rules for writing research questions; practice in and evaluation of written research questions S H sI H1 A' MI L C E S G A A 26 En'ronniental edication currzculo INFUSION SUBJECTS: SC = scrence. HE = heal]L SS = social studies. HO = home eoonomics. S HH1S [A MI L AG= agriculture. MA =mathematics. LA= languages C EJ S 0 GA m. Using secondary sources for obtaining issue information (15%) _ _ _ _ Secondary sources of issue-related information: library sources (card catalog, readers guide, cross-indexing), periodicals and newsletters, environmental organizations, government environmental agencies, local resource people, writing letters _ _ _ _ _ Processing information: obtaining information from all sides of the issue, identifying bias, summarizing _ _ Reporting: report forn and style, citations of references, bibliography IV. Using primary sources for obtaining issue information Surveys, questionnaires, and opinionnaires: definitions, rules, models The interview as an important research technique Selecting the appropriate population to be sampled Basic procedures to be used in sampling populations . . _ Data collection strategies _ _ _ _ Developing and using survey instruments/interviews _ _ _ V. Interpreting data from environmental issue investigations Organizing data in data tables [] Comununicating data by graphing: bar graphs, coordinate graphs, pie graphs_ ___ Interpreting data: making conclusions, inferences, reconmmendations VI. The independent investigation of a student-selected environmental issue Selecting an issue for investigation 1 Formulating research questions to guide the investigation [ Collecting secondary information: library search, contacting appropriate agencies/organizations, letters for information Collecting primary information: develop appropriate survey instruments, identify appropriate population for sampling, develop appropriate sampling procedures, administer the survey instrument Issue analysis/data interpretation: organize the collected data into tables, graphs, text; analyze informnation for players, beliefs and values; interpret the findings (data-based conclusions, inferences, recommendations) Conmunication of investigation and results: produce a written report, present issue investigation to classmates sI H S H!A ML C EG 5 A A 27 Enrorn,enceta edutcotion currw,? [a INFUSION SUBJECTS: SC = natural science. HE = health. SS = social studies. HO = home economics, S A SH Li AG = agriculture MA = mathematics. LA = languagesC S G A A VHI. Issue resolution: skills and applications _ Citizenship responses to issues and their effects H Principles of environmental citizenship action - the responsibilities to be knowledgeable about the issues, to be skilled in issue resolution, knowing the effect of action. considering potential negative and positive effects _ The methods (modes of citizenship action): persuasion, consumerism, political action, legal action, ecomanagement (physical action) 1: L Effectiveness of individual vs. group action Guidelines for decision-making: sufficient evidence, alternative actions, relative effectiveness of actions, legal, social and economic consequences, personal values and beliefs, ability and courage to take the action, time needed to completion, ecological consequences _ _ _ _ _ Applying issue resolution skills: producing, evaluating and carrving out the plan of action: evaluating the effectiveness As seen from the infusion possibilities, the introductorv environmental knowledge is almost exclusively part of the natural sciences. Later, social sciences are gaining importance, and basic concepts may be applied in agriculture, health education and home economics. The third year (action training) is strongly cross-disciplinary and complex. However, action skills are primarily focused on environmental citizenship actions, adopting methods from social sciences. Unfortunately, the program seems to be weak on practical (experimental) laboratory and field works linked to natural sciences and technologies. Practical experience related to natural phenomena and technological processes is necessary for a competent decision making and problem solving ability, especially within (1) issues related to transfer, adoption or elimination of "dirty" and "clean" technologies; (2) energy generation, use and conservation; (3) use of natural resources and materials; and (4) understanding of ecosystems for more efficient protection of habitats and wildlife. Because of this weakness many opportunities for strengthening practical science education in a cost-effective and highly motivating fashion may be missed. 28 Env'roninenrai edtucation curricutin Examples of themes for infusing environmental content into secondary school subjects In the following chapter are listed the environmental topics that are suited for infusion into biology, chemistry, agriculture, health education, home economics, physics, mathematics, geography, history/social sciences, economics, technology and engineering, safety at work, religion/ethical education, languages and arts (Sources: Anderson, 1981; Bauer, 1987, Boh, 1991; Boh and Kornhauser, 1992; De Camargo, 1987; Carnougis, 1981: Colon, 1993; Czelik-Eisenberg, 1991; FAO, 1988; Grabe, 1987; Hassan and Hutchinson, 1992; Hungherford, Volk and Ramsey, 1989, Kapor-Vijay and White, 1992; Osujih, 1992: Sauthwick, 1985: VanDeVeer and Pierce, 1986; Unesco-UNEP, 1985): Biology - Ecological foundations (all topics of basic ecology) - Specialized ecosystems and their characteristics - Characteristics of natural habitats, their destruction and possibilities for protection - Optimal living conditions for individuals, population groups and ecosystems - Effect of specific pollutants to plant, animal and hurnan organism - World's wildlife, extinction of species, and their protection - The need for animal testing and the possibilities to substitute it by other test systems - Genetic engineering, biotechnology and the environment - Alternative food and fuel plants - Medicinal plants and their applications - Natural materials - their characteristics, production, uses and degradation - Biological decomposition of biodegradable materials and wastes - Biological and biochemical processes of waste treatmnent technologies - Biological analysis and tests in pollution monitoring 29 Envwrornenral edutcation curricula Chemistry - Biogeochemical cycles in ecosystems - Photosynthesis and food chains - Major pollutants of air, their sources and chemical reactions - Chemistry of acid rain - Chemistry of ozone depletion - Greenhouse gasses - Major water pollutants, their sources and chemical reactions - Chemical industry and the environment - Man-made chemicals and materials in the natural and urban environments - Hazardous chemicals at home, at school, in chemical industry and agriculture - Chemical analysis in pollution monitoring - Chemical processes in waste water treatment procedures - Chemical processes in solid and hazardous waste treatment Agriculture - Soil, its components and characteristics - Foundations of plant ecology - Photosvnthesis as the main generator of energy in ecosystems - Effect of land cultivation practices on soil degradation - Deforestation, soil erosion and desertification - Environmental effects of cattle breeding and fishing - The green revolution and agricultural biotechnology - Effects of fertilizers and agricultural toxic chemicals (insecticides, herbicides, fimgicides, rodenticides, molluscicides) on soil, water, plants, animals and humans - Waste minimization and energy saving programs in agriculture - Residues of agrochemicals in food products - Possible soil conservation strategies - Improving land use (identifying causes of land misuse, implementing the improvements) - Environmentally-sound agricultural practices and technologies - Bio-farrming. health food, "green" products - Unconventional food and fuel plants 30 Env'roninenrol ecJicatuon curricrUa Health education - Environmental health and sanitation - Human reproduction, family planning and the environment - Food production, nutnrtion and the environment - Food contamination and preservation - Effects of air and water pollution on human health - Water borne diseases and their prevention - Effect of indoor air pollution on human health - Hazardous chemicals, hazardous wastes and human health - Noise pollution and human health - Sewage treatment methods and technologies - Treatment of wastes from hospitals - Medicinal plants and alternative medicine - Environment, stress and health - Hazards of alcoholism, smoking and drug abuse Home economics - Human reproduction and family living - Home sanitation and diseases - Drinking water purification - Water conservation strategies at home - Food waste in households - Garbage disposal - Waste minimization and recycling of materials at home - Energy consumption and possibilities for energy saving at home - Decreasing indoor pollution (smoke. noise) - Toxic chemicals and hazardous waste related to household products - Environmentally-sound consumer behavior 31 En'ironmnenrtl edication curricida Physics - Physical factors in ecosystems - Energy definition and forms - Energy sources and resources - Energy chains and the transport of energy - Efficiency of energy transformations and optimal uses - Energy and entropy - Energy production for human activities (power plants), energy losses, - Energy consumption and strategies for energy conservation - Alternative sources for energy production - Physical processes and technologies in waste water, solid waste and hazardous waste treatment - Nuclear power plants and radioactive wastes Mathematics - Calculations, e.g. on population dynamics, food chain energy losses, etc., - Mathematical and statistical methods in environmental research - Organizing environmental data (tables, graphs, databases) Geography - Climatic changes as a consequence of environmental mismanagement - Deforestation, soil erosion, drought and flooding - Human population and its dynamics - Effects of rural and urban populations on the environment - Effects of human activities on the environment - Industrial regions and the environment - Tourism and the environment - Preparation of environmental maps - Establishment of local plans for spatial and resource management - Geographical information systems in environmental management, planning and research 32 Envwroninenial education c?urricula History/Social science - Analysis of attitudes toward the environment - Historical development of environmental pollution and protection - Human population, its dynamics and interactions - Human needs vs. finite resources - Poverty and economic development vs. environmental protection - Environmental problems in rich economies - Effect of cultural (social, religious, political, economic) values on environmental issues - War, peace, security and the environment - Effect of individual beliefs and values on environmental issues - Effect of education on individual's environmental behavior - Environmental legislation - Opportunities for an individual to help resolve environmental problems Economics - State of the environment in rich and poor economies - effect of country's income on the characteristics of environmental problems - Econormic prosperity as a basis for environmental protection - Economic price of polluting - The social cost of pollution - Tradeoff between employment and harming the environment - Short-term and long-term economical consequences of intensive environmental exploitation in agriculture, forestry, industry, tourism - Economic decision making between producers, consumers and environmentalists - Regulatory measures that give incentives for protecting the environment - Promotion of environmental protection by financial subsidies or sanctions - Environmental legislation and sanctions for polluters - Costs and economic advantages of environmentally friendly technologies and products - Effects of energy prices on energy consumption and environmental protection - Promotion and marketing of "green products" 33 Environmnental adrucation curricula Technology and Engineering - Effects of the industrial revolution on the environment - Generation of energy and environmental impacts - Alternative technologies for energy generation - Technological processes and the consumption of energy - Energy consumnption minimization in industrial processes - Dirty and clean technologies - Waste minimization in industrial processes - Closed cycle technologies - Types and characteristics of industrial wastes (vapors and gases, industnral waste water, solid wastes, hazardous wastes) - Technological processes for treatment of municipal, agricultural and industrial wastes - Technologies for drinking water purification - Prevention of vibration and noise pollution - Pollution cycles of technological products: during manufacturing, while using the product, after the useful period is completed (turns to waste) - Environmentally friendly industrial raw materials, products and packaging - Rational management of natural resources, substances and energy - Effects of technology and engineering activities on natural ecosystems - Fundamentals of environrmental impact assessment - Management of industrial wastes - Information technologies for environmental management and research - Environmental monitoring technologies - Environxnental legislation and regulations in technology and engineering Work safety (technical and vocational schools) - Fundamentals of environmental toxicology - Safe storage, transportation and use of volatile, inflammable, corrosive, reactive and toxic substances, - Proper handling with (and use of) agricultural and industrial chemicals, - Proper disposal of liquid and solid wastes, - Proper management of hazardous wastes, - Pollution of working environment (noise, vibrations, air pollution), - Technologies and materials for improving working environments (reduced pollution, improved safety), - Toxic chemical and waste emission risks, - Strategies and procedures in ecological calamities 34 Envirommenial edtucazion curricula Religion/lEthical educationlPhilosophy - Value systems and the environmental issues - Humanistic considerations: stabilizing population, poverty alleviation, economics and health - Cultural and religious constraints in implementation of environmental measures - Environmental ethics: human rights, animal rights, the value of lives, preservation of species, respect for natural and cultural diversity - Nature and environment in different religions and philosophies - Global pollution, its causes and effects in rich and poor countries Languages - Improving speaking abilities: environmental discussions, role playing, simulations, interviews - Improving writing abilities: preparing questionnaires, opnionnaires, wrtten reports, letters, summaries, bibliographies, etc. on environmental issues - Improving skills in foreign languages: reading and translation of environmental texts, speaking about the environment (eg. simulated conference speech) - Collecting literature, using different library and database sources for obtaining environrmental infonnation - Environmnental language and environmental dictionaries Arts - Environmental topics in photography, drawing, painting, sculpturing, music, etc. - Graphical design of environmental publications - Design of environmentally friendly packaging 35 Environmnenal educotion curricula A science teacher can introduce environmental education in connection with almost any concept of the subject by presenting the concept from at least one of the following three vie'wpoints: 1. How can the concept improve the understanding of environmental phenomena? 2. What is the role of the concept in the environment? 3. How could it be used to solve environmental problems? What is the essential knowledge that should be acquired in secondary school environmental education? What is the most basic knowledge that a secondarv/high school student need to acquire to be environmentally literate? The answers are probably as many as the environmental educators working in the field. The following example of a secondary/high school basic curriculum core in environmental education combines the three aspects, that may be essential for proper understanding of environmental issues. These are: (1) simple or simplified fundamental scientific concepts necessary to understand the mnain natural processes, (2) applied scientific knowledge for better understanding of the living environments, activities, materials and technologies, and (3) specific environmental knowledge about environmental problems and possibilities for their solution. 36 Ernvironmnental edication curczila 1. IMPORTANT FUNDAMENTAL SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE Fundamentals of biological taxonomy, chemical nomenclature and SI metric system Levels of complexity in natural systems biosphere - biomes - ecosvstems - communities - populations - organisms - organs - tissues - cells - subcellular components - molecules - atoms - subatomic structures Basic ecology The ecosystem concept: biotic and abiotic factors Characteristics of individual organisms Population dynamics Interspecific and intraspecific interactions Tolerance ranges and limiting factors Adaptation, natural selection, and evolution Major biomes Main characteristics of terrestrial, freshwater and marine environments Natural cycles Water cycle Biogeochemical cycles Energy cycle Food chains Basic understanding of biochemical processes Photosynthesis Respiration Biosynthesis Biodegradation Inheritance, nucleic acids and genetic code Energy Basic laws of energy The entropy concept Energy transformations and losses Production and consumption of energy 37 Envi ronmnen ral education cuirrizco 2. APPLIED SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE Materials in daily life Origin (from renewable or non-renewable resources). Characteristics during their use (e.g. inert, hazardous, durable), Main usage (e.g. construction materials, technological products, packaging, clothing, food, pharnaceuticals. agrochemical, household chemicals) Disposal (e.g. reusing, recvcling, composting, burning/incinerating, landfill disposal) Energy in daily life Energy in living organisms (incl. food composition and digestion) Energy for human activities: power plants, alternative sources of energy Energy in industrial and agricultural processes, traffic and transportation, heating and cooling systems, etc. Processes and technologies in daily life: Main types (world and local perspective) Benefits for human life and negative environmental effects Examples of environmentally-sound processes and technologies Main pollutants, sources and possible solutions (basic scientific knowledge) Air pollution Water pollution Pollution of soil Radioactivity Noise, vibrations Pollution of urban environment, working place and home Alcoholism, drugs, stress Fundamentals of waste management and treatment, pollution prevention and energy conservation Environmentally sound development: how to choose the right materials, technologies, industries, agricultural practices, management of resources, consumer's behavior. 38 Ern':rorn nenz7tr edurcati or CuXrr CudI C 3. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS Global concerns: Human population growth Environment deterioration and human health Food production and consumption (quantity and quality) Resources consumption and protection: water, fuel, minerals Destruction and protection of forests Soil degradation, erosion, siltation, desertification, irrigation, salinization Global air pollution (greenhouse effect, ozone depletion, acid rain) Global marine pollution Wildlife, biodiversitv and protection of species Human activities and environment Impacts of agriculture, forestry, industry, mining, fishing, urbanization, traffic, war Local environmental problems and possible solutions Identification of country-specific and local problems Searching for solutions (e.g. improving agricultural practices, local waste management, changing consumer's habits, water and energy saving and waste minimization at home and at school). Environment and social sciences Family planning issues Effects of religion, culture and education on environmental problem solving Individual beliefs and values in environmental issues Environmental ethics Environmental regulations and legislation Short-term versus long-term benefits in environmental planning and management Individual responsibilities for preserving environment (What can be my contribution) Basics of environmental research and project work Methodology of designing, testing, evaluating and optimizing research and project work Information gathering, analvsis, structuring, and interpretation Scientific observation, environmental sampling, measurements, tests, experiments Setting up, testing and optimizing research hypothesis Results interpretation, presentation, and dissemination 39 Env/ronmnental edu,calion cl rrncu!a I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Conclusions 1. An environmental education curriculum should not only present the basic ecological concepts and promote an awareness of environrnental problems, but should improve the understanding of environmental issues. and encourage a search for solutions and active participation in problem solving. 2. Both, the single subject and the infusion approach are appropriate for the introduction of environmental education at the secondary level. The choice depend on the existing educational policy, curriculum time frame, existing school subjects, and teachers' qualifications). 3. In the infusion approach, the environmental concepts may be introduced through a variety of school disciplines, such as biology, chemistry, agriculture, health education, home economics, physics. mathematics, geography, historv/social sciences, economics, technology and engineering, safety at work, religion/ethical education, languages and arts. 4. A secondary/high school environmental education has to provide the (a) fundamental scientific knowledge necessary to understand the natural processes, (b) applied scientific knowledge for better understanding of every day life situations and environmental issues, and (c) specific environmental knowledge about environmental problems and possibilities for their solution. 5. Students need to acquire a strong theoretical background as well as practical experiences (laboratory and field work) with a diversity of environmental concepts and issues. 6. Environmental education curricula should constantly be updated with new discoveries, experiences and methodological approaches. Therefore, continuous cooperation between teachers and educators with scientists, researchers, engineers and other specialists is essential. 7. Through the infusion of environmental concepts into science, traditional science teaching approaches can be enriched and become more relevant to the majority of students, who do not intend to continue their studies in a scientific direction. 40 Merhodolo-?ical approaches to environmental teachinz METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO ENVIRONMENTAL TEACHING Environmental education goals Environmental educators have spent considerable time and effort defining goals and purposes of environmental education. The general consensus is that environmental education should have the purpose of "training world inhabitants who are both capable and willing to choose lifestyles and behavior which allow the environment to maintain itself as a productive and supportive ecosystem, i.e. to train learners to become environmentally literate citizens who can participate in problem-solving and decision-making processes and thus contribute to the improvement of environmental problems" (Unesco, 1989). This task demands a number of prerequisite skills. A discussion guide for Unesco training seminars on environmental education (Hungerford, Volk and Ramsey, 1989) suggests the following necessary abilities that the student should acquire through environmental education: (1) identify environmental issues, (2) analyze issues correctly and identify individuals or groups involved, their beliefs and values, (3) investigate issues from different viewpoints (scientific, social, economic, political, legal), (4) be able to evaluate the proposed solutions and determine the most effective ones, (5) participate in the execution of the action plan. However, meeting these instructional objectives is not an easy task for teachers and other environmental instructors. For such environmental instruction, teaching has to be organized in a different way than traditional classroom lectures and should include a varietv of teaching methods, techniques and resources (Table 4). 41 Methodological opproaches lo environmenrol reachine Table 4: Suggestions of teaching methods and resources for the main four instructional levels (adapted from Unesco - Hungerford, Volk annd Ramsey (1989) and Mar, .inkowski, 1988): GOAL LEVEL TARGETED TEACHNG RESOURCES KNOWLEDGE IvETHODS AND SKILLS lectures and lecture notes, overheads, worksheets, discussion follow-up panel discussions scientific reading and printed materials (textbooks, journals, (1) iknowledge discussion research reports) ecological needed to foundation understand and viewing and video tapes, movies, filmstrips level investigate discussion environmental issues models and three-dimensional models, printed models simulations and simulations, computer graphics and simulations laboratory school laboratories, environmental science experiments vouth clubs, environmental centers, natural and field parks, natural and urban environments studies (task-oriented field trips) lectures and lecture notes, overheads, worksheets, discussions follow-up panel discussions reading and printed materials (journals, newspapers, conceptual discussions reports, research studies, monographs) knowledge (2) (understanding viewing and video tapes, specialized movies, TV series conceptual the complex discussions and round-table discussions awareness structure of a level problem) - case studies teacher developed or printed case studies, analyzing the community resource people ecological and social/cultural brain storming teacher organized brain storming sessions implications (focus on student involvement) issue analysis worksheets involving the issue analysis (positions, procedures, films and print materials as beliefs, values) referents field trips local environmentally impacted sites 42 MethodoIoeica) approoches ro environmental teaching cont. GOAL LEVEL TARGETED TEACHING RESOURCES KNOWLEDGE METHODS AND SKILLS collection of specialized libraries. information centers, additional data computerized databases knowledge and analvsis of tables, worksheets, charts, knowledge (3) skills to data, data maps investigation investigate/ structuring and analyze issues evaluation and evaluate value printed materials, valuing exercises level altemative clarification solutions role playing, required resources made available simulations panel required resources made available (printed discussion and materials, computers, audiovisual debate materials) skill training printed materials and exercises sessions (4) skills for action community resource persons, issue responsible workshops action and criteria analysis workshops resolution decision level making students action student research and action projects with projects teachers and resource persons as supervisors / consultants action leaming environmental communitv programs and in community projects intemships Cross-disciplinary, problem solving approaches Although the need for an integrated approach to environmental education is becoming widely recognized, most educational institutions still tend to emphasize a traditional disciplinary approach that may lead to narrow specialization. A number of monodisciplinar and often isolated environmental topics have been introduced into most school curricula. However, it is rare to find 43 MerhodoJogica aoprrooches to enwzronmenrol reaching comprehensive approaches that integrate all the different aspects of environmental problems, search for their solutions and prepare students to take responsible envirorunental decisions. The cross-disciplinary, problem-solving approach encounters a number of traditional constraints to the successful environmental education program development. Jacobson and Robinson (1990), have found that multidisciplinary programs (where a theme is infused into various disciplines) and interdisciplinary programs (where a number of disciplines are synthesized into a common program) face several major obstacles, that are present at all educational levels: a) Structure Cross-disciplinary environmental efforts require the cooperation of several teachers, researchers, programs or departments. Thus the mutual interests of teaching, research and administration from diverse disciplines must converge to make the program viable. Experience has shown that it is more efficient to develop or introduce new enviro'nmental programs in already established cross-disciplinary institutions than in traditional inst - s. b) Communication Communication between different specialists workinf :her in a cross-disciplinary education program seems to be difficult. Pnror experience .g project members, especially the coordinators, in cross-disciplinary work greatly redu., the communication and adjustment problems. In the case of larger projects, an automated communication system, e.g. an interactive computer network linked to information svstems, can substantially improve the exchange of information increase the effectiveness of a project. c) Curriculum The lack of cross-disciplinary training is in general recognized as one of the most important issues facing the scientific community today. In spite of this, the basic conflict of monodisciplinary depth versus cross-disciplinary breadth remains unresolved. A multidisciplinary integration or an interdisciplinary synthesis may be the optimal model for environmental curricula. d) Evaluation Multidisciplinary programs are more difficult to evaluate than professl.Ji:.-l or single-discipline programs. e) Research Cross-disciplinary teaching at higher levels of education should be accompanied by cross- disciplinary research opportunities. Discipline-oriented research is still regarded the "normal way" for science advance, while cross-disciplinary research is considered "something of an art rather than a science" (Jacobson and Robinson, 1990). In professional cross-disciplinary environmental research, curriculum development, or teaching, there is a need for a close collaboration between specialists in different subjects, each with a deep knowledge of their disciplines, using different problem-solving approaches, performing different roles in solving the common problem, and feeling both individual and group responsibility for the final product. f) Reward It is difficult to build a reward structure (funds, recognition, promotion) into a multidisciplinary program, and even harder to do so in an interdisciplinary one. 44 Melhodolog7ical approaches to env' ronmental teochmng The problem-solving approach requires that the teacher not only has a deep understanding of environmental phenomena and processes, but also the necessary skills to organize, conduct, supervise and evaluate problem-solving activities of the students. Pomerans, House and Heath, (1985) describe and analvze different pedagogic procedures that can be used in environmental problem solvina. These are: (1) group discussions, (2) guided environmental interpretation, (3) clarification of values, (4) games and simulations, (5) experimental demonstration workshops, (6) practical action projects, and (7) action-oriented research. However, there is no universal approach or method that can be adopted in all countries, for all students and for all environmental education situations. Each teacher will have to choose the most appropriate teaching style, methods and techniques for the given situation. Examples of non-traditional teaching methods and techniques in environmental education Research on efficiency of information transfer shows that the average student remembers less than 10 per cent of what he reads, about 20 percent of what he hears, and about 30 percent of what he sees. The combination of sight and sound together increases retention to more than 50 percent, and subsequent discussion can further improve the retention to above 70 percent (Boulton, 1987). This illustrates the significance of using different teaching methods and techniques in all school disciplines, including environmental education. A summary of selected teaching methods and techniques, appropriate for environmental teaching, is given below. The list is not intended to be complete, but it illustrates different opportunities in environmental teaching. Their applications in environmental prograrns, teaching units and laboratory experiments are listed in the Case Studies. 45 Methodolo-eicol approaches to environmental teachine Inquirv methods Table 5: Examples of inquirv methods in envirolinenital teachino (modified from Unesco-UNEP, 1986) METHOD PROCEDURE AIMS EXAMPLES Inquiry Searching for an answer Developing Heavy metals in food: through a series of intellectual student's curiosity; gathering data about activities (gathering data, encouraging contaminated food, analyzing analyzing, discussing, students to the reasons and sources, hypothesizing, experimental investigate and setting hypotheses, laboratory testing, generalizing) to make discover for testing and field testing (e.g. an experience or a scientific themselves; vegetables growing by the problem understandable. training them to heavy traffic roads), drawing be able to deal conclusions. with complex topics. Discovery Students gather data about Developing A map and two photographs through the problem by asking critical thinking; are shown to the students: a inquiry questions (and not by developing polluted river at present and performning experiments), abilities to ask the same river thirty years develop a concept, discuss it precise and target- ago, when it was still clear. and draw conclusions. The oriented questions. By asking questions, students technique can utilize different have to identify the river, the tools: stories, photographs, causes of pollution and their slides, films. effects to the environment. Follow up: field trip to a nearby river, planning activities to improve the condition of the river. Invitation to Emphasis on how data are Developing Presenting the problem of inquiry acquired and turned into creativity and floods in Asian countries, knowledge, e.g. (1) presenting imagination their ecological, social and a problem, performing (science is not just economic consequences. experiments, analyzing data, learning what is Providing data on the climate, interpreting data; (2) already known); rainfalls, geographic and interpreting a given set of developing geological characteristics, and data to form a conclusion: (3) abilities to analyze on human activities in the developing hypotheses data, predict and region. Students have to (possible explanations) about plan the testing identify possible causes, the problem situation, and procedure. analyze them and set testing them. hypotheses. 46 Meihodoloeical approaches to environmental teaching Communication methods Discussions Panel discussions and debates on environmental issues can be used effectivelv to present conflicting viewpoints and evaluae different beliefs and values. Thev can directlv involve all the participants in a class including groups of students with different views. For an efective panel discussion education specialists recommend four phases: (1) presentation of positions - panelists on each team introduce their positions. (2) clarification of positions - question and answer session between the teams, (3) free-form discussion - points, counterpoints, rebuttals, general discussion, and (4) audience participation - questions and comments from the audience (Unesco -Hungerford, Volk and Ramsey, 1989). These discussions and debates are especiallv appropriate for secondary school students; because they train them in proper communication skills for real-life situations. Role playing and simulations Several authors recommend the practice of role playing and simulations of environmental meetings, commissions, public hearings, etc., as a way to provide students with adequate practice for making important decisions and for developing action-oriented human relation skills. This also provides an acurate demonstration of the relevance of textbook information to life experiences. Role playing can be performed in small or large groups, but the students should study the environmental issue in advance. During a simulation, neither students or the instructor are allowed to step out of their roles. Audiovisual techniques Filmstrips and slide programs If technical facilities are available in the schools, filmstrips and slides offer several advantages: (1) they are relatively inexpensive to acquire and produce; (2) they are flexible and can be rearranged to suit the presentation, mixed with other resource materials as required, and are readily updated by substitution or addition of new material: (3) original slides and good copies may produce large pictures if a good projector is available. Although a number of "magic boxes" are advertised, which can link the slide projector to a tape recorder, the live presentation of a teacher or environmental specialist is usually more effective (Boulton, 1987). The exception might be special programs, where the sound is very important, e.g. the reproduction of characteristic sounds of animals. For Third World use, Boulton (1987) recommends slide projectors. For instance, two slide projectors with long-focus lenses, and a portable AV/amplifier/cross-fade system, cost the same as a 16 mm projector, but the possibilities for more creative user are virtually limitless. More sophisticated units can control several projectors and dissolving from one image to the next. Such expensive techniques might be justified for permanent installation in environmental visitors centers and for other special presentations. A universal requirement is a source of electricity and a quality projector. Some projectors can be adapted to operate from 12-volt car batteries, though they draw heavily on the current and the batteries must be recharged very frequently. They also operate on petrol generators. The World 47 Merhodolozical approaches to environmentol reachmng Wildlife Found is using such equipments for rural conservation programs in developing countries (Boulton, 1987). IVD Interactive Video Disc technology is one of the new challenging tools in distance education systems. The standard equipment requirements are: a simple personal computer (e.g. 286 PC) equipped with video overlay board, an interactive program. and a visual database on a laser disc. In combination with a 30 minutes videotape, the system can provide as much as 25 hours of an interactive training instruction at a cost breakdown between $35 to $75 per trainee week (Edison, 1993). The IVD can simulate the field experience on-screen that can complement (or substitute)-field or laboratory work education. The system has been successfully implemented in water management training programns for engineers in India. Similar possibilities are been discussed for use in distance education of newly privatized farmers in Russia. In environmental education, IVD learning packages might be useful in environmental learning centers, in introductory courses for secondary students project work, and especially for the distance environmental training of in-service teachers. Information sources The quality of contemporary education, research and development depends to a large extent on the efficiency of the international transfer of scientific information. The use of information methods and techniques is of particular significance for development of research hypotheses, as well as in teaching and learning (Kornhauser and Boh, 1992). Using a single textbook or only lecture notes is not sufficient. In teaching based on problem- solving and decision-making situations, students have to collect as complete information as possible in order to acquire the scientific knowledge needed; in particular, they must gather enough statistical data on a selected environmental issue and get acquainted with different views and positions of the parties involved. Different sources of data are available for primary and secondary school students: Direct information acquisition a) asking target-oriented questions to environmental specialists, mnanagers, the local population, exchange of informnation between teachers and classes working on different aspects of environmental topics; b) formulating letters with precise questions regarding environmental organizations, industries and governmental institutions; c) introducing questionnaires and opinion surveys for a broad spectrum of the population affected. Literature sources a) Primarv sources of literature are numerous and include newspapers, scientific journals, textbooks, monographs, encyclopedias, technical manuals, statistical yearbooks, environmental research reports, mnarketing and advertising materials, pamphlets; for more serious learning and project work also Ph.D. thesis, elaborate studies, market analyses, know-how offers and patents. b) Secondary literature sources provide bibliographic data and often include an abstract with condensed information on the contents of publication. Indexes and abstract books are available in many envirorunental information centers and larger libraries. 