< ~~28030 Defining and Mainstreaming, Volume 2 ENVIRONMENTAL -. SUSTAINABILITY ' in WATER RESOURCES ae1~ I., )O Or &'MAAi --p\S tn A~~~~~~~~~~A ^[-~~~~~ ~~ . ' ..f... i &k.!  I~~~~~I X i _' - 1', ';~~~~.- r:i4 a 1 avv~~~~~.5 -, v I a)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~al a _S,(y'FV'' g; _34t f/__f _ _ T  .... .,. anJd Mdanstrcaitting ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN W'ATER RFSOURCES MANAGEMENT in Southitlic Afriect A technical report by the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and development partners: World Bank, Sida, IUCN and SARDC SADC Environment and Land 'I w , ..,,, i 1 Sector (ELMS) Private Bag A284, Maseru 100, Lesotho Email sadcelmsCa lesoff.co.za Fax (266) 310190 Tel (266) 312158 SADC Water Sector Coordination Unit (WSCU) Private Bag A44O, Maseru 100, Lesotho Email sadcwscuCa'lesoff.co.za Fax (266) 310465 Tel (266) 320722 IUCN-The World Conservation Union Regional Office for Southern Africa (ROSA) Box 745, Harare, Zimbabwe Email postmaster@)iucnrosa.org.zw Fax (263-4) 720738 Tel (263-4) 728266/7 Southern African Research and Documentation Centre (SARDC) Musokotwane Environment Resource Centre for Southern Africa (IMERCSA) Box 5690, Harare, Zimbabwe Email cepCwsardc.net sardc(ausardc.net Fax (263-4) 791271 Tel (263-4) 791141/791143 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) Environment Department 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington D.C., USA Email eadvisor@worldbank.org Fax (1-202) 522 0367 Tel (1-202) 458 1994 C) SADC, IUCN, SARDC, IBRD 2002 Boxes, Tables and Figures as specified Photos as specified ISBN: 1-77910-018-3 All rights reserved. The contents of this book may be quoted with due credit to the authors and publishing partners, but may not be reproduced, all or in part, without permission from one of the copyright holders. Citation: Hirji, R., Johnson, P., Maro, P. and Matiza Chiuta, T. (eds) 2 1C,. , K... and,MlainstreamingEntvironimeltal Sustaioabili.v in W'ater Resources Alanagement in Southern Africa. SADC, IUCN, SARDC, World Bank: Maseru/Harare/Washington DC The designation of geographical entities, use of any name in this publication, and the presentation of the material do not imply the expres- sion of any opinion whatsoever on the part of SADC, SADC ELMS, SADC WSCU, IUCN ROSA, SARDC IMERCSA or the World Bank concern- ing the legal status of any country or territory, or area of its authority, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.  Editors ir Iii I. 1 1.-il-.crIi ii' qI iI ii I F kii ,, .]1, I' ri,i,: l, , i- hA l ir ilirli ii,id 1iri r i ! Li, i I ki:l \\a a[cr !S-:ri-,r . 10-r );, i.;I1 \|1-zIl Nu' F\ h l \.1 If !PI N 1-I-q \ :15 lil I % IlIl .111l .11, hg1l 'l.- m In, Il- [I.%':j 1 .1|;.1 IL-I1 [snt. In !;L't: l- h II. I i rrc I Ff )AP p - I li ',,. % .'i. I.,, ,,,, [ ii i F - ii.i i i s r r N. .illlc i 1 I .\IIERt .. mii rc i11v ii, . trr ,, 1ri-, 1,A , .i '\.ircr j , .. Mi' K r i r-ili diL i [11 1!-,, in flnlll(nt Dcr,'r[frliew ot ihc \\ .4.1 B.;K 1-,> rilil!l r,.,- W,,V-,,WT,l 1-,, 1l-l,- W T,l,Wl-l il-,l,:ll-I.,V,, ¶-W.ll [,:|. l,,l,,;, W,; I¶h , .,v r ' \ -n  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT  PREFACE Water is a precious and scarce resource that we take for grantedl in our daily life, while in the rural areas of the region, peo- ple are co ifrotltcc mofe directly with its elusive nature as they are more vulnerable to the ravaging cycles of drought and floocl, i ni the slowl ily,, resource base. Our natural environment also needls water, if it is to continue to provide imnportant social, ecoloical and hydrological functions, although we seldom consider that wider context. This technical report showcases the threats to our precious water resources, and to the environment that sustains them, and it also offers solutions for long-term protection and appropriate utilization. The effective and sustainable utilization and management of water resources is an essential pre-requisite for sustaining all forms of life, improving livelihoods of the people and fostering overall socio-economic clevelopment in southern Africa. Water is a necessary input for many productive activities including agriculture, forestrv, industrv, mining, commercial and livestock development, energy production, tourism, wildlife conservation, etc. Environmentally sustainable management of water resources is linked to poverty alleviation in many important wa\s. Strategies to reduce or .ill, I ii' poverty shoulcl not lead to further degradation of water resources or ecological functions and services. Sustainable water use and improved environmental quality should contribute directly to reducing poverty Since the majority of the people in southern Africa depend on andi derive their livelihoods directlv from natural resources, the region has placed a high priority on the need "to achieve sustainahle utilization of natural resources and effective protection of the environment" and has enshrined this priority as a policy objective in the 1992 Treatv of the Southern African Development Community ' M Water., ,i i I . I l considerably across the region ancI within countries. Overall, it is a scarce resource, which is vul- nerahle to global factors such as climate