IPP50 May 2003 Additional Annex 11: Social Assessment and Ethnic Group Development Plan LAO PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC: Second Education Development Project The Ethnic Group Development Plan (EGDP) is intended to ensure compliance with the World Bank's Operational Directive 4.20 on Indigenous Peoples. The World Bank's policy on Indigenous Peoples provides guidance to ensure that indigenous groups benefit from development projects, and that adverse impacts are either avoided, or if unavoidable, are mitigated. The policy further requires special action in situations where Bank investments affect indigenous peoples, whose social and economic status restrict their capacity to assert their interests and rights in land and other productive resources. Because of the varied and changing contexts in which indigenous peoples are found, no single definition can capture their diversity. In particular geographical areas, indigenous peoples can be identified by the presence in varying degrees of the characteristics below which all apply to the non-ethnic Lao in the project areas. * a close attachment to their ancestral territories and the natural resources in these areas; * self-identification and identification by others as members of a distinct cultural group; * an indigenous language, often different from the national language; * presence of customary social and political institutions; and, * primarily subsistence-oriented production. Ethnic Diversity For the purposes of the 1995 census, the Government recognized 47 main ethnic groups and 149 sub-groups. The latest revision of this list by the Lao Front for National Construction (LFNC) contained 49 groups, and over 160 subgroups. The ethnic groups of are widely categorized in terms of four major ethno-linguistic families: * the Lao-Tai (also referred to as 'Tai-Kadai'), which includes the 'ethnic Lao' group (about 30% of the population) and lowland Tai speaking groups (about 36%); * Mon-Khmer ethnic groups (about 24%); * Hmong-Mien, including the Miao-Yao (about 8%); * Sino-Tibetan which includes Chinese Ho and Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups (about 3%). The population share of non-Lao ethnic groups in project Provinces ranges from 63% in Attapeu, to 82% in Houaphanh and over 90% in the rest (Table 1). The target districts include an estimated 76 different ethnic sub-groups, the majority being non-Lao ethnic groups. Table 2 shows the ethnic groups by project district. The groups speak distinct languages and identify themselves as distinct ethnic groups. The degree of diversity is high, especially in the north, where every district has at least three ethnolinguistic families represented. Those in Phongsalg and Louang Namtha have all four. Only in the south are the target districts more uniformly Mon-Khmer but there are considerable differences among the branches. Table 1 - Percentage of Minority Populations in Project Provinces Province Pop 1997 % Minority Phongsaly 161,900 95.7 Louang Namtha 121,500 97.7 Ur Houa Phanh 259,100 81.8 Xekong 68,000 91.4 Attapeu 92,400 63.1 Source: Chamberlain, James R. 2000. Preliminary Poverty Diagnostics: Lao PDR. Manila: Asian Development Bank. In the Mon-Khmer ethnolinguistic family, two Khmou groups and the Katu have a Laoicized alphabet and dictionaries. In the Sino-Tibetan family, the majority of languages are in the Lolo-Burmese branch of Tibeto-Burmese. Romanized scripts were developed for two groups in this family (Lahy Na and Akha Pouly) about 50 years ago by missionaries. The Chinese alphabet used by the Yunnanese Chinese or Ho in Phongsaly dates from the Shang dynasty some 4,000 years ago. The Hmong-Mien family is represented by five languages -- White Hmong (Hmong Daw), Green Hmong (Hmong Ntsoua, Mong), Black Hmong, Mien (Yao) and Moun (Lantene). The Moun and the Mien use Chinese characters to write. There is a Romanized writing system for White Hmong known as the Barney-Smalley alphabet which dates from the 1 940s which is taught informally to Hmong children throughout the country. There are Hmong alphabets using Lao characters for both White and Green Hmong. The Lao-Tai family is comprised of Northern, Central and Southwestern branches. Most language groups (e.g. Lao, Lue, Tai Dam) belong to the Southwestern branch. The Yay (Nhang), the Sek, and the Mene are Northern Branch languages whose closest relatives are the Chuang and Pu-Yi in southern China. Most of the Southwestern Tai languages had or still have their own writing systems. Literacy is not a problem for the majority of the Lao-Tai groups. Legal and Institutional Setting According to the 1991 Constitution, Lao PDR is defined as a multi-ethnic state, with "equality among all ethnic groups" and Which forbids "acts of creating division and discrimination among ethnic groups. Article 8 states: All ethnic groups have the right to preserve and improve their