48 Merhodolojical aorrooches to environnentol teoching Computerized databases Bibliographic computerized databases are rapidlv replacing large-volume books of abstracts and indexes. In addition to bibliographic databases. factual databases, which offer the user sorted and well structured information on specialized fields, are becoming more wideiy available. Most of the large international databases are available on-line, several of them also on CD ROM. Small specialized databases, created for educational and research purposes, run on personal computers. They may be designed and built by secondary school students, e.g. for organizing the enviromnental library, building a registr of local natural resources and wildlife or a registry of local polluters and wastes, and for collecting and processing data from environmental monitoring and youth research projects. Practical laboratory instruction Many educators are aware of the importance of practical laboratory work. Most agree that "hands-on and minds-on" environmental science promotes intellectual development, enhances the learning of environmental concepts, develops problem-solving skills and creative thinking, and increases the understanding of environmental processes, general scientific concepts and technological problems. Yet, in reality, practical forms of environmental teaching are often neglected. The main constraints in increasing the laboratory activities seem to be: (1) insufficientlv trained teachers, (2) lack of effective teaching units based on experimental work, (3) lack of science laboratories, (4) insufficient (or non-existent) laboratory equipment, (5) problems with equipment maintenance and resupply of consumables. (6) insufficient safety procedures, (7) lack of time in an overcrowded curriculum. Teacher training is in most countries the most critical problem in introducing hands-on environmental science. If the teachers are well trained and motiveted, most of the problems caused by modest physical conditions mav be overcome. In both low- and high-income countries, modern practical programs have been successfully implemented in much simpler surroundings than those generally recommended. Numerous creative and cost-effective methods and techniques in hands-on environmental education exist, for example: (1) Environtnental experiments related to chemistry can be performed on micro-scale (less chemicals are needed, experiments are safer), or with natural or locally available substances and materials (e.g. from a grocery store, or even no-cost waste products). (2) Recycling of used laboratory chemicals results in financial benefits, reduced pollution and directly illustrates environmnentally sound behavior. (3) Low-cost, locally made equipment (either by teachers or by students themselves), can be used instead of commercial laboratory equipment. The main benefits are (Musar, 1993): lower cost, easier maintenance and repair, better availability of spare parts, higher relevance to the curriculum, higher self-reliance, and flexibility in adaptation. 49 Methodoloeical approaches io environmental meochine. (4) In many cases spirit burners mav be used instead of gas, and, due to the lower temperature, expensive laboratory glassware can be replaced by or constructed from low-cost or no-cost household products (bottles, jars, cans, strainers, etc.). (5) The local environment around the school may provide a rich source of environmental hands-on experiences. It is at least as readily available as a school laboratory. Even in schools with well equipped science laboratories, a part of environmental practical work may be performed outside school (see the case studies, an example from Sweden, Egneus and Tullberg, 1985). In situations where laboratories are not available or are inadequate, the local environment may be an excellent substitute for laboratory experiments in environmental education. (6) A school garden can offer numerous environmental hands-on activities related to agriculture, biology, physics, and home economics. (7) When a school garden is not available, several environmental concepts can be illustrated in a regular classroom by growing plants in pots, maintaining simple ecosystems (vivarium with insects, aquarium, terrarium), or bv constructing simplified biological reactors for organic waste treatrment. (8) Several environmental kits are available, which contain written instructions and all the necessary equipment and reagents for practical work. The Royal Society for Nature Conservation, UK, for instance, has developed "The River Watch Pack" and 'The Ozone Project Pack" and distributed them to schools and environmental centers in and outside the country. (8) For special enviromnental research projects, science-oriented secondary students may use existing facilities in laboratories of local industries and research institutions. In some countries, this is already a well established practice. Field trips and excursions Environmental learning activities outside the classroom enrich the teaching process by introducing first-hand experiences of environmental phenomena, materials, living organisms, processes and technologies. A field trip or excursion is most effective if it is task oriented and carefully planned. Students have to get the prerequisite knowledge before the trip and know their responsibilities and duties in advance. An active participation role has to be assigned to each student. The field activities (e.g. collection of data, taking samples, studving the ecological phenomena, learning about the waste treatment technologies, etc.) must be followed by later analysis of data, presentation of results and discussions. Field trips bv groups of students mav sometimes present a potential hazard to sensitive natural environrments. Therefore, field activities must be designed in a way that affects the area visited as little as possible. and possible risks must be discussed in advance. Project work The interdisciplinary environmental teaching is often combined with project work. The proceedings of a Nordic Workshop on Teaching Science and Technology in an Interdisciplinary 50 Methodolozalc! oaproochcs to environmental teochinfl Context recommend the following basic guidelines for science and technology project-oriented teaching (Thulstrup, 1985; Egneus and Tullberg. 1985): - students need to have a fixed goal and well defined working plan for the project; their participation during the planning is essential: - a continuous communication between teachers and students is important during all stages of project work; - an active participation of all students have to be planned and assured during project activities; - the teacher should function as a resource person and should not limit the possibility of imaginative work by the students; - other resource persons can be involved (e.g. environmental specialists, researchers, engineers, managers, farmers, local people, etc.) and the cooperation can be established with the society outside the school; - the project has a goal in itself, and the evaluation should be performed on the basis of the project idea; - project reports can be used as teaching materials or as infornation sources for other environmental activities. Examples of environmental projects done by secondary school students are listed in Case Study 7 (Boh and Komhauser, 1992; Egneus and Tullberg, 1985, Kvam, 1985). Conclusions 1. The main goals of contemporary environmental education are to develop (1) environmental, scientific and technological literacy, (2) experience in responsible environmental decision-making, and (3) environmental problem solving ability. 2. To accomplish these objectives, traditional classroom lectures are insufficient. Wider focus on communication and inquiry methods, the use of audiovisual aids, intensive information gathering activities, practical laboratory instruction, excursions and field work, will all contribute to successful environmental education outcomes. 3. There is no universal best approach for all environmental education situations, for all learners and for all countnres. Teachers must select the most appropriate teaching styles, methods and techniques for any given situation. 4. Laboratory experiments, field work and excursions are of high importance but are often neglected. They can be performed with modest equipment and in relative simple surroundings. Several cost-effective opportunities exist. 5. Teacher training remains the most critical constraint in the improvement of environmental teaching methodologies and in the introduction of hands-on environrnental science. 51 Teacher training TEACHER TRAINING Forms and strategies An analysis of environmental teacher training programs (Boh, 1991; Boh and Kornhauser, 1992, Unesco-UNEP, 1986; Ware, 1992, Wilke, Peyton and Hungerford. 1987) shows that (1) teacher training remains the key factor for improvement of environmental education; (2) at least some pre-service and in-service environmental education for science teachers exist in most countries; (3) the programs vary very much in all key characteristics: in format, in breadth, in scope, and in methodologies; (4) many teachers who have received some traditional environmental education training are not well trained in interactive cooperative learning and problem-solving teaching methods and techniques; (5) the number of effective environmental education programs for teachers is still limited; (6) short courses that give only overviews of selected environmental topics or teaching methodologies cannot replace systematic environmental teacher training; (7) there is a need for (a) guidelines in environmental teacher training programs at regional level, (b) assistance in their adaptation to local needs and (c) support for their implementation. Pre-service training of teachers This type of training depends on the national educational system, which is very different from country to country. However, in most countries, secondary science teacher education starts after 12 years of previous education, although 10 and 11 years are also found (Ware, 1992). In most systems, secondary school science teachers are educated in both science content and pedagogy, typically through a four year program. At most teacher training colleges, a minimum environmental education is included in biology (fundamentals of ecology), and often also in chemistry and earth science. Sometimes, science teachers can take separate environmental courses, such as ecology with environmental protection, environmental chemistry, environmental pollution and waste treatment technologies, 52 Teacher training chemical analysis in environmental science, health and sanitation, or advanced ecology courses such as plant ecology, zoo-ecology, fresh-water ecology, marine ecology, microbial ecology, and agricultural ecology. An increasing number of countries offer one or two years of post-graduate studies in environmental education for science teachers. Pre-service environmental education programs for teachers specializing in social sciences, humanities and arts are almost nonexistent. There are cases where secondary school teachers still do not have any formal enviromnental education. Several countries are only now introducing the first environmental education courses into their teacher training programs. A study on secondary school science in developing countries (Ware, 1992) reveals that there are still some low-income countries, especially in the Sub-Saharan region, where secondary school science teachers only have the 0-level science background possibly supported by some teaching courses. In some countries, teachers may have a science degree with no teacher training background. With many problems of this kind, the introduction of environmental education programs often remains a second priority. Introducing environmental education into a pre-service teacher training may involve any one or combination of the three approaches: (1) infusing environmental foundational knowledge and teaching methods into existing courses; (2) developing a specific course in environmental education methods to be added to the curriculum (which already has some environmental science); (3) developing additional (upgraded or specialized) environmental courses to be added to the curriculum. Much of the environmental education contents may be found in traditional disciplines, especially in the natural sciences, but in a non-environmental context. Theoretically, a relatively simple "environmentalization" of existing courses would fulfill both the general education and environmental education requirements in teacher training. In practice, this process is not easy, due to many constraints of coordination and cooperation, expertise, time and financing needed. Still, with careful systematic planning and good cooperation, important gains can be made in environmental education by infusing environmental components into teacher training. The infusion may take place without compromising the quality or quantity of the existing courses. On the contrary, in most cases the quality of existing teacher training programs can be upgraded by the infusion of environmental components, especially if (1) the attention is focused on higher levels of environmental teaching (e.g. issue investigation and evaluation, action skills), (2) the methodological approaches are based on problem solving and decision making practices, (3) the practical experimental work is moved from "high science laboratories" with sophisticated equipment towards more "friendly and understandable" environmental processes, using locally available materials and resources; (3) the contents are adapted to understand and solve both local, regional. international and global environmental problems, and (4) the environmental education interlinks fundamental scientific knowledge with technological, economic, political, legal, and social processes in every day life situations. Environmental material can be infused into all specialized courses in teacher training programs: biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, earth science, agriculture, health and nutrition, technology, communications, economics, social sciences, religion, languages, 53 'Teacher training literature, arts, etc., as well as into general teacher training, programs, such as pre-school education methodologies, general classroom teaching, methodology of science teaching, pedagogy, psychology, and others* . Changing teacher training curricula means changing the curriculum of the teacher training institution. In order to incorporate an environmental dimension in teacher training programs, not only changes in curriculum are needed, but also changes in textbooks, infrastructure, budget, and personnel. As a first educational priority the environmental education of teacher trainers, both in pre-service and in-service training, has to be upgraded and improved. In-service environmental training This type of training can have various forms: (1) graduate and continuing education courses, (2) seminars and workshops, (3) environmental summer schools, (4) environmental research field projects for teachers, (5) environmental research courses at research institutes, (6) conferences, (7) lectures and demonstrations in environmental centers, (8) correspondence courses, (9) distance-learning programs through TV, radio and video, (10) self-education through environmental manuals, methodological handbooks, teacher's guides and audio-visual materials. Implementation of in-service environmental training follows one of the following three main organizational models: a) The cascade model follows a hierarchical structure (training of trainers of trainers...). The cascades may be, for instance, environmental specialists - university staff - environmental education administrators - teachers in environmental learning centers or teacher training institutions - classroom teachers. The main advantage of this model is a strong multiplying effect. However, there is also a danger of knowledge erosion - if not properly transferred, the quality of training decreases at each level of the cascade. b) The peer training model utilizes selected faculty members of the educational institution as trainers. These are given intensive environmental training in order to be able to conduct peer training sessions for teachers at their own and other institutions. c) The modular training model is based on independent learning by each individual teacher, either alone or in a group of loosely organized trainees. In an educational change, teacher training is of crucial importance. The study of secondary school science in developing countries (Ware, 1992) stresses the importance of in-service teacher training. The same conclusion can be applied to environmental teacher training. The large number of insufficiently prepared teachers now in service requests the introduction of appropriate continuing environmental education be made available to all Some detailed examples of infusing environmental education into teacher training programs are given in Strategies for the Training of Teachers in Environmental Education (Wilke, Peyton and Hungerford, 1987), pp. 82 - 102, and in An Environmental Education Approach to the Training of Elementary Teachers: A Teacher Education Program (Hungerford, Volk, Dixon, Marchinkowski, Sia and Jamalouddin, 1988), pp. 17-60. 