variability and climate change, and to regional constraints imposed on the manage- ment of transboundairv waters. Water is also vulnerable to national ancl local factors such as the growing demands of urban and rural populations, increasing sectoral clemands, greater competition anct potential for conflict over water, worsening water pollution, land anct catchment degradation, destruction ancI encroachment on aquatic ecosystems, and proliferation of invasive weeds. Increasingly, environmental degradation from unsustainable land and water use patterns and other anthropogenic factors is undermining and threatening the sustainabilitx of the water resource hase itself, and if this remains unchecked then it is likely to further exacerbate water scarcity in a region that has a limited endowment of water. Although awareness about environment has increased since the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992, the operational integra- tion of environmental quality objectives, economic efficiencv principles, and social equity goals in water resources planning and management decision-making remains a major weakness to be addressed in water resources policy and institutional reforms and water resources development. This technical report on I ... aldtI ainstream inii nFi iirotin7enital ,uistainabilit1 in W'ater Resources, tianlagemlent in Soutbern Africa is SADC's contribution to the debate on and search for environmentallv sustainiable solutions to the water resources management problems. It has been prepared through joint efforts of the SADC Environment anti Land Management Sector, SADC Water Sector and their development partners-World Bank, Sida, IUCN and SARDC. The objec- tives of the report are to inform ancl guide the policy and decision makers about the complex biophysical, social and eco-  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT nomic dimensions of environmental sustainability in the water sector, and to enhance the integration of the ecological dimensions in water resources planning and management decision-making. The various chapters of this book provide practical approaches and operational tools for enhancing sustainable man- agement of water resources, The authors share knowledge, experiences and lessons about environmentally sustainable, water resources management practices from the region. The book provides a framework for effective integration of envi- ronmental quality objectives into the implementation of the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses and the Regional Strategic Action Plan for Integrated Water Resources Development and Management in the SADC Countries (1999-2004). This report is therefore a vital contribution to the region's development agenda. It fills an important knowledge gap and shares best practices from within the region. It charts a wav forward for systematically improving awareness and sharing knowledge on a critically important subject. It provides a framework for defining the complex and elusive concept of envi- ronmental sustainability in water resources management and mainstreaming that concept in operational terms in water rcsources policies and institutional reforms, and in the decision-making for water resources planning and development. The report supports the new environment strategy of the World Bank, and the implemi1enitationi of the recommendations of the World Commission on Dams that address environmenital sustainability issues. And it paves the way fot-ward for develop- ing sound, sensible and sustainable water resources investments and management systems for meeting the region's priority goals. The knowledge contained in this volume provides a useful reference for the water, environment and all water-related sectors such as agriculture, energy, industry, mining, tourism, and livestock. The target audience includes sector managers and policy-makers, water-resources and environmental specialists, planners and decision-makers from public and private sec- tors, researchers, and students of natural resources management. The report was wholly prepared by an inter-disciplinary team of specialists and technical experts who are citizens or residents of SADC countries. The preparation and management process was guided by experts from governments, non-gov- ernmental organizations, and academic and research institutions. The publication of this report is very timely as African countries and development partners are searching for new, prac- tical, cost-effective and innovative solutions to the sustainable management of a priority common property resource - water. The book is a kev SADC 11, dr 'I,' 1 to the World Summit on Sustainable Development inJohannesburg in August 2002 ancd to the New Partnership for Africa's Developnment (NEPAD). Finally, we would like to urge the people of the region, their communities, public and private-sector institutions, non- governmental organizations and development partners to work together in a cooperative and constructive spirit to support SADC member states and institutions in the implementation of the recommendations and follow-up actions contained here, in order to protect our precious water resources and to achieve sustainable development goals including poverty eradica- tion, for current and future generations. Hon. Sen. Lebohang Nts'inyi Hon. M nyane Moleleki, MP Minister of Tourism, Culture and Environment, Minister of Natural Resources, Government of Lesotho, and Chairpersoni of the Government of Lesotho, and Chairperson of the SADC Committee of Ministers of Environment SADC Committee of Ministers of Water Kristalina Georgieva, Phd Director, Environment Department, World Bank  CONTENTS PlAt I i v \l ke l1td niitbx .