own traditions and culture and those of the nation. Discrimination between ethnic groups is forbidden. The state will carry out every means in order to continue to improve and raise the economic and social level of all ethnic groups (cited in Social Assessment 2003). Article 19 of the Constitution further states that "the goal of compulsory primary education is to be pursued [and] emphasis is to be placed on the expansion of education in ethnic minority areas." At the same time, Article 75 establishes Lao as the official language of the country. A 1992 ethnic minority policy, Resolution of the Party Central Organization Concerning Ethnic Minority Affairs in the New Era, focuses on gradually improving the lives of ethnic minorities, while promoting their ethnic identity and cultural heritage. The Resolution calls for equal rights to education, a plan for teacher training directed at the ethnic minorities in remote areas, together with a policy and the personnel for its realization, for urgent research into the writing systems of the Hmong and the Khmou using the Lao alphabet, and for engagement of officials who speak minority languages. The Education Law (April 8, 2000) states that "all Lao citizens without discrimination for their ethnicity, origin, religion, gender, age and social status have the right to education." Article 21 states that Lao language and Lao script are the official language and script in all educational institutions. It goes on to state that, "in the case of minority languages, they may be researched for use in instruction according to actual conditions with approval from the government." The Ethnic Minorities Committee under the National Assembly is charged with responsibility for drafting and evaluating proposed legislation concerning ethnic minorities. Implementation of the Party's policy on ethnic minorities is tasked to the Lao Front for National Construction (LFNC). The mandate of the Institute for Linguistic Research includes research on languages and writing systems, and coordination on matters of curriculum and research. The Ministry of Education has a Gender and Ethnic Minority Unit tasked with developing appropriate strategies and monitoring sector policies and impacts on these groups. Education Issues by Ethnic Group Ethnic minorities are poorly represented in the education system. Non-Lao ethnolinguistic groups have much lower rates of literacy (Table 3) and (by virtue of income level) have lower enrolment and completion rates. Girls are more likely to be out of school than boys. Available sources of information suggest that the education issues faced by ethnic minorities are diverse and vary in importance from one group to another. The following main factors play a role, to one degree or another, in explaining differences in enrolment between Lao and non-Lao - poverty and affordability (including having shoes, clothes and child embarrassment if not), parent's education, availability, quality, and language which can deter enrolment and increase dropout. The health and nutritional status of the children may also play a role. The WFP estimates that more than 60% of children suffer from soil transmitted helminth infections, with rates as high as 80-96% in the Northern provinces. Although ethnic groups vary in their attitudes towards social services, gender issues, and other cultural practices few ethnographies exist to document this diversity, and no specific study has been conducted to determine the weight of these constraints depending on ethnicity or whether other, unobservable, cultural factors also influence education decisions. A Participatory Poverty Assessment conducted in 2001 showed that poverty is mainly a condition of rural non-Lao ethnic groups, who comprise 93 percent of the country's poor. They face problems of access to land, food security and limited access to public services and infrastructure. The study concludes that formal education is a luxury for the poor. It is either not available or unaffordable and is a secondary concern to livelihood. Where the level of poverty is particularly acute, villagers must spend most of their time obtaining enough food to eat. School availability is low with only 20% of villages having a complete primary school. School availability was worse for the Tibeto-Burman groups but similar for the other ethnolinguistic families, including Lao-Tai. On language, it notes: "In many villages, children did not attend because of language or cultural difficulties. In 15% of the villages, the majority did not speak the Lao language at all and in many others the villagers were far from fluent. In these cases children feel uncomfortable in school and drop out early in the school year." In Tibeto-Burman and Hmong-Mien villages, language was cited as a frequent problem. In other cases, children did not attend due to poor clothes or food, and related embarrassment. In one village in Attapeu, some students had no clothes at all and came to class naked. A Social Assessment for the project was conducted in 32 villages in 8 project districts (two each in the 4 Provinces of Houaphanh, Louang Namtha, Attapeu and Xekong). All four ethno-linguistic families were represented in the villages. Relevant characteristics of the villages include: * Average village size was 264 people. * About two-thirds of families were considered poor (70%) or very poor (30%) by villagers. Few villages had families described as wealthy. * Average education of mothers was 1.5 years with a high of 2.3 years in Viengsay district. 