54 Teacher trainirn teachers, and especially to science teachers. Introduction of new environmental curricula, textbooks, equipment or environmental kits all require parallel in-service teacher training. Teachers need to be instructed on: 1) how to use the new instructional environmental materials, (textbooks, audiovisuals), 2) how to introduce new methodological approaches to environmental teaching, 3) how to use and maintain new environmental equipment and kits, 4) how to organize and perform experimental activities, excursions, and project research activities for students, and 5) how to participate in environmental problem solving and citizenship actions. In a study on how to improve teaching, Verspoor and Leno (1986) recommend the following approaches in teacher training: 1) provide locally available and permanent in-service education, 2) design workshops based on teacher's needs and knowledge, 3) create systems to support and supervise teachers, and 3) find ways to motivate and reward teachers. The in-service training is only feasible when teachers are willing and able to devote the necessary time and effort to the additional training. For the improvement of in-service teacher training practices Posch (1991) proposes the following strategies: 1) teachers should become not only recipients but active planners and developers of their in- service education, 2) the practice of holding in-service training at education centers outside the school ought to be supplemented by in-service training within schools, where testing of innovations can be performed, 3) traditional individual in-service training should be supplemented by givong training to groups of teachers or the entire teaching staff of the school, 4) the practice of school management "allowing" in-service education should be replaced by an active school in-service education policy promoted by the principal and supported by the administrative bodies, 5) counseling, technical assistance and incentives should be promoted, which stimulate teachers to participate actively in in-service training, to implement innovations in environmental teaching independently, and test and support them institutionally. Wilke, Peyton and Hungerford (1987) define an effective environmental teacher training program as any program that results in the following teacher competencies*: a) foundational competencies in professional education b) additional competencies in environmental education contents such as: 1. Ecological foundations 2. Conceptual environmental awareness 3. Environmental issue investigation and evaluation 4. Environmental action skills. * Detailed explanation of competencies required for an effective environmental educator is given in the document Strategies for the Training of Teachers in Environmnental Education, chapter lll, by the same authors. 55 T7eacher irnTininiz Which enviromnental skills are esse-itial for secondary school science teachers? Within the Unesco-UNEP International Environmental Education Program (1986), two modules for pre-service and in-service training of secondary school science teachers and supervisors were prepared. Both documents cont.n sections with basic concepts and essential environmental knowledge which are considered necessary requirements for any science teacher. The modules have a different structure. The environmental content in pre-service training is built around the five themes: energy, ecosystems, resources, food and population. The environmental content for in-service training is organized in two main sections: the environrnent, and environmental problems' . Table 6 summarizes and compares the main topics of the two modules (numbering refers to the module texts). Table 6: A comparison of UNESCO pre-service and in-service teacher training modules in environmental education PRE-SERVICE SCIENCE IN-SERVICE SCIENCE TEACHER TRAINING MODULE TEACHER TRAINING MODULE Unesco-UNEP, 1986 (Fensham, Hunwick and Jacobson) Unesco-UNEP, 1986 (Cortes, Galvante, Rodriguez, Basa) A) THE ENVIRONMENT 1) ENERGY 2. Energy flow in the abiotic component of the earth ec-)systern Kinds of change and types of energy earth's ultimate source of energy Mechanisms of energy transfer - tors affectin- energy flow in the earth ecosystem The characteristics of energy transfer Water cycle and its role in energy flow The availability of energy for work Energy transformations and losses Units of energy Energy from the earth's interior 3. Energy flow in the biotic component of the earth ecosystem Photosynthesis Respiration Trophic levels The 10 per cent law (energy losses through the food chain) *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Another example of environmental education program for secondary school teacher training, designed by environmental specialists from Asia, is given in Case Study 8. 56 Teacher training Cont. 1. Structure and function of an ecosystem 2) ECOSYSTEM Types of ecosystems Habitat and ecological niche What is ecosystem Concept of limiting factors Energy flow in ecosystem Nutrient cycling in ecosystems: 4. Materials flow in the biogeochemical cycles Carbon cycle Earth processes and their role in nutrient flow Phosphorus cycle The water cycle and its role in nutrient flow Ecological succession 5. The gaseous cycles Carbon cycle Nitrogen cycle Oxygen cycle Sedimentary cycles Phosphorus Sulfur 7. Human intervention in natural resources 3) RESOURCES Human activities that effect energy flow in the earth ecosystem Increased combustion and carbon dioxide production Classifying resources: Smog, soot and other particulate matter - inexhaustible Ozone - renewable Concentration of population, heat sink and wind flow in cities - irreplaceable Human activities that affect materials flow in the earth The supply of material resources ecosystem Are we running out? Air pollution (pollutants and polluters) The human ecosystem 4) FOOD PRODUCTION Traditional versus modern food production Increasing food production and the environmental effects Food and nutrition (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, miinerals, vitamins, water) 6) HUMAN POPULATION 6. Population dynamics Density Growth and control of human Natality, mortality and dispersal population Age structure Birth rate and death rate Population growth Age structure Regulation of population size Population change and overcrowding Natural selection and evaluation Controlling population growth 57 Teacher iraining Cont. B) ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 5) POLLUTION 1. Four major dimensions of environmental problens What is pollution The physical, economic and social consequences of Threshold levels environmental problems Synergy The geographical scale of environmental problems Persistence and biological modification The time scale of environmental problems Commencing pollution control The socio-economic systems affected by environmental problems 2. Major causes of environmental problems Rapid population growth Decreasing surface area per- capita Food shortage Water shortage Energy crisis Scarcity of the earth's materials New problems from science and technology Medical technology Agricultural technology Energy technology Food technology Materials substitution technology Development and industrialization result in new problems Cost of development Development in developing countries Increased waste production and pollution Cost of pollution Concentration of human population (urbanization) Unemployment and poverty Concentration of wastes High incidence of diseases Malnutrition Conflicting land uses 3. Broad-based measures towards the solution of environmental problems Control of population growth: birth control through education, family planning and socio-economic measures Using science and technology to solve environmental problems Expanding and improving traditional food sources Developing new and unconventional food sources Treatment of malnutrition Air pollution abatement Water pollution abatement Recycling Planning human intervention into the natural processes 58 Teacher irainine As typical for most of the traditional environmental education curricula, both programs adequately cover the basic concepts of ecology. In addition, the in-service module discusses environmental problems and shows some of the possible pollution abatement strategies and other possibilities for resolving environmental issues. This is given less emphasis in the pre-service module. However, vis-a-vis the current environmental problems and their possible solutions, this is not sufficient. For high-quality environmental science education, further updating/improving of contents (as well as teaching methodology) is needed, such as: (1) introducing new environmental concepts and issues, (2) increasing the emphasis on different approaches for solving environmental problems (large scale solutions and individual contributions), (3) better adaptation of curricula to the local characteristics, needs and priorities. For example, the following environmental themes might be added or improved, illustrating both problems and possible solutions: New concepts and technologies for environmental preservation - Waste minimization concepts (related to all human activities) - Energy conservation concepts (related to all human activities) - Alternative sources of energy - Environmentally-sound management of renewable/non-renewable biodegradable/non- biodegradable materials - Elimination/replacement of hazardous chemicals (related to all human activities) - New "environmentally friendly" natural and synthetic materials - Clean and closed cycle technologies - Genetic engineering, biotechnology and the environment - Contemporary waste treatment processes and technologies (treatment of gases and vapors, waste waters and solid wastes; hazardous waste, radioactive waste) - Environmentally-sound agricultural cultivation practices and agrochemicals - Unconventional food and fuel plants General environmental issues - Science and technology for simultaneous rapid economic development and environmental protection (how to make environmentally sound decisions) - Cultural and individual constraints in the implementation of environmental protection (how to deal with and overcome them) - Effects of environmental degradation on physical and mental health (environmentally- related diseases) 59 Jeacher trainine - Environmentally sound consumer choices (individual's contribution to environmental conservation) - How to improve the most intimate environment - the home (energy, materials. indoor pollution (smoking, noise), food and nutrition, aesthetic appearance, household wastes, etc.) Global envirommental problems - Global warming (greenhouse effect), acid rain and stratospheric ozone depletion as typical consequences of intensive industrialized lifestyles - Destruction of natural habitats (special emphasis on forests) - reasons, consequences and strategies for their conservation - Wildlife extinction and protection of species Specific environmental topics for teachers in the poorest countries - Environmental education for prevention of water borne and other environmentally- related diseases - Alternative systems and techniques for improvement of sanitation, waste management and waste treatment in poor communities - Improving efficiency of rural cooking and heating systems - Alternative fuel sources - Improving agricultural practices - Improving animal breeding practices - Alternative food plants and better nutritional habits For all science teachers: improving science teaching through environmental education - Science teaching about the environment (enriching the teaching of scientific concepts, phenomena and laws by linking them to the processes in nature and every day life situations; making the students curious and interested in natural phenomena and human activities affecting the environment) - Science teaching in the environment (using natural and urban environments as a laboratory for discovery, observation, demonstration, experimenting and testing of science concepts) - Science teaching for environmentally-sound development, improvement of living conditions, abatement of environmental problems and nature conservation. The methodology of environmental education The environmental education methodology courses are crucial to train fully competent teachers. In several cases, teachers acquire a relatively good general environmental knowledge during their studies, but they lack the methodological skills to apply and use it in creative ways during the teaching process. With the introduction of new environmental education concepts, where teachers have additional responsibilities for preparing their students for solving 60 Teacher training environmental problems, the importance of methodological components and the demands for them are even greater. In spite of the recognized needs, very few data on teacher traininc in environmental education methods are available, and only a few comprehensive methodological textbooks or manuals are available to assist teachers or course developers. Within the Unesco-UNEP program for the training of teachers in environmental education, a methodological course has been prepared, which attempts to fulfill the new environmental education requirements. The major headings of the environmental teaching methods program are given in Table 7. Table 7: Main topics in the Unesco-UNEP environmental education methodology course for teachers (Wilke, Peyton and Hungerford, 1987) MAIN' SECTION TOPICS Environmental The need for environmental education, philosophy The logic behind a holistic view of the environment The goals of environmental education The similarities and differences of environmental education and other disciplines The role of experimentalism in environmental education The need for highly skilled teachers The learner and Consideration of both, physical and intellectual development in planning enviromnental environmental education education Characteristics of cognitive knowledge with emphasis on concept development Characteristics of cognitive processes Characteristics of attitudes and values Relationships between knowledge, skills, values and human behavior Transfer of learning and implications for environmental education Implications of special student populations for enviromnental education (disadvantaged, gifted, disabled) Curriculum Key foundational components in environmental education development in Goals - by level - for environmental education curricula environmental Analyzino goal components education Curriculum models Advantages and disadvantages of environmental education as a monodisciplinary curriculum Advantages and disadvantages of infused interdisciplinary curriculum Problems and strategies associated with the implementation and evaluation of infused environmental curriculum Case studies illustrating successful environmental education programs - both monodisciplinary and interdisciplinary 61 Teacher trainmne Preparing for Rationale for using syntactically sound instructional model instruction The general teaching model and its permutations (objectives, preassessment, instruction, postassessment) Strategies for the production of objectives, pretests, instructional sequences, and posttests. Methods of teaching The awareness level as a goal environmental Implications of awareness education research for environmental education awareness Teaching methods in awareness instruction: - case study analysis, - simulations, - panel discussions and formal debates, - films and other audio-visual modes. Methods of teaching Goals of the investigation and evaluation level investigation skills Implications of research in this field for environmental education Teaching methods for skills development and use Methods of affective Goals of affective education education Benefits of affective education and common objectives Research in this field and implications for environmental education Teaching strategies appropriate for use in affective education: - case studies, - issue position simulation activities - episodic/situational values clarification activities - roral dilemmas, etc. Performance characteristics of an effective affective teacher Methods of teaching Goals of citizenship action training and application citizenship action Research in this field and the implications for environmental education skills The model of an environmental action Appropriate teaching strategies for the teaching of - persuasion skills, - consumer skills, - political action skills, - legal action skills. Applying and evaluating citizenship action strategies with receiver groups. Resource utilization Rationales for using field experiences(e.g. ecological knowledge, issue investigation and evaluation) Local and regional resources available for use in environmental education Human resources available in environmental education Types of resource inventories available for use in environmental education Inventorying procedures for a resource survey in environmental education Distribution of resource information Guidelines and instructional strategies for resource utilization 62 Teacher training Selection, Environmental programs available for adoption or adaptation into existing school implenentation and programs evaluation of Criteria for the selection of environmental programs environmental Implementing environmental education curricula programs Curriculum evaluation In addition to the above listed methodological instructions, a novice science teacher will need help and support on specific natural science-related methods and techniques, e.g.: Enriching classroom lectures with samples and illustrations - Which materials can be used for illustration of environmental concepts and issues (e.g. plants, animals, consumer products, waste materials, advertisements, newspaper articles, photographs, maps, slides, video. etc.) - How to include them into teaching. Classroom and laboratory experiments How to: - prepare and conduct effective demonstration experiments in a classroom - design and organize laboratory environmental experiments for students - select (buy) equipment and chemicals for environmental education experiments - build effective low-cost equipment - design effective low-cost environmental experiments - maintain/repair equipment - introduce ethics and safety in laboratory experiments Field work How to: - use local environment and natural resources as an "always available laboratory" for environmental teaching, as well as for science teaching - plan and organize field work activities: (a) conducting visits (observation, asking questions) (b) collecting samples for further work or use at school (c) performing field experiments (e.g. measurements of abiotic factors chemical analysis, biological determination, etc.) - apply environmental ethics and safety at field work Students seminars and research projects in environmental education/ natural sciences interlink How to: - guide students towards interesting environmental topics for their seminar or project work - organize and supervise students activities: (a) collecting data (using all possible sources) 63 Teacher zrainine (b) analyzing data, organizing them into tables, and prepare tree and modular structures (c) designing research hypotheses (d) testing research hypotheses (with information methods or with practical/experimental work) (e) presenting the results to the colleagues (f) using the results in solving environmental problems (or preserving the environment) provide the necessary materials and equipment (searching for innovative low-cost solutions) - establish links with local communities, industries, farms, and research institutions to help students in collecting or evaluating data, searching for sample materials, or performing experimental work. Environmental secondary school projects, supervised by science teachers or by mixed teams of teachers and industry/agriculture/research specialists, are in some countries a well established practice. Conclusions 1) In most of the countries there are at least some basic environmental concepts in pre- service and/or in-service training of science teachers, though there are cases with no environmental teacher training at all. 2) The major teacher training deficiencies seem to be in contemporary methodological approaches to environmental education, which stress active learning, cross- disciplinarity, adaptation to local conditions, and orientation towards understanding and solving environmental problems. 3) Most of the traditional curricula for training of science teachers cover only the basic concepts of ecology and briefly discuss environmental problems. New enviromnental concepts and issues have to be brought into environmental teacher training, such as waste minimization and energy conservation concepts; new materials, technologies and agricultural practices; global environmental issues; and possible solutions and actions for solving environmental problems. 