\ fl S i It IC \frI a (.vml I itxlil MCIhyrC statcl XVli hi1 i lclr I ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 1 Rafik Hirji and Jobo Molapo tihapi Vi 2 WATER RESOURCES AND THE ECONOMY 21 Tabeth MaNtia Chiuta, Phyllis Johnson and Rafik Hirii THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 53 Hilarvi Masundire and Heather Mackay C haipte 4 VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 85 Jane Turpie and Hugo van Zvl tihaptrl ENVIRONMENTAL FLOWS: REQUIREMENTS AND ASSESSMENT 111 Cate Brotxn anc Jackie King WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 135 Ngoni Movo and Sibekile Mtetwa I'41) hapi - WATERSHED DEGRADATION AND MANAGEMENT 177 Dominic Mazvimavi ( Chpter 8 AQUATIC WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL 205 Shirlev Bethune and Kevin Roberts (h.IptCrt 1) COMMUNITY-BASED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 237 Mlark Mujwahuzi (h:ipxt r I1 POLICY, LEGISLATIVE AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 259 Paul Maro and Lenka Thamae ('Iaixttcr I I A FRAMEWORK FOR MAINSTREAMING THE ENVIRONMENT IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 295 Rafik Hirji. Paul Maro and Heather Mackay ANNEXES 311 Glossarv Participants at Reviewx Norkshop of National Technical Committee members, Harare, 28-29 October 1999  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WIATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT List of Maps, Tables, Figures and Boxes MAPS Map 0 1 Southern Africa shoxving SADC Mlember States xvii Map 71 Vegetation Distribution in Mlainlandc SADC Countries 182 Map 11 W'ater Scarcity in Southern Africa: WX'ater and People, 1995 8 Map U Severity of Lancd Degradation in the SADC Region 187 Map 1.2 Projected Water Scarcity in Southern Africa: Map 8.1 Expansion of Red Water Fern Azollafiliculoides WYater and People, 2025 9 in South Africa, 1980-1999 211 Map 2.1 Main International River Basins of the SADC Region 24 Map 10.1 Zambezi River Basin 288 Map 3.1 Distribution of Major Aquatic Ecosystems in Mainland SADC 60 TABLES Table 1.1 Linkages hetween Water, Environment and Povertv 3 Table 5.1 South African DW'AFs Engineering and Environmental Table 2.1 Annual Renewable Freshwater Resources, Phases for a W'ater-resource Development, showing positions Population and Water Availabilitv in SADC States. of the EFR activities (after King and Louw 1998) 121 1995-2025: Water Scarcity Index 25 Table 5.2 Types of EFA Methodologies for Rivers 124 Table 2.2 WYater Availability per Person in the SADC region, Table 6.1 Water Requirement for Selected Industries, 1995-2025 26 per unit of product 143 Table 2.3 Freshwater Withdraw al by Countrv and Sector 2- Table 6.2 Summary of Source of Industrial Waste: Table 2.4 Fraction of a Counrrvs Area Within Origin and Main Characteristic 144 International River Basins 29 Table 6.3 Pollutants of Conicern in Urban Runoff 149 Table 2.5 Major International River Basins in Southern Africa 30 Table 6.4 Sulphur Emissions by Sector, tonnes per vear 150 Table 2.6 Some Comparative Data on National/Regional Table 6.5 Effects of Commton Pollutants 155 River Floxvs and Runoff 31 Table 6.6 Legislative Instruments in Selectetl Southern African States 159 Table 2.7 Rainfall and Evaporation Statistics for Table 6.- Intlustrial Pre-treatment Facilities in Harare 163 Some SADC Countries 33 Table 0.8 Approaches to Water Quality Management 165 Table 2.8 Irrigated Areas in SADC Countries, 19t1-1997 3- Table 6.9 Schectule of WVorld Health Organisation (OW-HO) Table 2.9 Some Hydropowver Developments Drinking Water Action Levels for Various Pollutants in Southern Africa 35 and South Africa's Aquatic Ecosystems Guitleline Values 172 Table 2.10 Rural Population, W'ater Supply and Table 7.1 Livestock Densities in Southierin Africa 183 Sanitation Coverage in SADC Countries 38 Table 7.2 Corre-lation Between Per Capita Arable Land and Table 2. 11 Urban Population, Water Supply and Deforestation in Malaxvi, Tanzania and Zambia 184 Sanitation Coverage in SADC Countries 39 Table 7.3 Top Alien , li,. Plants in South Africa 186 Tahle 2.12 WYorld Bank Estimates of Disaster-related Costs Tab)le 7.4 Sediment Transport Rates of Selected Rivers 191 (US$ millions) in Mtoambique, 2000 40 Table 7.5 Problems Due to Sediment Transport Table 2.13 Total External Debt for SADC Countries, 1990-1999 4- andl Deposition in Rivers 191 Table 3.1 Direct and Indirect Use Values Associated wvith the 'fahle 7.6 Effects of :l' ,, , i, . i'',Plants on Components of W'ietland Systems in the Zambezi Basin 55 Water Resources in South Africa 193 Table 3.2 Southern African Aquatic Ecos stems Table _7 Causes of WVater Quality Deterioration Designated as Ramsar Sites 62 in a WNatershed and Associated Problems 193 Table 3.3 Fisheries and Aquaculture Production