52% of mothers had no education. For fathers, average years of education was 3.3. 18% had no education. * On average, 97% of fathers and 77% of mothers say they can understand Lao but in Viengphouka only 54% of mothers say they understood Lao. Rates for speaking, reading and writing drop significantly for women with only 34% who can write. The rates remain high for fathers, dropping to an average of 76% of fathers who can write Lao. * Only 4 of 32 schools had textbooks. * Only half had teacher's guides for Lao language and math.. * Availability of trained teachers varied from a high of 90% in villages in Attapeu to a low of 50% in Houaphanh and 25% in Xekong. * Gender differences in enrolment were not very large certainly not as would be expected based on adult literacy rates suggesting that although gaps are still present, they have reduced over time. * Late or non-payment of teacher salaries is a chronic problem. The Assessment concludes that there is a very high demand for education. The expected return is the economic and social advantages of having children with some knowledge of the Lao language and mathematics. Main reasons for children not attending school are inadequate supply (e.g. no teacher or teacher absent, already completed the grades available, available school is too far) and high costs. Villages provide the school building, furniture and maintenance, as; well as considerable support to teachers in the form of housing, rice and cash (to also partially compensate for late salary payments on the Government's part) and for volunteer teachers they recruit themselves. Parents are responsible for their children's supplies, clothing and food but many cannot afford them. In addition, they forego the child's labor. The least numerous reasons for non-enrolment were child-specific (e.g. not healthy, disabled, does not want to go, too young). Parents say that children need material support, moral support from parents, good teachers, and a school nearby so that children can live at home and help the family. Language was not raised as an issue by parents but was a common issue raised by district and provincial education officials. Ethnic minority children may typically spend the first year of schooling learning the Lao language and repeat the grade the following year. This results is higher levels of repetition, discouragement, and cost which place them at higher risk of dropping out. Village leadership/promotion of education was also highly influential in increasing enrolment, and particularly for girls. In all cases, with additional resources, villages would spend them on basic inputs - furniture, toilets, school supplies, and clothes and shoes for the poorest children. This corresponds to the experience of the BEGP community grant program where villages have mainly allocated the grants to supplies and play equipment for all children, and clothes and shoes for the poorest. Consultations during project preparation included representatives of District Education officers, villages chiefs, teachers from Phongsaly, Houaphanh, Lounag Namtha and Oudomxay many of whom were ethnic minorities. A summary of the workshop is in the Aide-Memoire of the mission in the project files. Most important constraints related to supply and family economy. Language was a secondary issue but more important in Houaphanh than in other provinces where representatives were vocal about the need for teachers to begin with, and who also speak the language of the children. Indeed, the number of non-Lao ethnic teachers in the system as a whole is very low. In primary schools, only 12 percent of teachers are Mon-Khmer although this group accounts for 24 percent of the population. Teachers from the Hmong-Mien or Sino-Tibetan comprise only 4.5 percent of teachers but 10% of the population (Table 4). In other Provinces, there was much greater diversity. A number of adjustments were made to the project design as a result of this input - switch to community-based management for construction, accept locally recruited contract teachers into the teacher upgrading program, maintain an open menu for the community grant program considering that urgent needs are not all the same, support a stronger role for Provincial and District education offices, and encourage policy