4) In a pre-service teacher training, environmental education can be taught as an integral course or infused into all specialized and general teacher training subjects. By infusing environmental components, the quality of existing teacher training programs can be significantly upgraded. 5) While there is a strong need to reform pre-service environmental teacher training, an even more urgent priority seems to be the introduction of appropriate continuing in- service environmental education, adapted to local needs and resources. 6) As the very first educational priority, the environmental education of teacher educators, for both pre-service and in-service training, has to be upgraded and improved. 7) In each country, mechanisms need to be introduced to motivate, support and supervise environmental teacher training and the quality of environmental teaching at schools. 64 Case sridies CASE STUDIES Case study 1: An environmentally related chemistry program for high schools ChemCom - CHEMISTRY IN THE COMMUNITY A project of the American Chemical Society (ACS, 1993) Chemistry in the Comnunity was developed by the American Chemical Society as a team work of several high school, college and university teachers, chemists from industry and governnent. The project was financed from the National Science Foundation and ACS sources. ChemCom started in 1982 as a response to relatively low scientific literacy of average US citizens, who did not choose a scientific career, and was therefore designed primarily to help students (1) realize the important role that chemistry plays in personal and professional lives, (2) use chemistry knowledge to make informed decisions about issues involving science, technology and environment, and (3) develop a lifelong awareness of both the potential and limitations of science and technology. The first edition was released in 1988, after six years of development, testing and revision. At present, it has been successfully implemented and widely used by chemistry teachers in US high schools. The second edition (1993) maintains the overall structure and approach of the 1988 edition, but in addition provides updated information as well as improvements based on suggestions from classroom experience. Most of the ChemCom topics are introduced through or derive from the environmental issues concerning students' every day lives. The methodological approaches support the development of a basic scientific vocabulary, understanding of scientific concepts, thinking skills, and encourage student's practical activities including laboratory exercises, decision-making and problem-solving. The main ChemCom topics, analyzed and structured with emphasis on environmental components, scientific concepts and practical student activities, are summarized in Table 8'. For additional information on ChemCom see ACS. 1993; Ware, 1989 and 1992. 65 Case.v tdies Table 8: ChemCom analysis: environmental componeits, scientific concepts anid practical activities Chapter 1: SUPPLYING OUR WATER NEEDS MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTIFIC PRACTICAL WORK CHAPTERS COMPONENTS CONCEPTS TBE QUALITY OF Fish kill causes water Measurement and the Information gathering WATER emergency in nverhood metric system Laboratory work: Foul Water and health The hydrologic cycle water (oil-water Water uses Three states of water separation, sand A water treatment plant Water distribution on filtration, charcoal Earth adsorption/filtration, distillation) A LOOK AT Meeting raises fish kill Physical properties of Laboratory work: WATER AND lTS concerns water Classification of water- CONTAMINANTS Pure and impure water Mixtures and solutions containing mixtures The riverhood mystery Matter at the micro level (suspension, colloid, Symbols, formulas, and solution); equations Water testing: Iron(III), Electrical nature of matter Calcium, Chloride, and Cations and anions Sulfate ion tests NVESTIGATING Oxygen supply and Solubility Laboratory work: THE CAUSE OF demand in water Solution concentration Solvents (solubility of THE FISH KILL ecosystems Temperature and gas different solutes in Acid contamination soltbility different solvents) Heavy metal ion Acids and bases contamination Ions and ionic compounds Molecular substances in Dissolving ionic the river compounds Heavy metal ions WATER Fish kill remains a Hard and soft water Laboratory work: Water PURFICATION mystery Minerals in hard water softening AND TREATMENT Natural water purification Soaps Municipal water Chlorination chemicals purification Sewage treatment plant Chlorine as water disinfectant FISH KILL - WHO Fish kill cause found Role playing: town PAYS council meeting, power company officials, scientists, engineers, chamber of commerce, sanitation commnission, taxpayer association 66 Case studies Chapter 2: CONSERVING CHEMICAL RESOURCES MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTIFIC PRACTICAL WORK CHAPTERS COMPONENTS CONCEPTS USE OF Using things up The law of conservation of Laboratory work: RESOURCES Resources and waste matter. Changing properties of Renewable resources Atoms metals; Nonrenewable resources Chemical equations Reaction between nitric Disposing of things acid and copper metal Municipal solid waste Consuming resources WHY WE USE Corrosion Physical and chemical Laboratory work: WHAT WE DO Preserving the past. properties of materials Classification of elements restoring Chemical elements (metals. nonmetals, The periodic table metalloids); Chemical reactivity Metal reactivities What detennines properties CONSERVATION Sources of resources Balancing equations IN THE NATURE Conservation is nature's Atom, molecule, ion way Molar mass Conservation must be our way Recycling METALS: Copper: sources and uses The copper cycle Laboratory work: SOURCES AND Mining Metals from ores producing copper RESOURCES Alternatives to metals Percent compositioni Metal reactivity series Future materials Ceramics HOW LONG WILL Metal reserves: three Characteristics of THE SUPPLY LAST projections chemical elements and Options and their usage opportunities 67 Case svidies Chapter 3: PETROLEUM - TO BT-:LD OR TO BUTRN MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTIFIC PRACTICAL WORK CHAPTERS COMPONENTS CONCEPTS PETROLEUM IN Petroleum based Crude oil and related Laboratory work: OUR LIVES products materials Viscosity and densitv Petroleum and our future Hydrocarbons measurements. PEIRT OLEl: Who has got the oil Petroleum refining Chemical models: three- WHAT S WM . Petroleum molecules dimensional ball-and-stick WITH rr Chemical bonding models of alkane Tetrahedral shape of molecules. methane molecule Alkane boiling points Isomers PETROLEUM AS Energy: past, present Energy conversion Calculations: Energy AN ENERGY and future The chemistrv of burning conversion efficiency; SOUlRCE Fuel composition over Heat of combustion and Heats of combustion. the years specific heat Laboratory work: Life without gasoline Catalysts Combustion Energy and fossil fuels Octane number Energy use in an automobile Alerting fuels Leaded gasoline USEFU1L Miaterials from Double bond Chemical models: building MATERIALS FROM petrochemicals Alkenes, cyclonexane. three-dimensional models PETROLEUM Safety in polymerization benzene of alcenes Molecules containing Laboratory work: methyl oxygen acetate synthesis Petrochemicals and polyierzation ALTERNAlTVES Alternative energy TO PETROLEUM sources CHOOSING Biomass PEIROLEUM Confronting the issues FUTURE 68 Casc stwdies Chapter 4: UNDERSTANDING FOOD MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTIFIC PRACTICAL WORK CHAPTERS COMPONENTS CONCEPTS FOODS: TO BLJILD Nutritional imbalances Calorimetry Calculations: energy OR TO BURN Dimensions of hunger Energv expenditures content of foods in diet Whv hunger Carbohvdrates planning FOOD AS ENERGY Ft Fats FOODS: THE Proteins in the diet Foods as chemical Laboratory work: Milk BUILDER reactants analysis MOLECULES Limiting reactants Proteins and amino acids OTHER Vitamins and minerals Vitamins Laboratory work: Vitamrin SUBSTANCES N in the diet Titration C determination in foods; FOOD Food qualitv Minerals Iron in foods. Benefits and risks of Food additives Consumer analysis: food additives ingredients of food products NUTIRITION Diet analvsis and meals AROUND THE around the world WORLD 69 Case studies Chapter S: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY IN OUR WORLD MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTIFIC PRACTICAL WORK CHAPTERS COMPONENTS CONCEPTS ENERGY AND Public understanding of Energ) and atoms Laboratory work: ATOMS atomic energy Different kinds of Radioactivity; Radiation therapy radiation (light. x-rays) The black box, Nuclear radiation Isotopic pennies Architecture of atoms Isotopes in nature RADIOACTIVE Natural radioactive decav Laboratory work: DECAY Half-life: a radioactive Measuring radiation; clock Shielding effect. Radiation detectors Cloud chambers. Artificial radioactivity Simulation: Radioactive decay (with pennies) NUCLEAR Benefits of radioisotopes Splitting the atom Processing survey ENERGY: LIVING Radiation damage Chain reactions information: public WITH BENEFITS Radiation exposure Nuclear energy understanding of nuclear AND RISKS. SEPARATING standards Nuclear fusion phenomena FACT FROM Radon at homes FICTION Nuclear waste Catastropuic risk: a plant accident 70 Case stuldies Chapter 6: CHEMISTRY, AIR AND CLIMATE MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTIFIC PRACTICAL WORK CHAPTERS COMPONENTS CONCEPTS LIVING IN A SEA Air Laboratory demonstration: OF AIR Breathing Gases INVESTIGATING The atmosphere Avogadro's law Laboratory work: TEE Air pressure and weather Molar volume Preparation of oxygen gas ATMOSPHERE changes Air pressure and carbon dioxide gas. Boyle's law Gas tests. Temperature scale Temperature-volume Kinetic energy relationships. Ideal gases ATMOSPHERE Earth's energy balance Solar radiation Laboratory work: Carbon AND CLIMATE The Earth surface Thennal properties of dioxide levels in normal The carbon cvcle materials air, exhaled air, air from Urban horticulture Heat capacity combustion Trends in carbon dioxide Ozone reactions levels Off in the ozone HUMAN IMPACT To exist is to pollute Major pollutants Laboratory work: ON AIR WE Air pollution Methods and technologies Cleansing air (electrostatic BREATHE Smog: hazardous to your for particle emissions precipitator, wet health control scrubbing). US pollutant standards Photochemical smog Acid rain Industrial emissions of reactions particulates Controlling automobile Traffic emissions (catalytic Air pollution control converter) Acid rain Chemistry of acid rain pH IS AIR A FREE Air pollution control: a RESOURCE success Air pollution costs 71 Case sufies Cbapter 7: HEALTH - YOUR RISKS AND CHOICES MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTIFIC PRACTICAL WORK CHAPTERS COMPONENTS CONCEPTS RISKS AND Making judgments about Human diseases PERSONAL the risk Medical technologies DECISION MAKING YOUR BODYS Balance and order: keys Elements in the human Laboratory demonstration: DNTERNAL to life body Enzvmatic decomposition CH1EMISTRY Cellular chemistry of hydrogen peroxide How enzymes work Laboratory work: Enzyme Release and storage of activity (pepsin, amylase) energy ACIDS, BASES Structure and function of Laboratory work: AND BODY acids and bases Preparation and testing of CHEMISTRY Strengths of acids and buffers bases Buffers Body pH balance CHEMISTRY AT Keeping clean with Polarity and solubility Laboratory activity: THE BODYS chemistry Soaps and detergents Sunscreens (screening SURFACE Protecting the skin from Structure of human skin abilities of creams having the sun Vitamin D different sun protection Hair structure factors). Chemistrv of hair styling Chemistry of hair. CHEMICAL Effects of alcohol Drug function Laboratory activity: CONTROL: DRUGS Drugs Aspirin Smoking (smoke particles AND TOXINS IN AIDS Detoxification and trapping. Euglena test) THE UMAN Cigarette smoking immune response BODY Risks from alcohol and ASSESSING RISKS other drugs 72 Case studies Chapter 8: THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY: PROMISE AND CHALLENGE MAIN ENVIRONMENTTAL SCIENTIFIC PRACTICAL WORK CHAPTERS COMPONENTS CONCEPTS A NEW INDUSTRY Industrv as a social Basic needs met by Class activity: presentation FOR RIVERHOOD partner chemistry of chemical processes and Positive and negative industries effects of chemical industry AN OVERVIEW OF Organization of a From raw materials to THE CHEMICAL chemical corporation products INDUSTRY From test tubes to tank cars THE CHEMISTRY Fertilizers Fertilizer's chemical roles Laboratory activity: OF SOME Nitrogen fixation at Nitrogen cvcle Fertilizer (anions and NITROGEN BASED PRODUCTS riverhood Nitrogen fixation cations identification). Electronegativity and Phosphate ion in a oxidation state fertilizer solution. Industrial nitrogen compounds Explosives CHEMICAL Metals in the Electrochemistry Laboratory work: Voltaic ENERGY AND marketplace Oxidation and reduction cells: ELECTRICAL Planning for an industry Charging and discharging Electroplating a car battery Industrial electrochemistrv CHEMICAL The evolution of Future developments INDUSTRY PAST, chemical technology PRESENT AND FUIURE 73 Case svidies Case study 2: An environmentally related integrated science program for junior secondary schools FACETS - FOUNDATIONS AND CHALLENGES TO ENCOURAGE TECHNOLOGY-BASED SCIENCE (National Science Foundation and American Chemical Society) FACETS is an integrated science/technologv/society issue-based curriculum for seventh and eighth grade students, at present still in development and fieid testing stage. The first draft of the seventh grade modules was prepared in summer 1991, followed by draft eighth grade modules during the school year 1991/92. The production of the final texts is planned to be completed by the end of the academic year 1993/94. The main emphasis of the project is on acquiring problem-solving skills that can be used in any situation. The program is designed as a series of dynamic modules which are constantly updated to address new concerns, issues and scientific findings. Students and teachers are expected to use the modules as "jumping off' points for investigating fascinating issues in science, technology and society. There is no formal scope and sequence of science concepts - they are taught in direct relation to the issue under investigation. However, the authors of FACETS assume that by the end of the year, students can acquire sufficient knowledge, science skills, and strategies for solving problems, be able to recognize how scientific knowledge relates to the real world. FACETS consists of 24 modules (12 for each grade), listed in Table 9. Table 9: Ihe structure of FACETS cun-iculum (Field test materials, 1991) Main topic Sub-topics (and major conccpts) for Sub-topics (and major concepts) for areas grade 7 grade 8 On/off the The science of a sunken ship: wlhat What happens when the earth quakes: shorelines happens to things in water what are the causes and effects o earthquakes? Changing shorelines: What happens where land and water meet ? What happens when oil spills: what must be considered when determining the impact of an oil spill from an offshore platform? 74 Case studies Cont. Main topic Sub-topics (and major concepts) for Sub-topics (and major concepts) for areas grade 7 grade 8 In the cities Acid rain: how are the world's cities Investigating transportation: how do affected by the quality of the air (What people and goods get from one place to is clean air like? Where does acid rain another in the world's cities? come from? What are the effects of acid rain on citv life and structures? How Handling information: how is can acid rain be prevented?) information communicated in the world's cities? How well is the structure designed: what impact do buildings have on the quality of life in the buildings ? In the How do structures affect behavior: what Energy for the future: what sources of Suburbs is the impact of a structures habitat on energy are relied upon for suburban humam behavior ? living in the world ? How do we keep our water clean: what Population studies: when the human effects do suburban habitats have on population increases, what happens to lakes and streams ? the suburban environment? In the What's in the food we buy: what Threads: what materials are used to marketplace additive substances are added to substitute for natural fibers ? . "natural" foods to alter them in the marketplace ? Packaging - How does it stack up: what goes into packaging to make it Food substitutes: bow do artificial foods effective? compare with "natural" foods ? In the Disappearing fanrilands: where does Managinig crop pests: how are crop farmlands our food come from? pests controlled to produce the greatest yield, or how are pests controlled in How can we get the most from our land: crops ? what happens when artificial methods are used to increase yield ? Climate and farming: what effects do climatic changes have on crop yield ? In ourselves Examining exercise: how do different Getting older: what effects does aging types of exercise affect our bodies ? have on our bodies ? Communicable diseases: how is disease Under the weather: how can weather spread from one organism to anotlher ? change affect our health ? 75 Case studies Each of the modules contains the student version of the text, a teaching overview, and the background material on the topics to be developed. One of the important parts of the curriculum is a hands-on laboratory practice, which includes collection and analysis of data, students design and performance of experiments, and presentation of results as a part of investigating possible solutions. At the end of each module. students are expected to prepare a product, e.g. a food produced in accordance with given specifications, blueprints for an innovative school, proposed legislation for pollution abatement in cities, a plan for increasing vield from livestock production, or an exercise video. Almost all the modules contain at least some environmental concepts. Subtopics such as Acid rain, How do we keep our water clean, How can we get the most from our land, Energy for the future, and Population studies are entirely based on environmental issues. As an example, the main concepts and activities of the Acid rain teaching unit are summarized below: What is acid rain and how does it affect our environment? To answer this question, students investigate the scientific concepts of: Water cycle Solubility Solutions Acidity pH scale Dilution through the following activities: Table 10: Student activities in the FACETS Acid Rain teaching module (Field test materials, 199 1) Activities Purposcs Writing a short stylized poem, choosing a picture Finding out students ideas about air pollution and to illustrate it acid rain Collecting information from mnass media Establishing/increasing student's awareness on acid Performing an instructioIal game rain Running dehurnidifiers in a classroom for several Illustrating the water cycle: how rain is formed days, discussing where the water comes from, and performing standard evaporation! condensationi/ precipitation demonstration 76 Case studies Cont. Activities Purposes Tasting lemon juice and water solutions Taste as a measure of acidity Color changing liquids: red cabbage, red radish Natural indicators, acidity, food acids peels - tests with water. lemon juice. vinegar, baking soda Testing acid solutions (lemon juice, vinegar. non- Examples of a more precise measurement of food acids) with indicator papers and pH meter acidity; introducing pH scale Testing carbonated beverages: the acid formed by Illustration of acid formation from carbon dioxide carbon dioxide in rain water Collecting uncontaminated rain water, measuring Environmental monitoring: pH of the rain in a pH local area Collecting information on acid rain in different Searching for the relationship between the locations: student collected data, encvclopedias, distribution of acid rain and the location of newspapers, journals pollution sources Experiment with calcium carbonate (limestone or Illustrating the damaging effects of acid rain on marble chips) and acid (vinegar. 