Table 7.8 Estimated Biological Oxvgen Demand (BOD) of Domestic in the SADC Region, 1986-1998 63 Sewage D"i, iinto the Indian Ocean from Coastal Table 3.4 Freshwater Ecosvstem Types of Southern Africa 65 Cities wvith a Population of more than 20.000 in 1980 194 Table 3.5 Species Diversitv and Endlemism in Southern Africa (6 Table 8.1 Occurrence of Common Aquatic We eeds Table 3.6 Some Threatened Fish Species of Southern Africa 0' in Southiern African Freshwater WVetlands 209 Table 3.' Threatened Vascular Plant Species 67 Table 8.2 Summarised Comparison of Different Table 3.8 Characterisation of Selected Wetlands in the SADC Region 81 Aquatic Weeed Control Methods 217 Table 4.1 Environmental and Economic Impacts of Hunlman Activities Table 8.3 Biocontrol Agents Introducedt to on Aquatic Ecosystems anIc WVater Supply 91 Combat Aquatic WX eeds in Southern Africa 221 FIGURES Figure 2.1 Population Distribution in SADC 2000 2" Figure 2.5 Water Usage in South Africa by Sector 33 Figure 2.2 Total Annual Freshwater- Withdrawal bv Country 2' Figure 2.6 Industrial Water Use in Sonie SADC Countries Figure 2.3 Per Capita W'ater Availability by Country, 1995 - 21)25 28 as ' of Total Annual Freshlwater WX'ithdrawals 36 Figure 2.4 Mean Annual Rainfall in Zimbabwe, 1901/2 - 1992/3 32 Figure 2.7 Current and Projected \X ater Demand by Sector 36  Figure 2.8 Population Growth and Wtter Availability Figure 6.3 Setting Water Qualitv Objectives 166 in the SADC region 38 Figure 7.1 Vegetation-Land-Water Interactions in a Watershed 180 Figure 2.9 Rainfall Variabilitx and Maize Output Figure 7.2 Estimated Annual Rates of Deforestation 1S5 in Zimbabwe, 1970-1993 45 Figure 7.3 Ci . in Vegetation Cover at Some Sites Figure 3.1 Rate of Nitrate Removal by Wetland Ecosvstems 57 due to Watershedl Degradation 186 3.2 Gwaai River: Five-Year Moving Average of No Flow Days/Y'ear Figure 7.- A Comparison of Runoff on the Luano Catchments I ., an Increase in the Number of Days wvith no Befiore and After Clearing Wet Miomho Woodland 189 Flow as a Result of Dambo Mismanagement '0 F... 7.5 Runoff Coefficients for Forested andl Cultivated Land Figure 4.1 Water and Water-hased Ecosystems 9' in the Iringa Catchment in T'anzania 190 Figure 5.1 Eight Steps to Complete an EFA 127 Figure 7.6 TI'he Influence of Forest Cover on Soil Moisture Figure 6.1 Simplified Flowchart of Potable Water Treatment 15- in Four Blantvre Catchiments in Malawi 190 Figure 6.2 Simplified Flowchart of Wastewater Treatment 163 Figure .'7 Loss of Storage Capacitn of a Dam on the Caledon River, South Africa 192 BOXES Box 1.1 Misconceptions about water Box 3.9 Potential for interstate conflict over water demandls and water-depen(lent ecosystems 4 by people and the environment Box 1.2 Impact of groundwater overpumping 6 Box 3.10 Vliv shiould African freshiwater ecosystem Box 1.3 Impacts of land degradationi in the conservation he supported? 74 Lake Malawi-Shire River Catchment 0 Box 4.1 Off-site costs of agricultural ertision in Box 1.4 Principal emnironmental impacts of Zimbahwe and South Africa 94 water resources management 7 Box 4.2 Valuation and cost-henefit analvsis of a watershed Box 1.5 WCD priorities for sustaining rivers and livelihoods 10 conservation programme in Ecua(lor 95 Box .b Water andi water-based ecosv/stem values 10 Box 4.3 Costs of pollution in the Sebou river hasin. Morocco 9( Box 1.- Factors that can undernmine the influence Box 4.4 Using market prices to estimate the value of ELks on project decision-making 13 of wetland resource-use in Barotseland 99 Box 1.8 Environmental management principles for the water sector lo Box 4.5 Introduction of the Nile perch into Lake Victoria 99 Box 1.9 Main objectives of the 7.. Strategic Action Plan for Box 4.6 Productivity losses on land due to he inundated Integrate(d Water Resources Development and h- the Maguga dam, Swaziland 99 Management in the SADC Countries 18 Box 4.' The recreational value of Lake Nakuru, Kenya 99 Box 2.1 Water demand, use, need, withdrawal, Box 4.8 The role of Nakiv-ubo wetland in processing consumption and( consumptive use 26 urbani andc industrial wastes in Kampala 100 Box 2.2 Major lakes in the SADC region 29 Box 4.9 t'sing thC effect-til-productiOn approach to value floodplain Box 2.3 Protectioni andi st-ategic uses of groundwater resources agriculture in the eastern Caprivi wetlands, Namibia 101 in the Limpopo basin and other (Irought-prone Box 4.10 Avertive expenditures, marine and coastal ecosystem areas of the SADC region 31 protection services in Sevchelles 101 Box 2.4 Rainfall trends in southern Africa 196- - 2000 32 Box 4.11 Valuing groundwater recharge through agricultural production Box 2.5 Mining groundwater in Botswana 36 in the I-I Nl. Iwetlands in northern Nigeria 101 Box 2.6 Water for the environment - what does this mean? 3' Box 4.12 Effect on production of offshore fisheries Box 2.7 Water supply and sanitation in Mozambique 39 by the Cahora Bassa dam in Mozambique 102 Box 2.8 Water Demand Nianagement: the case of Nanmibia Box 4.13 -National existence value of and Mozambique 43 Zambia's wetland hiodiversitv 103 Box 2.9 Flood damage to city water supply in Dar es Salaam -i5 Box 4.14 TI '. . . r Hermianus water conservation programme 108 Box 2. 