changes in the student:teacher ratio for obtaining teachers. Other factors that also impact on attendance and completion of primary education are early marriage for girls in some cases, late enrolment in school, low representation of ethnic groups in the teaching profession and the school curriculum. For the same reasons that language of instruction is recognized as a potential constraint to universal basic education, curriculum is likewise problematic. Textbooks are prepared essentially by ethnic Lao professionals for ethnic Lao children, are often inappropriate. Illustrations are commonly culturally lowland oriented and do not reflect the multi-ethnic society. Education Policies and Programs Knowledge and understanding of the educational issues/concerns/needs of different ethnic groups is weak. The Ministry of Education has only recently begun looking at poverty issues and has done little work thus far in studying the educational issues confronted by different ethnic groups and in formulating policies. This is also an area where opinions vary, with respect to language issues and options for providing education to ethnic minorities, particularly in sparsely populated areas. A commonly proposed approach in the MoE to providing education to ethnic minorities in sparsely populated areas is to continue the practice of setting up boarding schools for ethnic minorities, and/or encourage semi-boarding schools where students live either in local households or in parental built accommodations. Across countries, language policies vary greatly from one of total immersion in the national language, to teaching ethnic groups in their own language to promote both learning and cultural survival, with a variety of other approaches in between (e.g. the use of aides, second language teaching methods, pre-school). Parents also vary in what they desire for their children. Irrespective of different views, there are also major challenges in logistics and costs of producing materials in many minority languages, in the complexities of managing instruction in schools which cater to several minority groups, and of getting teachers who speak the various languages in the right places. The current language policy and approach to providing education to ethnic minorities could benefit from review and improvement in order to achieve a balance between the government's dual objectives of national integration and preservation of cultural identity. Ethnic Group Safeguards Assessment There are no anticipated adverse social impacts from the Project. Non-Lao ethnic groups already are disadvantaged in terms of greater poverty, and less access to services and lower quality services. The project is designed to have positive impacts by addressing the supply and cost constraints and putting resources for school construction and supplementary costs in the hands of communities to support their efforts while also supporting system-wide improvements and policy development to improve quality and funding in the medium and longer term. Ethnic Group Development Strategy Responding to Constraints. The project addresses the issues identified above in the following ways: Ethnic Minority Issue Project Intervention * Not Enrolled Complete incomplete schools, provide resources to address supply and demand side factors * Enrolled Late Community Mobilization * Distance to School Complete multigrade school in the village * Incomplete Schools/insufficient space Complete multigrade school in village * Education too expensive Alleviate cost burden through community grants * Non-supportive HH environment/Child Community Mobilization/Community Construction labor demands and Grant Program, targeted assistance through community grant program * Poor instructional environment Teacher Training, free textbooks and teacher guides, better infrastructure * Language issues Experiment in instruction in ethnic minority languages to build knowledge base, and teaching Lao as a second language to compare results; upgrade contract teachers recruited locally; community grant program can be used to hire local contract teachers, capacity building for language of instruction policy * Instructional Program Review textbooks for ethnic bias, revise to include representation of ethnic groups and their history Mitigating Potential Social Impacts. Through the community-based school construction and community grants programs, each village in the Project will participate in the development of their own schools through subsidies to replace temporary and incomplete schools and provide resources to address other supply and demand constraints at the community level. How the resources are used is intended to represent the needs of each village, and de facto of the various ethnic groups, but there may be social impacts. The community-based contracting (CBC) program for school construction will provide villages with funding to build schools. The