0.1 M buildings Hydrochloric acid) Long-run experiment with nmetal pins and nails in Illustrating the promotion of metal corrosion by water and an acid solution acid rain Search for lichens in a local area. development of a Effect of air pollution to lichens. Spread of acid map rain. Effect of traffic. coal burning, etc. 77 Case studies Case study 3: An environmental teaching unit in Chemistry BURNING FUELS: HOW CAN CHEMISTRY HELP US MINIMIZE WASTE MATERIALS AND ENERGY (Unesco, 1989) Burning of fuels is the most widely used process for producing heat and generating energy to support human activities. Its theoretical basis includes scientific concepts related to chemistry, physics and biology. The consequences of burning are reflected in several environmental problems. The unit was prepared by participants of the International Workshop on Energy and Environment as Related to Chemistry Teaching (Unesco, IUPAC/CTC and DOE) at Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California at Berkeley, held in December 1989. Its main structure is summarized below: The relevant chemistry concepts - Burning: an oxidation process - Products of burning and their characteristics - Energy and matter released in burning - Burning and entropy increase - Characteristics of biomass and fossil fuels, advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost, energy content, convenience, waste, environmental impact, alternate uses, etc. - The environmental impact of specific fuel use: local, regional and global effects - Scientifically literate decision making about the use of energy and materials Some chemical solutions - Elimination of nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides from exhaust gases and smoke - Reduction of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide - Use of alternative fuels - More efficient combustion methods - Reduction of per capita energy consumption Further in a teaching guide, prerequisite concepts, co-requisite concepts and pedagogical concerns are discussed. Four model teaching unit plans (for 10 to 12 hours) are suggested: Teaching model A - Selection of a chemical/fuel related problem that is of local importance - Problemn definition (economic, social, political problemns) anid searching for solutions (how can cliemistry contribute) - Laboratorv experiments: a burning process, testing various ftiel sources, efficiency of differenit fuels - quantitative analysis - Material outputs: pollutants from difTerent types of fuel 78 Case szudie. Alternative energy sources Local, national and global connections (data bases, maps. graphs) Pros and cons of various fuels Teaching model B - Demonstration: burning candle Collection of newspaper articles related to energy - Gases produced from burning fuels: laboratory test for sulfur dioxide - Problems associated with burning fuels: acid rai;i, greenihouse effect, global warning (sources of carbon dioxide), - Experiments: energy value of different fuels. complete and incomplete combustion - Field trip to a power plant of factory - Spreading of energy and matter (enthalpy and entropy); Activity: rubber band stretching - Chemistry in fueling automobiles - Implications of new research on the chemnistry of energy and the environtent - Ethical aspects (role playing, discussions) Teaching model C - A problem from a newspaper, TV or film - Class debate: what are the chemical concepts in the idenitified issue - Developing skills and procedures to investigate: what knowledge and experiments might be needed to investigate the question - Research work: theoretical sttudies, laboratory work, preparing a report - Reporting and discussing research results - Searching for otler solutions, e.g. altemative elnergy sources - Evaluation Teaching model D - Need for energy - Importance of burning - Selecting a fuel: scientific criteria, practical reasons, tundesirable consequences - Minimizing negative effects on enviroiunent: renoval of pollutants, more efficient burning, decreased use of fuels, and search for alternative sources Several classroom activities are listed for the illustration of scientific concepts and for the stimulation of the students participation in data acquisition, problem solving and evaluation: Laboratory experiments - Carbon dioxide elimination - Sulfur dioxide elimination - Detection and semi-quantitative determination of pollutants - Removal and masking of pollutants - Burning causes energy to become more diffuse - Incomplete versus complete combustion - Heat of combustion using different fuels - Effects of gaseous pollutants on plants - Determination of sulfur dioxide in the combustion products of fuels - Determination of lead and carbon monoxide in combustion products of fuels - Infrared detection - Spectral absorption of materials - Demonstration of greenhouse effect: carbon dioxide filled model house 79 Case studies Field trips: e.g. biomass production, recycling plant, power plant Library research (data collection) Analyzing and interpreting data Taking actions - Improving personal life at home - Preparing recommendations for the government - Establishing recxcuing. improving insulation of buildings - Organizing environmental awareness actions. The teaching guide concludes with an overview on social and technological issues, illustrations of productive and unproductive energy from fuels and with a list of connections to other areas of chemistry, technology, physics, biology, agriculture, social sciences, ethics/religion, health and medicine. 8o Case studiet Case study 4: A cross-disciplinary environmental education teaching unit SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (Unesco-UNEP program - Hungerford, Volk and Ramsey, 1989) This teaching unit was prepared for use in a secondary school environmental science program, and is typically organized around four instructional levels recommended by the authors: (1) science foundations, (2) issue awareness, (3) issue investigation, and (4) citizenship action. Its characteristic is a strong interconnection of natural and social sciences. The program does not include any laboratory or field science experiments. Instead, aims at active participation of students in citizenship actions. Level 1 (science foundation) 1. Problems and issues concerming the production and disposal of solid waste in high and low income countries- Activity: an example of different customs and attitudes about solid waste: supper in different countries around the world - typical meal, packaging, household waste. 2. Interesting facts about solid waste (production per capita, figures about junked cars, cans, bottles, plastic, paper. data on recycling; present situation and future of landfills). 3. Definition of solid waste (municipal. agricultural, industrial, mining). 4. Hazardous households wastes (ignitable. corrosive, reactive or toxic). Activity: Reviewing the list of hazardous household products and recognizing them at home. 5. Solid waste generation: comparison of refuse generation data from different parts of the world. Activity: calculating average amount of refuse for high-income and low-income cities. 6. Why so much garbage in our country (USA)? Analyzing different sources and products. Activity: examining and discussing packaging of different food products (what are the functions of different packaging, what is essential for the quality. what is wasteful; what is recyclable, renewable, what is biodegradable). 7. What happens to solid waste? a) Littering and open dams. b) Sanitary landfills. Activity: What happens to our garbage? Tracing the garbage from home to the final disposal. Possibilities for data collection: (I) field trip to waste collection service and local landfill, (2) guest speaker from local solid waste disposal). 81 Case sidies c) Solid waste incineration. d) Resource recovery; recycling (environmental benefits of using recycled resources, recovery rates for different materials around the world). Activity: Classification of solid waste items (organic. renewable/recyclable, nonrenewable/ recyclable, nonrenewable/hard to recycle) and discussing the appropriate disposal forms for them (reuse, recvcle, recover energy. landfill). Level II (issue awareness) I. An example of solid waste management issues ( a story) 2. Beliefs and values. Defining terms: problem, issue, player, position. Description of values (aesthetic, cultural. ecological, economic, educational, egocentric, ethical/moral, health, legal, political, recreational, religious, scientific. social). Activity: identifying the values in the examples of different statements. 3. Identifying solid waste management problems and issues in secondary source literature. Activities: (a) reading of selected articles. identifying problems and issues, beliefs and values (b) writing bibliographic citations. 4. Developing an issue web on solid waste management issues. Level m (issue investigation) I. An overview of the issue investigatioln process (review the status of a solid waste issue, generate research questions, develop a data collection strategy, collect data, interpret data). 2. Identification of issues investigation topic (identify categories and variables appropriate for issue investigation). 3, Guidelines for research questions (examples of questions. design of questionnaires. letters, etc.) 4. Data collection: organizations associated witl the problems and issues of solid waste management. 5. Data interpretation: conclusions and recommendations. Level IV: Citizenship action 1. Modes of action: analyzing the available strategies (persuasion, activism, consumerism, political action, ecomanagament). 2. Selecting and evaluating actions: preparing an action analysis criteria worksheet. 3. Preparing the solution analysis worksheet: identifying consequences of the proposed solution, benefits and losses. 4. Preparing the action plan, final evaluation. 5. Implementation of the action plan.' implementation of environmentai actions is a constructive step in developing students skills for the active participation in solving environmental problems. However. this approach may also have a negative side effecL Secondary students mighL feel that the very basic knowledge they have on environmental issues is sufficient and entities them to take any environmental action. Because of the lack of profound scientific knowledge and insufficient acquaintance with the complexity of environmental issues. many "amateur" environmental actions have failed or even had more negative than positive eff6cts on people and on the environment itself 82 Case sruices Case study 5: A science/environment teaching unit based on observation, experiments and construction activities THE SOLAR ENERGY (Deleage and Souchon, 1986. adapted from work bv a group of teachers at the Active Methods Training Center, College J. Valeri. Nice) In contrast to the previous case study, the subjects in solar energy teaching unit remain within natural science and technologv. Students' interests and activities are mainly focused around one scientific phenomenon: the transformation of solar radiation into heat. Studv of this theme, together with efforts to reduce energy losses and construct efficient devices for practical use, grows into different fields of science and technology (astronomy, physics, chemistry, engineering, architecture). The program is action oriented and aims primarily at energy conservation and transition to renewable energy sources. Study of the sun - Solar phenomena: sun spots, granulation, limb darkening - Solar radiation: solar spectrum. solar constant - Motion of the sun and planets Study the above phenomena and use (or construct) simple instruments: gnomon, sundial, heliometer. heliostat, theodolite. sun compass. helioscope. etc. Solar energy Collecting the solar energ (solar collectors): study (and try to explain) the following phenomena: - Influence of color - The greenhouse effect (single, double, triple glazing; comparison of glazing materials; distance between two glazing layers: distance between glass and absorber) - The concentration effect (position-seeking mirrors: semi-cylinder, cone. paraboloid, sphere; position of absorber witlh respect to reflector) - Importance of insulation: test of various materials - Comparative study of the thermal properties of materials - Importance of the direction of the collector - Importance of evaporation in a heat exchanger and in a swimming pool - Photo-voltaic cells Heat exchange and storage - By contact - By circulation of a liquid or gas Problem of sitting houses: roofs are designed to avoid the sun reaching the south-facing wall in the Southern hemisphere. 83 Cnse slddieC Study and design - A model house operating on solar energy - Reduce the heating of air in tents Design, construct and use the practical devices based on solar energy - Experimental solar collector - Hot-air collector for use in a classroom - Solar lighter - Solar grill - Solar shower - Solar energy hot-air balloon Search for solutions to environmental problems - Try to reduce the excessive heating of buildings due to sun radiation - Search for different possibilities of replacing traditional sources of energy with solar energy 84 Casc7.5efdiCs Case study 6: EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXPERIMENTS AND OTHER ACTIVITIES Environmental activities in the local environments Atrea Lahirv, Gill, et al. (1985), have prepared a unit based on experiments and activities to facilitate the teaching of environmental themes in primary schools. It is designed primarily to use available opportunities around the school, thereby linking fundamental science and environmental knowledge to the daily life experiences of the students. Most of the listed practical activities can easily be adapted for secondary school environmental programs, for example*: Table I 1: Examples of simple envirornental experiments and activities usino available resources around the school as a part of science teaching LAgend: AGRI = agriculture, ARTS = art subjects. BIOL = biology. CHEM = chcmisiry. HEALTH = health education, HOEC = home economics. NASC = naturat science. PHYS = physics. SOSC = social science Local Examples of simple environmental activities Link to resource subjects AN1MALS: Observe the local animal life. Note the type of food animals eat. Lookt for BIOL domesticated, possible food chains (who eats wvhom). wildlife Talk to fanners about the care and feeding of animals. Discuss possible fodder BIOL, and animal waste problems. AGRI PLANTS Air pollution: Collect plant leaves from different areas. Cut identical surface area BIOL, from each sample and wash it with distilled water. Evaporate the water, analyze CHEM and compare the residues NATURAL Life on a tree. Observe closely the organisms living on a big tree (on the trunk-, BIOL, ENVIRON- tunder the bark, on the branches, among the leaves, etc.) What are these CHEM, MENTS organisms? What are thleir interactions'? Which biological, chemical anid physical PHYS process are important for what you see. GARDEN Try to make your own coiipost (study how to make it, what are the biological and BIOL, at school or at chemical processes). Use it as a natural fertilizer in the garden. CHEM, home AGRI, HOEC Modifications and suggestions have been made by the author of this report. 85 Case s.zudies Legend: AGRI = agriculture, ARTS = art subjects. BIOL = biology. CHEM = chemistr,v HEALTH = health education, HOEC = home economics, NASC = natural science, PHYS = physics, SOSC = social science Cont Local Examples of simple environmental activities Link to resource subjects BUILDINGS Examine the types of buildings in the locality. Identify the materials used for CHEM, construction and thiink- about their source, use, purpose, and enviromnental PHYS impacts. Study the systems of water supply and drainage. HEALTH Think about the insulation, heating and cooling svstems, and possible energy PHYS, conservation. CHEM SHOPS Observe how products are packaged and how they are delivered to the customer CHEM to take away. What is the purpose of different packaging materials anid forms? What is essential and what could be omitted? What could be improved'? Which materials for packaging are renewable anid which are not? Wlhich are biodegradable? What happens to them at home? What happens to them when they are discharged? FOOD PLACES Observe the way the food items are prepared, stored anid served, and commnent on HEALTH the environrnental sanitation. Analvze different types of serving: paper plates, plastic, glass, porcelain, metal, CHEM, plastic or paper bag, paper napkin, plant leave, etc., from the viewpoint of HEALTH, hygiene, sanitation, aesthetics, raw materials, energy consumed, waste treatment. PHYS, ARTS HOME Observe the characteristics of a famnily: fanily size, eanitng, living, space, SOSC, (your own home, percentage of income spend on food and fuel; food habits, water supply, garbage NASC., neighbors) disposal procedure, etc., and comment the above infonnation from the HEALTH environmental viewpoint; suggest possible improvements. Study different fuel types and their usage in your home and neighborhood. Look CHEM at quality and prices, quantities used, enviroiunental impacts and propose PHYS improvements. Try to find the common hazardous household products in your home. Study their CHE, chemical composition (from the labels), relate it to their purpose, and think of HOEC their effect on the enviromnent (I) during their production, (2) during their use, (3) when discharged. Ex;amine the food habits of yourself and your family. What are the main reasons CHEM, for food wastage? Think} of the chemical composition of food. Try to calculate the BIOL, caloric value and how mucl carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and salt you HEALTH, approximately consunme per week. Study the food requirements. Think about the HOEC possible improvement of your diet and try to change it, if it is not adequate. 86 Case studies Measuring and analyzing (practical work in ecology) The following short overview of simple eco]ogy field study techniques offers suggestions for measuring abiotic factors on land and in water, and for collecting and sampling animals and plants in ecosystem studies. The necessary equipment or analytical method is listed for each parameter. Examples of relating environmental concepts are suggested. which may be explained or illustrated bv practical field work (Table 12). Table 12: Examples of simple ecology field studv teclniques (main soturce: Slingsby and Cook, 1986) ABIOTIC EQUIIPlsENT or RELATING ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPTS PARAMETERS ANALYIICAL METHOD ON LAND Light intensity Light meter Liglit intensity is one of the abiotic factors determining the dominating planit species and variations in ground flora Light Specimen tube, rubber bung, Light intensity at which rate of carbon dioxide from compensation bicarbonate indicator respiration equals consiunption of carbon dioxide in point photosynthlesis Wind speed Anemometer or winid meter Desiccating effect, xeromorphic adaptations of plants. Erosion. Wind carrying sand anud salt. Mechanical damaces, effect of plant shape anid species variety. Humidity Hygrometer or atmometer Humidity and evaporation rate. Xeromorphism. Air temperature Thermometer Air temperature aftects transpiration and cell metabolism. When cytoplasm freezes, the cell is damaged. Temperature affects the length of growing season. Soil temperature Soil thermometer Soil temperature flucttates less than air temperature. Soil temperatire is related to soil type anid water content. Sun exposed slopes are wanner. Soil moisture Laboratory (or domestic) oven, Rainfalls, drainage, soil water holding capacity. Plant laboratory balance adaptations. Soil organic matter Muffle furnace or Bunseii or Humus - a reservoir of plant nutrients. Layered structure camping burner, or a stove of soil. Soil horizons. Slope Maioinetric level or ranging Drainage, washing out of plant nutrients. Soil erosion. pole Difficult seedling establishmnent. Soil pH pH indicator or pH meter Acid, neutral and alkaline soils. Solubility of minerals. Plant adaptations. 