10 Drought impacts on Zimbahwe's economy 46 Box S,1 Common terminology used to describe Box 2. 11 Pula 49 environmental flow recluirements 114 Box 3.1 Multiple dlefinitions of wetlands 56 Box 5.2 Different kinds of river flow and their importance Box 3.2 Significant inland fisheries resources in the SADC region 5' to ecosvstem functioning 115 Box 3.3 The role of wetland ecosystems in Box 5,3 Case study: - ii. to recreate beaches flood attenuation and flow regulation 58 ancl hahitat on the Colorado river, USA 116 Box 3.A The importance of floodplain recession agriculture 58 Box 5.4 Case study: High flows to stimulate spawning of the Box 3.5 Classification of aquatic ecosystems 61 Clanwilliam vellowfish, Olifants river, South Africa 116 Box 3.6 Alien invasive species in southern African Box 5,5 Case study: Flood to maintain estuarv mouth aquatic ecosvstems 71 on the Great Brak river, South Africa 116 Box 3.7 Zimuto-Mshagashe community-based catchment Box S.6 Major reservoirs in SADC countries 116 rehabilitation and exploitation project 73 Box 5.7 The impacts of dams on the lower Zambezi river, Box 3.8 Water-use conflicts in Tanzania '3 with emphasis on Cahora Bassa 118  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Box 5.8 Major extant and proposed inter-basin Box 8.1i Biological control of Red Water Fern, .4zollafiliculoides, water transfers in SADC 118 Austin Roberts Bird Sanctuary, South Africa 228 Box 5.9 South African Water Law of 1998 - The Reserve 119 Box 8.15 Aquatic weed control in Zambia 229 Box 5.10 Environmental releases from Oanob dam 119 Box 9.1 Definition of communitv and water resources management 24n1 Box 5.11 Flow-related impact assessments on the ( 'i , , river 120 Box 9.2 Consultative process in the review Box 5.12 Case study: Application of a holistic,, - . l,, of water laws in South Africa 241 for environmental flow assessments in the Box 9.3 The Wachagga community water management svstem 243 Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWXTP) 128 Box 9.4 Organization for water management Box 0.1 South African wvatercluality ,|l i i,,.,i 139 in the South Pare Mountain area 243 Box 6.2 Firle sewage works overloaded 142 Box 9.5 A communitv-based flood management system for Alexandra 24S Box 6.3 Pollution of Lake Victoria from domestic sewage 14i2 Box 9.0 Khorixas depletes its aquifer 246 Box 6.4 Impact of conflict and informal settlements, Luanda 143 Box 9,7 Mlazi river participatory catchment management programme 247 Box 6.5 Industrial pollution in the Upper Box 9.8 Community approaches to dootbo Manvame basin, Zimbabwe 144 cultivation and management 249 Box 6.6 Mining industries pollute the Kafue river in Zamiibia 14-1 Box 9.9 The Mhongolwane wetland project 250 Box 6.7 Acid streams 146 Box 9. 10 The demise of the Kafue Flats 250 Box 0.8 Mercur- (Hg) 14- Box 9. 11 Community involvement in the management Box 6.9 DDT levels in Lake Kariba 149 (f the 7., i,,floodplain 2S2 Box 6.10 Reservoir sedimentation: Imagi dam, Tanzania 150 Box 9.12 Ruaha Water Supplv Companv 253 Box 6.11 Properly designed sanitary landfill 151 Box 9 13 Community management of Ismani Water Supplv Scheme 253 Box 6.12 Generation rates of solid wastes in urban areas 152 Box 10,1 Key issues relating to environmentally Box 6.13 Impact of open crude dumping of solid waste sustainable water resources management 261 on surface water: Jukskei river pollution - Alexandra 153 Box 10.2 Major weakness, constraints and shortcomings Box 6.14 Water pollution control system, Zimbabwe 160 of existing policv and institutional framework 262 Box 6.15 Water qualitv monitoring 10I Box 10.3 Poorly defined concept of environmental Box 6.16 Formulating a Water Quality Model (WQM 167 sustainabilitv in the water sector 263 Box 6.17 Recommendations for effective WQM policy Box 10.4 Environmental and institutional aspects of the development and implementation 171 Protocol on Shared Watercourses in the SADC region 266 Box 7.1 Biophysical and social elements of a water-shed I'9 Box 10.5 National environmental policy of Lesotho: Box 7.2 Hydrological characteristics of a watershed 1S0 Water resources management strategies 267 Box 7.3 Effects of cultivation on the Iringa catclments Box 10,( The Reserve in South African water law 268 in Tanzania 190 Box 10.' South Africa - new laws make an impact 269 Box 7.4 Water supply problems at the Baricho intake, Kenva 194 Box 10.8 Principles of water allocation rights in Box 7.5 Measures adopted for watershed management 195 selected SADC member states 271 Box 7.6 Integrated watershed management 196 Box 10.9 Water charges principles in Tanzania 272 Box 7.7 Motives for adopting an IWM approach in Soutlh Africa 197 Box 10.10 Botswana urban water supply tariffs, 1991/92 273 Box 7.8 Information required for watershed management 201 Box 10.11 Water pollution issues in Zimbabwe 274 Box 8. 1 Whiy are aquatic weeds so successful in southern Africa? 212 Box 10.12 Sampling and testing of water for effluent in Zimbabwe 275 Box 8.2 Doubling time - How fast can aquatic weeds grow? 213 Box 10.13 Impacts of poor land use on water resources 2'6 Box 8.3 Deadlysvweed, hidden blessing 217 Box 10.14 Zoning for water conservation: Lanc tenure Box 8.4 Main steps in a classical biological control programme 220 and water rights in Tanzania 277 Box 8.5 What is integrated aquatic week control? 