funding is substantial by Village standards and, many times more than the Villages have managed in the past. Further, the CBC approach means that the Villages will have substantial opportunities to direct wage and materials income, and also to retain any profit within the Village. This represents a positive opportunity for the Village to develop its management capacity, and improve its financial position. The CBC approach also empowers and relies upon the internal social structure of the Village, and therefore the risk of undermining indigenous culture or ways of life is low. However, there is also a risk that the sudden inflow of funds will stress these relationships, and lead to disputes, or the strengthening of any existing internal inequities. This may particularly be the case in mixed villages. In addition, there are risks that extend beyond the scope of the individual Village, notably that the school construction program might be used as a driver or incentive for resettlement, that the project might be rolled out in such a way as to further disadvantage already disadvantaged groups. The table below lists risk hypotheses and mitigating measures included in the operating procedures of the CBC program. Risk Factor LRO IRO Management Response Social stress due to opportunities M M School Procurement Committee composition offered by Project provides checks and balances, ensures work distributed equitably Increase in existing internal M M School Procurement Committee inequities due to opportunities composition provides internal checks and offered by Project balances to ensure work is distributed equitably Component fails to benefit M H Villages in each district divided into 'on the disadvantaged communities, road' and 'off the road', and both types including ethnic minorities progressed in parallel Component is used to motivate L M Eligibility restricted to schools that have resettlement been running for one year, and village established for three years Certain groups are excluded in M M Village committees include representation of decision making in mixed villages all ethnic groups, and women Building designs encourage the use of local building forms, techniques, and materials wherever possible. The CBC operational manual specifies a complaint monitoring and conflict resolution mechanism. Additional ethnographic studies will provide further information on traditional institutions for conflict resolution (see below). Project Monitoring and Evaluation Mechanisms include: * An annual assessment of the procedures of the CBC and community grants program will obtain beneficiary feedback from all ethnic groups, assess the effectiveness/inclusiveness of the procedures * Village self-monitoring of own development projects * Mid-term and end of Project evaluations which will include a section on the effectiveness of the ethnic group development strategy. Beyond Responding to Constraints and Mitigating Potential Social Impacts The plan of the MoE in the medium term is to: * Build the knowledge base and capacity to develop a clearer policy on language of instruction based on own and international experience. This involves: > piloting instruction in minority languages and second language instruction methods, studying options for national policy expansion. > Learning from other countries > Including other agencies responsible for ethnic minority affairs and linguistics in the Steering Committee or other relevant advisory groups, > In some villages, ethnographic studies will be conducted. The studies would result in * recommendations for the design of teacher training activities; * recommendations for ensuring that the participatory process deals appropriately with issues relating to ethnic groups that may otherwise be excluded or marginalized from the process and project activities; * a training plan (and materials) for staff concerning ethnic minorities and gender, which are interrelated, (e.g. cultural awareness and sensitivity raising, understanding of ethnic group issues related to language and school development); and * a set of general recommendations relating to minority education, including the use of traditional knowledge and practices that may enhance community school development. * Mainstream ethnic group considerations in the work of the sector > Include other agencies responsible for ethnic minority affairs and linguistics in the Steering Committee or other relevant advisory groups > Review instructional materials for ethnic bias and introduce an understanding of the various ethnic groups > Report Key education indicators by ethno-linguistic group > Integrate Ethnicity as a factor to be examined in the Assessment of Student Learning Outcomes * Increase stakeholder voice >Broader participation in Steering Committee as needed >Flowing resources to villages to provide basic infrastructure and inputs as they see they need The table below