87 Cnse szLwies Cont. ABIOTIC EQUIPMENT or RELATING ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPTS PARAMETERS ANALYTICAL METHOD IN WATER Dissolved oxygen Oxygen electrode or Win;kler Aeration. Solubility and saturation. Oxygen level as an titration indicator of water quality. Biological oxygen demand. Indicator aniunals. Water pH pH indicator or pH meter Effect of geological structure and carbon dioxide level. pH range specific water organisms. Water temperature Tlermometer Oxygen solubility. Thennal stratification. Seasoinal changes. Specific organisms. Turbidity, total and Long glass tube (1I m ) or a Organic pollttion - reduced light penetration - reduced suspended solids Secchi disc; primary production (plant photosynithesis) - reduced Filter funnel, balance; oxygen level - effects on animals. Water bath, oven Electrical Conductivity meter (in addition, loiiisable substances in water (phosphates, nitrates, conductivity special indicators or standard nitrites) - natural or as a result of pollution (fertilizers, analytical procedures may be waste waters, saliinization). Eutrophication. Algal blooms. used for the detennination of ions) Flow rate Comunercial flow meters, or a Aeration. Adaptations of organisms to high flow rate. Rubberbag mater, or a Pooh Erosion and siltation. stick-, measuring tape and a stopwatch 88 Case snu4ies Cont. ORGANISMS SAMPLING METHOD 3RELATING ENVIRONTItNTAL CONCEPTS Plants and sedentary Quadrat framnes (wire quadrats, wooden Species frequency animals quadrats) Species density Earthworms Repulsion method utilizing quadrat frames Species cover and 30 percent methanlol Species diversitv Soil arthropods A sieve, lamnp, funnel, collecting vessel Estimation of population size with 30% methaniol Heterogeneity (zonation, gradients, mosaics) Studying ecological relatioiiships Soil nematodes A gauze bag, futmnel, collectinio vessel Estimation of pollution Litter invertebrates Quadrat, sieve, (indicator species of clean alnd Pitfall traps: container witth a roof (can, polluted envirolunents). jar) Airbome invertebrates Nets Sticky traps Water traps Light traps Small mammals A Longworth manmal trap, a trip-trap Aquatic animals Plank-ton nets Nekton nets Sediment animals Framned net and a quadrat For chemistry-related experiments in environmental education see the sections on experimental work in Case Studies I (ChemCom), 2 (FACETS) and 3 (Buming fuels). 89 Case sudies Case study 7: ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH PROJECTS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS Examples from Slovenia Slovenia has a long tradition of intemational or national surmmer science schools and research/education camps for teachers or student/teacher groups, as well for youth research projects supervised by teachers. For example, the following secondarv school vouth research projects with environmnental approach were presented at the 26th Meeting of young researchers and innovators of Slovenia in June 1992 (Boh and Komhauser. 1992): WORKING GROUPS: Biology Investigation of the state of environment in the area of the river Koritnica Toxicology test on fish Protection of the river Krka with special emphasis on the investigation of Brsljanski potok Presence of radioactive elements in lichen Toxicity tests on fresh waler algae Ankistrodesmus falcatus Air pollution in Ptuj Creek pollution in Bresterniska grapa Ecological problems of Slovene thermal power stations and possible solutions Toxicity tests on algae ScenedesmtLs quadricauda Ecology Impacts of polluted environment on human life and health Introduction of ion exchangers in water analysis Extraction of zinc and sludge recycling Ecologically acceptable products frDm Maribor industrial companies Physics Measures against traffic noise Geography Application of synthetic fertilizers and additives from a geographical point of view to environmental protection Impacts of polluted environment Waste dumps 90 Casc studics Chemistry Toxicological study of food additives Water quality at Nevljica Zinc removal from water solution Study of industrial waste waters from plating processes: waste waters investigation for nickel and chromium Comparison of air pollution standards Pollutants in school laboratory - qualitative and quantitative determination, possibilities of their recovery Lead content in human and animal skin Air cleaning using biofilters Measurements of radioactive emissions in the vicinitv of radioactive waste disposal site in Zavratec Phenol determination in waste waters Efficiency of oily waste water treatment using ultrafiltration Efficiency of waste water treatment plants for sustaining river quality Replacement of drinking water in industrial applications with treated river water Determination of physical and chemical conditions for treatment of Revoz waste water Experiments to select a treatment type of urban polluted water Mechanical engineering Ecologically acceptable pre-transport of ashes (or powder materials) An example from Sweden In 1980's selected secondary schools participated in an experimental environmental education program for the natural science. For three years, students spend 8 to 9 periods per week on project- oriented environmental protection program. This methodology was adapted from similar projects in chemistry. The main project themes are given below (Egneus and Tullberg, 1985): Water projects Land projects - Investigation of lakes - Acidification - Investigation of fjords - Agriculture and enviroiuneiit - Water supply - Energy forests - Mussel production - Alternative plant production - Local hardwood forests - The dying forest - Photo exlhibition on environmental protection 91 Case studies Examples of interdisciplinary environmental projects from Norway (Kvam. 1985) Model 1: Pollution Srudents, in cooperation-with science teacher, suggested the project themes and methodology. No special content lirmits were given within the available time frame of two months with five hours per week. At the end students submitted the final report. Topic 1: Air pollution 1- Information studies: textbooks, newspapers, magazines. radio, TV. 2. Experiments: Demonstration experiments at the university: - Burning of oil results in acid rain Student practice: - Burning of sulfur gives sulfur dioxide, gas and acid water - The consequences of acid water (containing sulfuric acid) on minerals, limestone, metals; bacteria and animals living in the earth; growth of plaints, crustacean, mussels and other fish foods, fish larvae, young and adult fish. 3. Field work and report studies: - Analysis of snow from different parts - A study of liclhens 4. Excursions: measuring station of air pollution; institute for air research; local electric power station. 5. Interviews: parents, old people, people in the street, specialists at electric power station, county environmental office, local labor commission, nature preservation association. 6. Preparation and presentation of reports: individual and in groups. illustrations, posters, newspaper articles, lectures for other classes. Topic 2: The sea as an ecological svstem Sub-tlhemes: - The sea as an ecological system - Resources, plants and animals - Resources, oil and gas - Aquacultures - Threats to marine life Activities: 1. Literature studies: books, reports. magazines, newspapers 2. Field work: study of the sea ecosystem and aquacultural constructions 3. Lectures: oil extraction, aquacultures 4. Exhibitions: oil extraction in Norway 5. Interviews: researchers. fishiermen, industrial specialists. oil companies, nature preservationists. 92 Case sudics Model 2: Human sexuality and propagation The contents and the methodological approaches were suggested, designed and taught by teachers of different subjects. In the individual subject sessions a teacher and students were entirely free to choose what they would work with. Interest and personal engagement seemed to be important for a good teaching-learning situation. Biology: sexual organs, hormones, contraception, intercourse. masturbation, abortion, venereal diseases, sexual deviation. Gymnastics: physical development and sexual hormones, menstruation cycle and physical education, sexual hormones as doping drugs. Mathematics: statistics. data as a source of informationi: analysis of sexual debut age. divorce frequency and venereal diseases. Mother tongue (Norwegian): concepts such as: love. infatuation, sexual press, sexual role; fiction as a source of knowledge about problems connected with living together: analysis of how the different literary forms present these problems: discussion and possibly written work. Civics: the world population problems and family planning: attitudes towards the use of contraceptives in different cultural and social systems. and practical problems in this respect. 93 Case sluiies Examples of other action-oriented environmental education programs and activities Table 13: Examples of actioi-oriented environmental educationi programs and activities from different countries Program/Project Characteristics Location Reference The Cooking Food Energy Cycle How to reduce the amount of energy for Gumbon- Knamiller, (rural secondary school) cooking (improving the efficiency of zvanda. 1987 commonly used three-stone stove Zimbabwe "maphifwa". selecting better firewood types) KENGO - Kenya Energy and Introduction of tree nurseries to several Kenya Munene, Environment Organizations local schools. Improvement of traditional 1992 (community development and stoves to cut the fuelwood budget by up to environmental conservation 50 % program in cooperation with schools and polytechnics) Welo's environmental education Secondary school students spend 2 - 6 Ethiopia Fitzgerald, program hours per week on practical work: 1990 (a soil conservation and construction of terraces, check-dams, tree community forestry progran, planting, establishment of vegetable including teacher training and gardens, irrigation techniques. agro- practical work for students) forestry. The Science in Ghanaian Industry-ofiented interdisciplinary Ghana Yakubu, Society project science teaching based on concepts and 1989 (trial testing in secondary processes identified in indigenous schools) industries (booklets written by local industries. students workbooks, teacher's guide) Energy and the Environment Issue-oriented research projects: Ghana Yakubu, Research (tertiary level) Improvement of charcoal production 1989 method and efficiency of the charcoal stove. Rural energy utilization, Model biogas village project, Solar village project. Energy use in agriculture. 94 Case studies Cont. Program/Project Characteristics Location Reference ESNACIFOR - Honduras Environmental education programs on Honduras Gall, 1990 National School of Forestry planting and conserving trees for Science students, children, farmers and forest dwellers Secondary school ecology Project work, e.g. ecology of a local river; Bulgaria Kostova. studies and projects (ecology animal and plant life in the city park: 1989 clubs) pollution measurements in the cities: effects of heavy metals on red blood cells. WAP - the Water Analysis Analysis of surface and ground waters: Mantova. Sutti, 1991 Project within the framework of normal Italy (cooperation of five secondarv instruction. students conduct the schools: 2 technical. I art. I complete water analysis from different pedagogical, I vocational) sites and submit the reports to local authorities The Acid Rain Project The project (1988) covered the whole Italy Bargellini, (students and teachers of middle national territory - schools were involved 1989 and high schools) in collecting data from 900 sampling points. A special kit was developed and distributed for this purpose. Results were summarized in a map of acid rain spread in Italy. Laboratory Waste Treatment Waste waters from the laboratories in the Japan Tamaura (university level) universities are treated at treatment and Abe, facilities of university campuses as a part 1989 of regular environmental training and pollution prevention programs. Education for Recycling Energy A waste management information system Slovenia Korn- from Waste (generation. characteristics, proce'sing hauser et (university level) and disposal of waste) was built by al., 1989 combininig research, educational and industrial infonnation. It provides support to research and development projects, governmental decision making and teaching 95 Case studies Cont. Program/Project Characteristics Location Reference Energy and the Environment in Impact of chemistry on daily life. Energy Antigua Hill, 1989 Chemistry Teaching issues: fossil fuels. alternative energy (Carbbean (secondary school syllabus sources. firewood and charcoal, oil spills, islands) introduced in 1985) greenhouse effect Elements of Chemistry: Earth, Chemistry as a multi-dimensional subject Australia Bucat, Air, Fire and Water with social, economic, human, 1989 (final two years of secondary environmental, technological and school) industrial dimensions, relating to every day experiences. Environmental Chemical Environmental chemical knowledge of Australia Beasley, Education (high school syllabus) public worth: (I) Materials, (2) 1989 Chemistry in everyday life, (3) Consumer and industrial chemistry, (4) Energy and matter. incl. food chemistrv. Chemistry, Technology and Energy and the environment in Brazil - University of Isuyania, Society (an undergraduate subject modules: statistical data, Sao Paulo, 1989 course) processes, raw materials, waste treatment Brazil Environmental management Project-oriented environmental education Sweden Mellgren, (an optional high school subject) based on field work (e.g. studies of local 1988 ecosystems, natural parks. industrial pollution. soil contamination, acid rain) Environmental education for Environmental education project work on Portugal Nogueria, development the river Tagus - with several 1988 (secondary schools) participating schools along the river Reflections on a Breakthrough Phosphate-containing detergents: Norway Folkedhal, (secondary school students) conducting market research study, 1991 providing information on phosphate negative environmental effects, changing buying habits of local population 96 Case sitties Cont. Program/Project Characteristics Location Reference Prima.ry School Environmental Influencing the local population: Austria Haas, 1991 Initiative introduction of environmentally-sound shopping bags; effecting direct changes in the environment: laying out a biotope in a private garden: informing the local population: leaflets and newsletters Waste Project Emancipation throtigh environmiental Oberwart Schweitzer projects District. , 1991 Austria History and Environment Teaching environiental protection Hungary Horvath, througlh historv 1987 Interdisciplinary teaching of Consumer studies. energy issues, Denmark Norskov mathematics. physics, chemistry. chemistry in the service of mankind, and and social science alcohol and narcotics, Overgard, (9th grade students) 1985 97 Case swdies Case study 8: A comprehensive environmental teaching manual for secondary school teachers SOURCEBOOK IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS Sharma and Tan (Eds.). 1990 The Sourcebook on Environmental Education is the result of a regional training course which was organized by Unseco at the University of Philippines in 1989. Its main target groups are pre- service and in-service secondary school science teachers, but it is an equally valuable source of environmental knowledge (Part I) and pedagogical aspects (Part II) for all other teachers and trainers, curriculum developers and education policy makers. The sourcebook is a good example of a joint work. Different chapters were prepared by recognized Asian specialists from different environmental or educational fields. The structure of a sourcebook is given in table 14. Table 14: Structure of an environunenital teaching mantual for secondary school teachers, prepared by recognized Asiani specialists from different enviromnentally related disciplines (Shanna and Tan, Eds., 1990) Chapters: Contents: PART I: THE KNOWLEDGE BASE The concept of environmental education: Definition Philosophy and aims 1 Environmental crises as products of the adoption of western systems: RB. Aspiras - Hazardous products and technologies - The green revolution - Destructive fishing techniques - Destruction of mangrove forests - Energy mega projects Towards establishment of the curricultum Structure and function of the ecosvstem 2 What is ecology RA.Tabbada The ecosystem Ecosvstem components: biotic and abiotic factors Ecosystem structure Ecosystem function 98 Case snidies ('mt. Chapters: Contents: Energy flow in the atmosphere 3 Composition of the atmosphere J. de las Alas Nature of solar radiation Effect of land and sea Heat budget of the Eartlh Atmospheric energy and heat transport Energy flow and nutrients cycle in biosphere The nature of energy Energy flows: - Solar energy balance of the biosphere - Laws governing energy transformations 4 - Energy transformations in prinmary production RA. Tabbada - Energy transformations in secondarv production - Typical pattern of energy flow in the biosphere Nutrient cycles: - Biogeochemical cycles - The stability and rates of biogeochemical cycles - The carbon cycle - The nitrogen cycle - The phosphorus cycle - The sulfur cycle Population dvnamics in an ecosystem Conditions for growth of populations in an undisturbed ecosystem 5. Interdependence among populations RC. Shanma Human population as a part of the natural ecosystem Growth of humani population Projections of population change Implications of population increase on the environment The future of human population Impact of human activities on the environment: global issues 6 Ozone layer depletion K. Onogawa Climate change Acid rain Transboundary movement of hazardous wastes Deforestation 99 Cave studies Cont. Chapters: Contents: Pollution - its effects on man and the ecosvstem 7 Water pollution K. Onogawa Air pollution Agricultural chemicals: fertilizers and pesticides Disposal of chemicals Marine pollution Activities of UTNEP Pollution control mechanisms 8 Degradation of the forest ecosystems: its socio-cultural and economic S.R Saplaco implications Social implications Cultural implications Economic implications 9 Ecological impacts on aquatic ecosystems A.A. Andaya Multiple use of water resources Environimenital impacts of water resource use Dam constrictioni - possible impacts 10 The effects of encrgy and mineral extraction T.M. Santos The role of energy and minerals in economic and social development Effects of mining on the physical environment Analytical methods: - Cost-benefit analysis. - Tecliniques for measuring benefits and costs - Economic approach to environmental regulation - Examples of the market method of regulation Environmental management in the context of sustainable development Environment and sustainable development Defining sustainable development 11 Strategies for sustainable development: B.P. Balagot - Economic and environmental considerations in decision making - proper resource pricing - Property righits refoml - Development of integrated protected areas - Residuals management (pollution control) - EnvironmentaL]education - Strengthening of citizens' participation 100 Casc siudies Cont. Chapters: Contents: 12 Environmental management and impact assessment B.P. Balagot Purpose and Scope of environmental impact assessment Enmironmental impact assessment methodologies PART II: THE PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS 13 Developments in environmental education R-C. Sharma Environmental problems International actions Developments in international education Framework for environmental education 14 Scope, strategy, philosophy. goals. objectives L.P. Cortes Contents: energy, pollutioii, population, basic needs, health and environment. natural resources Corrective measures 15 Planning and developing curricula on environmental education M. C. Tan Concept mapping as a curriculum development strategy Concept grouping Practicum: Concept mapping and textbook analysis 16 M.C. Tan The role of values education in environmental education 17 Values clarification in environmental education L.M. Rabago Values integration Values clarification Ethics and social responsibilitv towards the environmcnt: guidelines for 18 science teachers S.D. Talisayon Initial notes for the science teacher Bioethics Socially desirable environmental values Practicum 19 Communitv-based environmental education V.M. Talisayon A model of the approach Implementation problems and possible solutions 101 Case studies Cont. Chapters: Contents: Inquiry and problem solving 20 Using the newspaper as a starting point for a science lesson L.R. Corale Watching a film in the context of inquiry Continuing the search Problem solving in real life situations: analysis of a case study 21 Games and simulation in cnvironmental education M.C. Tan Differentiating games from simulation Assessing activities Guidelines for conducting simulations in classroom How to start designing original simulation 22 Lesson planning and development of teaching aids A.L. Bago Background materials on a renewable source of energy - biofuel Sample lesson - the greenhouse effect Supervision and monitoring of environmental cducation classes 23 Instrumentation M. Ibe Sample scale items Practice/behavior rating scale Sample test items Research in environmental education: its implications for classroom teaching and teacher training 24 Why do research on environmental education M.C. Tan Areas of research in environmiental education Method of data collection What research can be done by teachers What are the implications of this research for classroom teaching and teacher training Appendix I Exemplar lesson plans: Alcohol and alcoholism (role play) Air pollution from buming of fuel Conservation of natural resources Overpopulation 102 Case srudies V.