223 Box 10.15 Key factors to enhance the role of Box 8.6 Chemical control of Water Hvacinth, Eichhornia cr-assipes ELh in project clecision-makinig 2-9 Hartbeespoort clam, South Africa 223 Box 10.16 How much water might a forest collect from fog? 282 Box 8 7 Lake Chivero, Zimbabwe 22- Box 10.17 National environmental institutions and their responsibilities 284 Box 8.8 Biological control of Water Hyacinth, Eichho rn/a crassipes. Box 10.18 Institutional arrangements for efficient in southern Africa: South Africa, Zimbabwe, Malawi 22- management of water resources in Zimbabwe 286 Box 8.9 Manual, mechanical and biological control of Water Hyacinth, Box 10.19 Functions of catchment management Eichbhoroia crassipes, on Lake Victoria 225 agencies in South Africa 286 Box 8.10 Biological control of Kariba Weed, Salv/i/ia oiloesta, Box 11.1 Key I, ii ,,, in the integration of environmental Eastern Caprivi, Namibia 226 sustainability criteria into water resources management 298 Box 8.11 Integrated control of Kariba Weed, Salvinia molesta - Box 11.2 The lWRM 1, ll,, . has multiple cdimensions 299 Moremi Wildlife Reserve an(d (4 i Delta, Botswana 22b Box 11,3 Typical water quality nmanagement and Box 8.12 Biological control of Water lettuce. Pistia str/itiotes 227 pollution control objectives 301 Box 8 13 Control of Parrot's Feather, .livriophloolin aqnicaticiooi 2 27 Box 11.4 Environmental sustainability criteria for water management 302  ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS AMCEN African Ministerial Conference on the Environment and Natural Resources AU African I mon AWNXX'A Australian W\ ater and Wastewater Association BAT Best A ailable Technology BATNEEC Best Available Tecinologs Not i ,, Excessive Costs BBM Building Block Methodology BOD Biological Oxygen Demand BMP Best Management Practices CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CCD Convention to Combat Desertification CEP Communicating the Environment Programme COD Chemical Oxvgen Demand CSC Commonwealtlh Science Council CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation DDT Dichloro-diphenvl-trichloroethane DO Dissolved Oxygen DRC Democratic Republic of Congo DRIFT Downstream Response to Imposed Flow Transformations DRU Dambo Research Unit DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (South Africa) EFA Environmental Flow Assessments EFR Environmental Flow Requirements ELA Environmental Impact Assessment ELMS Environment and Land Management Sector FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FAW Floating Aquatic Weeds FLOWRESM Flow Restoration Methodology GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environmental Facility GEM Group for Environmental Monitoring GWP Global vW\ater Partnership HEP Hydro-Electric Power HIV Human Immuno-Deficiencv Virus HY'COS Hydrological Cycle Observing Systems (SADC) IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ICM Integrated Catchment Management ICOLD International Commission on Large Dams IOBC International Organization of Biological Control IPM Integrated Pest Management IUCN-ROSA World Conservation Union - Regional Office for Southern Africa If M Integrated Watershed Management IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management KARI Kenvan Agricultural Research Institute LM Leaf Area Index LHDA Lesotho Highlands Development Authority LHWA Lesotho Highlands Water Authority LHWT Lesotho Highlands Water Project LVEMP Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project MAR Mean Annual Runoff MEAs Multilateral Environmental Agreements  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WXATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NCSs National Conservation Strategies NDP Net Depletion of Natural Resources NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index NEAPs National Environmental Action Plans .NEPAD New Partniershliip for Africa's Development NPV Net Present Value OAU Organisation of African Unity PAR Population at Risk PPRI Plant Protection Research Institute REA Regional Environmental Assessment RSA Republic of South Africa RSAP . i Strategic Action Plan RWQO -, - Water Quality Objectives SADC Southlern African Development Community SADCC Southern Afi-ica Development Coordination Conference SADC-ELMS SADC Environment and Lind Management Sector SADC-FANR SADC Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources SADC-IFFW' SADC Inland Fisheries, Forestry anc Wildlife SADC-WSCU SADC Water Sector Coordinlation Unit SAPIA Southern African Plant Invaders Atlas SAPP Southern Afirican Power Pool SAPs Structural Adjustmetnt Programmes SARCCUS Southlern African Regionial Commission for the Conservation and Utilization of Soil SARDC Southern African Research and Documtentation Centre SA\XWQ SADC Aquatic Weeds and Water Quality Coimmittee SFA Sectoral Environmental Assessment Ss Soluble Soli(ds tUNCED UN Conference on Environiment and Development UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Ci, VWC Village Water Conimittees WASA l.esotho Water and Sewerage Authority W QM Water Qualitv Models WRMS Water Resources Management Strategy WSCU Water Sector Coor(diniation Unlit 7ACBASE