provides timelines, budget and responsibilities for implementation Objectives/Activities Dates Budget Responsible Pilot instruction in minority languages $ and second language instruction methods -- study design -- develop materials, train teachers, by June 2004 etc. by June 2005 --- start pilot September 2005 Conferences, study visits, other learning Various Include agencies in steering committee Project start NA and other advisory groups Conduct of ethnographies -- sample and design by December 31, 2004 -- studies with recommendations 2005-2007 Review instructional materials for Annual reviews and revisions ethnic bias and introduce an as per the project's textbook understanding of the various ethnic and teacher guide evaluation groups and publishing schedule Key indicators by ethno-linguistic group Include in project monitoring NA indicators Integrate ethnicity in ASLO Include in ASLO design NA Training plan for cultural awareness To be reviewed as an activity NA developed upon completion of above. Monitoring and Evaluation. As for all project activities, monitoring of implementation will be the responsibility of the Project Manager in the DPC, with each Implementing Unit responsible for implementation and reporting on areas under their responsibility. Policy development and evaluation is built into studies (as in language of instruction which is itself an evaluation of different methods, barriers faced by ethnic minorities, causes of repetition, differences in learning achievement), and into reviews of the processes of the community-based programs to safeguard against exclusion. Table 2 - Tentative List of Ethnic Groups in Target Areas by District Province Districts Ethnolinguistic Ethnic Group (No. of Family Districts] NORTH Phongsaly [2] 1. Samphanh Sino-Tibetan Sila (Sida), Baya, Akha Chi Pya, Akha Ou Ma, Akha Oepa, Hanyi, Ho, Lao Pane, Pou Mone, Phong Kou, Nam Ky Mon-Khmer Khmou Ou Lao-Tai Lao Hmong-Mien Hmong 2. Nyot Ou Sino-Tibetan Akha, Seng Saly (Var), Lolo, Sila (Sida), Long, Khoe, Alou, Mong Koy, Hanyi, Cha Ho, Ho Mon-Khmer Khmou Ou Lao-Tai Lue, Lao Hmong-Mien Mien (Yao) Louang Namtha 3. Viengphoukha Sino-Tibetan Akha Pouly, Lahu Shi, [3] Mon-Khmer Khmou, Kwene, Pulang (SamTao), Lamet, Nyouan, Kalom, Tai Dam, Lue, Yay Lao-Tai Moun (Lantene), Hmong, Mien Hmong-Mien Hmong, Mien 4. Nale Sino-Tibetan Akha, Lahu Shi, Mon-Khmer Khmou, Lamet Lao-Tai Lue, Lao Hmong-Mien Hmong, Mien 5. Long Sino-Tibetan Akha, Lahu Shi Mon-Khmer Khmou Nyouan, Doi, Lao-Tai Lue, Neua, Nyouan Hmong-Mien Moun (Lantene), Mien Oudomxay [4] 6. Na Mo Sino-Tibetan Baya (Pouseng), Akha, Kong Sat, Phou Nyot, Mon-Khmer Khmou Lue Lao-Tai Yay (Nhang), Tai Dam, Lue Hmong-Mien Hmong, Mien, Moun (Lantene) 7.1Beng Mon-Khmer Khmou Lao-Tai Lue, Tai Done Hmong-Mien Hmong 8. Houn Mon-Khmer Khmou Lao-Tai Lue, Tai Done Hmong-Mien Hmong 9. Nga Mon-Khmer Khmou Lao-Tai Lue Hmong-Mien * Hmong 10. Pak Beng Mon-Khmer Khmou Lao-Tai Lue, Lao Hmong-Mien Hmong Houa Phanh [7] 11. Xieng Kho Mon-Khmer Ksing Moul, Khmou, Lao-Tai Tai Deng, Thay Vat, Thay Neua, Tai Dam Hmong-Mien Hmong 12. Viengthong Mon-Khmer Khmou Ou Lao-Tai Tai Deng Hmong-Mien Hmong 13. Viengxay Mon-Khmer Khmou Lao-Tai Tai Deng, Thay Neua Hmong-Mien White Hmong, Black Hmong (Mhu?) 14. Houameuang Mon-Khmer Phong Lane, Phong Phene, Phong Tapouang, Phong Piat, Kaniang, Khmou Lao-Tai Thay Neua, Tai Deng Hmong-Mien Hmong, Hmu 15. Sam Tay Mon-Khmer Khmou (Cheuang?), Tai Hat (I Duh) Lao-Tai Tai Deng, Thay Neua .____________ _ _______________ _ .Hmong-Mien Hmong SOUTH Xekong [2] -.16. Kaleum Mon-Khmer Katu, Ngkriang (Nge), Cha Tong, Triw, Dak Kang, Cheung _ 17. Dakcheung Mon-Khmer Tariang, Hrlak (alak), Jouk, Jeh, Jru, Lavi, Kaseng Attapeu [2] 18. Sanxay Mon-Khmer Sedang, Kayong, Ye (Jeh?), Kaseng, I I 19. Phouvong I Mon-Khmer I Brao, Sou, Souk, Table 3- Age 15+ Literacy Rates by Gender and Ethnicity Ethnolinguistic Ethnic Group Male Literacy Rate Female Literacy Total Literacy Family Rate Rate Tai-Kadai 84.4% 62.3% 72.9% Lao/Neua-Phouan 86.0% 65.1% 75.2% Tai 77.2% 50.1% 63.0% Lue 73.9% 46.6% 59.7% Nyouan 71.2% 48.7% 59.4% Austroasiatic 55.6% 19.9% 36.9% Khmou 60.8% 22.7% 40.9% Katang 49.3% 12.8% 30.3% Brou (Makong) 39.1% 12.3% 25.0% Souay 55.7% 20.5% 36.8% Ta-oy 54.8% 20.3% 36.6% Talieng 58.4% 25.0% 40.4% Brao (Lave) 52.2% 18.7% 34.4% Katu 43.0% 10.6% 26.2% Lamet 49.0% 10.2% 28.0% Pray (T'in) 40.6% 20.0% 29.6% Alak 54.6% 21.3% 37.1% Oy 69.4% 34.2% 50.2% Nkriang (Nge') 52.3% 15.6% 33.5% Cheng 56.9% 19.9% 36.8% Ye 45.9% 17.9% 30.8% Hmong-Mien 45.7% 8.1% 26.5% Hmong 45.7% 8.1% 26.5% Tibeto-Burman 22.3% 12.0% 17.0% Phou Noy 58.8% 36.2% 46.8% Lahu 2.9% 0.4% 1.6% Akha 7.0% 0.7% 3.8% OTHERS 60.8% 32.9% 46.8% Total 73.5% 47.9% 60.2% Source: Derived from the NSC Population Census 1995 data. The Ethnic sub groupings are somewhat impressionistic but the ethnolinguistic families are correct and have been adjusted here according to standard practice.