- ! -p.Endix 2 Sample instrumcnts for assessing student's achievements Multiple choice Essay test Attitude test Appendix 3 Sample instruments for evaluating training programs Evaluating training outcomes Evaluating training program Evaluating peer teaching demonstration Appendix 4 Worksheets for organizing field investigations Ecosystem structure and function: - Quadrat record sheet: floristic method and physiognomic method Energy flow and nutrient cycles in the biosphere: - Standing crop table - Table of net primary production Environmental impact assessment Water ecosystem Energy and mineral resources degradation Communitv based environiental education: - Sample 1: Minimizing noise pollution - Sample 2: Save electricity - Sample 3: Green is clean and beautiful - Sample 4: Populationi growth - Sample 5: Natural resources - Sample 6: Water pollution 103 Ca.vc s.vdies Case study 9: An interdisciplinary environmental education unit for secondary science teachers ENERGY: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY THEME (Dealege and Souchon, 1986) The interdisciplinary unit on energy was designed primarily for training of secondarv school science teachers, and therefore provides (1) the basic scientific knowledge necessary for understanding issues on energy and environrment; (2) possible methodological approaches and activities; (3) a detailed eight-unit teaching module, comprising teacher's presentation texts, list of instructional materials needed for each unit, instructions for student activities, experiments and projects, and suggestions for possible infusion of specific energy topics into different school subjects. BASIC CONCEPTS Energy in the universe and in human societv Energy in the cosmos Energy in the biosphere: Ecosystems Flow of energy and energy clains Energy efficiency in ecosystems Evolution of societies and energy use Links between energy and types of civilization Energy sources and resources The concepts of energy sources and resources Various types of energy sources and resources Renewable: the sun. hydraulic. wind., wave, tidal , bioinass, geothermal energy Non-renewable: coal. oil, gas, nuclear fuel Use and management of energy resources - case studies in eco-energy analysis Crops Farming Agricultural systenis in various countries Cities and ecosystems (example of energy flow in Paris) Production methods Energy and development Energy production and consumption per capita Energy use in agriculture and industry Energy and environment Environmental effects of humani activities involving use of energy 104 Case siudics THE EDUCATIONAL METHODS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS Educational approaches (guided environmental interpretation, discussion groups, value analysis, games and simulations, experimental workshops, action-directed solution of problems, the educational follow up) Various types of activities: applications to the energy theme Analvsis of literature (e.g. econornic statistics, texts) Analysis of concrete environmental situations (e.g. share of individuals in energ) consumption; analysis of energy consumption related to housing in different climatic conditions; drawing-up energy balances by eco-energy analysis) Manual activities and experiments (e.g. construction of a flat-plane solar collector for heating water; the scientific principles involved: the greenhouse effect, the heat-absorbing properties of a given surface, the transport of heat by air or water, storage of heat using various materials) Search for solutions to environmental problems (e.g. energy savings, recycling operations. alternative sources of energy) ENERGY TEACHING MODULE The module consists of 8 sections: Energy-definitions and forms Unites of energy and power: the concept of efficiency The history of the use of energy Energy chains and the transport of energy Energy sources and resources The production of energy The consumption of energy (home, industry. agriculture, construction, transportation) Energy economics and energy savings For each section the following is provided: Well structured presentation text for a teacher with outlined basic scientific concepts School subjects for possible infusion of this theme List of materials needed for teaching Instructions for preparing worksheets Examples of possible exercises and projects for students APPENDICES Additional basic concepts (energy definitions and characteristics, principles of thermodynamics, mass and energy) Statistical and other data on energy Glossary of terms 105 Case siudies Case study 10: EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL KITS AND PACKS The Mobil Greensight Pack (Living Earth, 1992) The pack is a new type of environmental education resource, providing practical guidance to enable a team of students to produce a qualitY video or other audiovisual documentary about a local industry's impact on the environment. The basic instructional materials are further illustrated with five case studies. Its possible applications and uses include environmental components of science, geography, media studies, foundation studies and cross-curricular themes. The pack is a team product of Living Earth environmental educationalists and The Green Alliance environmental policy specialists. and sponsored by Mobil. It contains one hour video, a manual with skills cards and activity sheets, expert research briefs on environmental issues and a planner wall chart. Rainforests Resource Pack (Living Earth, 1992) The pack was prepared by teachers, environrmentalists and designers, and is planned for active learning and resource-based learning in both prinary and secondary schools. Each pack consists of f four large color broadsheets: (1) The living forest. (2) The Human Forest. (3) The Falling Forest), (4) The Future Forest. (The sheets. which are an easy-to follow visual trail through the issues surrounding the survival of rainforests, won graphic design awards in UIK and USA); - four detailed sets of leacher's notes (background information data, examples, case studies); - two sets of briefing documents on teaching styles and approaches to environmental education; - a set of action cards for pupils. with guidelines to set up a local rainforests support group, - two copies of a handbook on tropical rainforests, - a comprehensive reading and resource list. Math and the Tropical Rainforests (Collins, 1992) The resource pack put mathematics into a context of tropical forests. Students can explore the issues of rainforests through a wide variety of mathematical problems, investigations and data-handling exercises. Teacher's notes are included as well. Topics include: Set 1: Area measurements Set 2: Surveys Mathematical modeling Spreadsheet exercises Graph techniques Percentages Probability Interpreting graphs Four rules of fractions Estimation methods. 106 Case siudies Environment and development kit ( Visuel Inforrn A.S., Norwav. 1992) The kit is designed for secondary school, college and adult environmental education and covers the topics of oceans, desertification, soil erosion, rainforests, greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion, the debt problem and arms race. It contains 38 color overhead transparencies with side panels providing additional information, and a resource guide with lesson plans for each of the above topics (Connect, 1992). 107 Environmenzal educainon and the World Bank ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND THE WORLD BANK The Bank and the environment Two decades ago. the main environmental concerns were traditional scientific ecology and pollution control in industrial countries. Since then, the meaning of the terrm environment has extended to diverse issues such as global pollution, soil fertility deterioration, tropical deforestation, biodiversitv and protection of wildlife, protection of tribal peoples and cultural heritage, natural resources management, introduction of clean technologies and environmentallv sound agricultural practices. These concerns becamne evident in the policies and lending operations of the World Bank. The World Bank recruited its first environmental consultant in 1969. Shortly after, the Office of Enviromnental Affairs was established. This has had some impact on Bank projects, but the importance and complexity of environmental issues were not fully realized until the 1980s after a public debate about the environmental impact of Bank loans to finance some large projects in developing countries (Botswana Livestock project, Polonoroeste project in Brazil, and the Indonesia Transmigration project). The adjustment of Bank's policies in 1987 to address environmental management issues was partly a result of public criticism, and partly a consequence of a growing evidence of the close connection of economic development and environrental protection. The concept of "depreciation of natural capital", which puts a price on environmental degradation, was then introduced into the Bank policy and evaluation of projects (Thulstrup, 1989; Warfond and Partow, 1989). Since then, the Bank environmental policy has been implemented through a series of activities, such as: (I) environmental studies for borrower countries, identifying key environmental problems and their causes, (2) environmental overall country action plans undertaken by govemrnments with local, national and international participation, (3) in-depth environmental studies of selected environmental problems in a country, e.g. deforestation in Brazil, and (4) regional environmental studies, such as the Environmental Program for the Mediterranean, Capital Cities Clean-up Project for the Asian Region, and a study of the role of geographic information in renewable resource management in Sub-Saharan Africa (Warfond and Partow, 1989). An analysis of the World Bank loans in the fiscal year 1989 (Figure 4) shows a strong concem for environmental protection in agriculture and rural development projects, followed by energy, transportation, water and sewerage, industry and urbanization. Educational programs seem to pay relativelv little attention to environmental issues. 108 Envirnmnrniai edulcation and the WarId Bank- F y r1 44 F ? ironmenlai elements in the World Bank loans. by .sector - an example for the fiscal year 1989 (Environment DepartrnenL World bank, data in Warfond and PartoA. 1989) Agriculture & rural developmenlt .- Energy - - Water supply and sewerage _ Transportation i, - J s indusLry E Non-proiect T UlrbaniZation '- R Industrial development finance s Population. health & nutrition s i Education I tO Loar uwth noeIvirown rnenu Smnall-scale industry . L- TechnLical assistance Telecommunications S- 0 1 0 20 30 40 so 60 NUMBER OF LOANS The Bank and education The World Bank is not only the single largest source of external founding for education, but it is also an important source of analytical and policy work in educational issues. The 1992 World Bank Annual Operational Review on Education and Training (PHREE, 1992) shows the diversity in nature and scope of lending for education. In fiscal year 1992 Bank provided loans and credits for pre-primary, primary, secondary and higher education, as well as for employment, science and technology, non-formal education and adjustment. Investment and policy-based lending supported quality improvement, capacity building, poverty alleviation, science and technology, and environmental education. The Bank and environmental education In comparison with other environmental activities, the efforts of the Bank regarding enviromnental education and research are less visible. The Annual Operational Review on Education and Training (PHREE, 1992) reveals that the Bank has generally given low priority to environmental topics in educational projects. Bank actions in environmental education have primarily taken place in connection with other (non-educational) projects. A similar conclusion can be drawn from an analysis of the World Bank projects in Africa for the period 1986 - 1992, (Figure 5) where all the environmental education components are found in sectors other than education (Clausen, 1992). 109 Environnmenzal edrcation and the World Bank Figure 5: Sector distribution of the environmental education components of the World Bank' projects in Africa (data extracted from Clausen, 1992) AGRICULTURE FORESTRY ENVIRONMENT NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IRRIGATION AND FLOOD CONTROL RURAL DEVELOPMENT URBAN DEVELOPMENT MINING AND MINERALS I WATER SUPPLY AND RESOURCES TRANSPORTATION TOUPISM |' ENERGY FISHERY _ 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 110 Environmental ediucation and the World Bank Further analysis of environmental education fields in African projects (Figure 6) shows an accumulation of forestry and agriculture related environmental education components. Comprehensive environmental education and protection programs are rare. Figure 6: Main environmental education fields of the World Bank projects in Africa (data extracted from ClauserL 1992) FOREST PROTECTION AND AGROFORESTRY l AGRICULTURAL LAND CULTIVATION PRACTICES SOIL CONSERVATION L NEW PLANTS FOR FOOD AND AGROFORESTRY WILDUFE PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT FOREST MANAGEMENT 1 NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ANIMAL BREEDING AND PASTURE AGRICULTURAL AND FARMING TECHNOLOGIES 1 POLLUTION REDUCTION i ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATICS ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING FORESTRY TECHNOLOGIES DRINKING WATER_ COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IRRIGATION m GENERAL PUSLIC ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION FARMING SYSTEMSE_ ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION ENVIRONMENTAL POLiCIES IN MINING HEALTH AND SANITATION HEALTH AND SAFEY IN MINING TRAFFICI HYDROPOWER AND INDUSTRIAL WATER PROTECTION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES ENERGY CONSERVATIONl URBAN ENVIRONMENT REHABILITATION l RSHERiES RESOURCES MANAGEMENT _ j . . i 0 5 10 1 5 20 25 111 Enwironmenzal educazion and ihe World Bank The target audience (might be more than one target group in a project) differs a lot and includes a diverse group of participants ranging from rarrners to managers and environmental specialists (Figure 7). The large majority of environmental education activities fall into non-formal or in-service training of selected specialized groups. Pre-service environmental education components can be found in Bank support programs for forestrv and agricultural schools and colleges. Only the environmental project in Madagascar has an education/awareness component including the introduction of environmental education into prirmary school curricula. Figure '7: The target environmental education audience ofthe World Bank projects in Africa (data cxtracted from Clausen 1992) FARMERS FORESTRY MANAGERS AND PLANNERS l 1 1 1 j ENVIRONMENTAL SPECIAUSTS l l FORESTRY SCHOOL AND COLLEGE STUDENTS __ i 1 LOCAL AUTHORlTIES _ 1.1l1| AGRICULTURAL MANAGERS AND PLANNERS i __ l E i TEACHERS AND TRAINERS _ l l AGRICULTURAL TECHNICAL STAFF i VILLAGERS FORESTRY TECHNICAL STAFF i NOT SPECIFIED I FORESTRY RESEARCHERS l GENERAL PUSUC' VILLAGE EXTENSION AGENTS| MINING SPECIALISTS IRRIGATION MANAGERS WSILDLIFE / NATIONAL PARK MANAGERS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES WATER AND SEWAGE SPECIALISTSl HEALTH AND SANITATION SPECIALISTSli NGO AND COOPERATIVESS SOUD WASTE MANAGERS STATE GOVERNMENT DECISION MAKEFRS PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS VISITORS CENTER STAFF NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGERS AGRICULTURAL TRAINEfRS FORESTRY AGENTS POUCY ANALYSIS STAFF-Am FISHERIES INSPECTORS _ RURAL WOMEN _ i _ 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 112 Environmenzal educarion and the World Bank Other environmental education activities in the Bank include preparation of regional and gene-:' ,:- 'ronmental education papers. During the fiscal vear 1992 two studies were underway on en:.' ame'l:a? education in Central and Eastern Europe and in Africa: R. Kornhauser, A., 1992. Environmental Education in the Central aind Eastern European Countries - ?rool's and Prospects, The World Baakd, PHREE and EM1N; and Clausen, T.. 1992. . Envirownental Education in Africa - World Banik Projects Conitaining Environmental Educational Components. Internal Study AFTEN. A similar study was compiled for Asia in the fiscal vear 1991: Boh, B., 1991. Enviromnental Education in Asian Cotuntries, Departnent Paper Series, No. 1, Environment Division and Population and Hwnani Resources Division, Asia Techunical Department. Together with present paper (ESP, fiscal year 1993), they contribute to a fundamental knowledge base for further Bank projects. The Annual Operational Review on Education and Training (PHREE, 1992) has identified an increased demand for policv research, dissemination, and skills training for both Bank and borrower staff - particularly in areas of quality improvement. poverty alleviation, and environmental education. It recommends that science, technologv, and environment issues need to be strengthened in the Bank projects. Dissemination, follow-up and development of relationships with organizations more experienced in environmental education are also needed. Conclusions 1. The Bank supports a large number of environmental activities, from direct environmental projects and environmentally-related elements in different lending operations, to the preparation of country specific, regional or sector oriented environmental studies. 2. 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