Zambezi River Basin Information System and Database ZACPLAN Zambezi River Action Plan ZACPRO Zambezi Action Project (Part of 7ACPIAN) ZINWA Zimbabwe National Water Authority ZRA Zambezi River Authority Units of Measure cu m/s cubic metre per second cu km cubic kilometres M cu m million cubic metres cu km/vr cubic klilometres per year mg milligrams per litre cu m cubic metre mm millimetres cu m/month cubic metres per month ppm parts per million cu m/p/yr cubic metres per person per year ppmv parts per million by volume ha hectare per capita per person l/d litres per day sq km square kilometre kg kilogram sq m square metre kg/p/day kilogram per person per day t tonnes kg/cu m kilogram per cubic metre t/km/vr tonnes per kilometre per year km kilometre t/sq km,/vr tonnes per square kilometre per ylear m metre ()) thousands  AUTHORS Shildes BETHUNE Ms. Shirley Bethune, a citizen of Namibia, is a trainecd limnolgist. She has 20 years of experience in aquatic research and water resources management, as curator for water hiologv at the National Museum in Windhoek, as a fisheries biologist at the Freshwater Fish Research Institute at Hardap tlam antI as a chief researcher in the Ecological Research Section of the Department of Water Affairs. She was respon- sible for the research project on the hiological control of Salvnia miiolesta in the eastern Caprivi anfd she was a member of the Okavango Basin Steering Committee of OKACOM. She is the coordlinator of Namihia's National WVater Awareness Campaign and is involved in the preparation and publication of resource materials pertinent to water issues. Mis Bethune is the nationlal coorcdinator of Namibia's Programme to Combat Desertification in the Directorate of Environmental Affairs in the NMinistry of Environment andt Tourism. Cate BROWN Dr. Cate Brown, a citizen of South Africa, is managing partner of the ecological consultancy company, Southern Waters. She has man- aged several major studies on1 environmental flows and other environmental aspects of wvater-resources planning, including the hiophe7si- cal studies for the lesotho Highlancds W'ater Project flow assessments. She has authore(d ahout 80 scientific publications, consultancv reports and reviews, including the EF thematic reviewvs for the Worldl Coimmission on Dams. Nafik HIRJI Dr. Rafik Hi-i, a citizen of l'anzania, is a Senior Water Resources Management Specialist in the Environment Department and the Africa Water Resources Management Initiative of the Worldl Bank. Dr. Hirji is a registered Professional Engineer in California. He has heen with the World Bank for the last nin years working on water resources management poliy reforms, and programmes and projects in Africa, India, the Carihbean and Yemen: and is supporting the implementation of safeguard policies in complex water resources management projects such as the Lesotho Highlands Water Project and the Lower Kihansi .- , ,, . , ,,, ,, i ,i t ,,,, .-.., , i , r i. (Tanzania), as well as the preparation of Kenya's Strategv on Integrated Water Resources Management and the implementation of the River B ,, I ,,, ,,,..,' I l1', .11. Irrigation Improvement Project (Tanzania). He also manages the World Bank Netherlands WVater Partnership Programme for Environmental Flow Assessment. Dr. Hiri is the WAorld Bank Task Team Leadtr for this project anti a memher of the management committee for the report. Ph\ llbs JOHNSON Ms. Phvllis Johnson, a resident of Zimbabwe, is Executive Director of the Southern African Research and Documentation Centre . ' , a regional information resource centre which has heen involved in State of the Environment reporting and water management issutes for the past decade through its India Musokotwane Envirtnnment Resource Centre for Southern Africa I II I- 5 , in an estahlished partner- ship with SADC and IUCN through the Communicating the Environment Programme (CEP). The CEP partnership has produced SADC SOE publications on the environment, water, indigenous forests and woodlands, and the Zaanbezi hasin. SARDC is also active on issues of governance, gender, regional economic development ancd human develoipment in the SADC region. Ms. Johnson is a writer and edtitor, and author of a numher of hooks on various issues in southern Africa. She is a specialist on SADC issues and memher states, and was a member of the management commmittee for the report. Jlk( ke KING Dr. Jackie King, a resicdent of South Africa, is a freshwater ecologist at the University of Cape Town, South Africa and a consultant with Southern Waters i., ,i Researclh and Consulting. She has been researching sotithern African rivers for 27 years, and for the past 1iT years has specialized in methods for assessing and implementing environmental flows for rivers. She was Project Director of the multi- million dollar environmental flow project for the Lesotho Highlands Water Project; is an Advisor on environmental flows to the World Bank Water Partnership Programme (BNWPP) and through that adivises the Mekong River Commission; and is an international consultant on strategies for managing river health, I leather MtACKAY Dr. Heather Mackay, a citizen of South Africa, is a Senior Ecologist in the Water Programme of the Division of Water, Environment and Forest Technology of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in South Africa. She is a registered Professional Natural Scientist. Before joining the CSIR, she worked for the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry in South Africa, where she was closely involved in the reform of national water policy and the drafting of South Africa's National Water Act of 1998. She was also responsible for the implementation of the aquatic ecosystem protection aspects of the new policy and legislation, and the development of procedures for determination of the water quantity and quality requirements of aquatic ecosystems.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES IMANAGEMENT JKalI MARO Professor Paul Maro, a citizen of Tanzania and a Senior Technical Advisor for 10 years to SADC ELMS, is a consultant to the Global Mechanism of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification for the SADC Food Security and Rural Development Hub and is based in Maseru. He advises on the development and implementation of national and sub-regional action programmes for combating land degra- dation, reducing poverty and promoting sustainable utilization and management of natural resources. including land and water resources management. He supported the preparation of the SADC Policy and Strategy for Environment and Sustainable Development. the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses, and the Sub-regional Action Programme to Combat Desertification. Before joining SADC, Prof Maro was a Professor of Geography at the Univcrsities of Dar es Salaam, Zambia and Swaziland. He was a member of the management commit- tee for the report. MIlUact MASUNDIRE Dr. Hillarv Masundire is a citizien of Zimbabwea, now working in Botswania. He has XwOrked as Research Fellow at the Universitv of Zimbabwe's Lake Kariba Research Station and now lectures in freshwater and wetlands ecology in the Department of Biological Sciences, University of Botswana. Dr. Masundire has contributed to the development of a National Wetlands Policy in Botswana. He co-authored an inventory of wetlands in Botswana and several documents that led to the formulation the national policy on wetlands. He has con- tributed to the State of the Environment in Southern Africa, State of the Environment in the Zambezi Basin and the World Commission on Dams Report and is ( h., I,,i''' Lead Authors for the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Project. He is the Chair of the IUCN Commission on Ecosvstem Management - a global network of experts on various aspects of ecosystem management. iihtlth MiATIZA CHIUTA Ms. Tabeth Matiza-Chiuta, a citizen of Zimbabwv, is the Executive Secretary for the Global Water Partnership for Southern Africa based in Harare. She has been on study leave from the IUCN Regional Office for Southern Africa, where she was the Wetlands Programme Coordinator. Over the past 12 y ears, she has worked in the area of wetlands and water resources management throughout southern Africa, and has published and edited numerous articles and reports. Prior to joining IUCN, Ms. Chiuta taught Physical Geography for 5 years at the Universitv of Zimbabwe. She was a member of the management committee for the report. It IlVIOR MAZVIMAVI Mr. Dominic Mazvimavi, a citizen of Zimbabwe, is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Geography and Environmental Science at the University of Zimbabwe, where he teaches hydrology, water resources management, and environmental impact assessment. He has pub- lished a number of papers, covering the following areas; stochastic modelling of river flows, impact of land-use change on river flows, water availability and use, and dambo hydrologv. Mr. Mazvimavi has undertaken over 40 consultancy projects in east and southern Africa dealing with water resources planning and design, feasibility of implementing integrated catchment management, changes in water alloca- tion procedures, and environmental impact assessments. Mr. Mazvimavi provides EIA training to urban local authorities in east and southern Africa. 1,6ih, MOLAPO Mr. Jobo Molapo, a citizen of Lesotho, is Director of the SADC Environnment and Land Management Sector in Maseru. He has wide expe- rience on policy and institutional development for both the environment and water sectors in the region. He supported initial develop- ment of projects and programmes that the SADC Water Sector is currently implementing, including the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses and projects under the Zambezi River Action Plan. Mr. Molapo is 1,,. '.6, l., sub-regional preparations for the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development. NgoI MOYO Dr. Ngoni Moyo, a citizen of Zimbabwe, is a professor in the Department of Biological Sciences at the University of Zimbabwe, where he is also Director of the Tropical Resources Ecology Programme. He has been teaching aquatic , 1. .l 1,,: last 12 years, and has pub- lished more than 20 papers in the area of aquatic ecology. Sibehkil MTETWA Mr. Sibekile Mtetwa, a citizen of Zimbabwe, is pursuing a PhD in environmental chemistry with the University of Pretoria in South Africa, majoring in diffuse pollution from agro-rural sources in a semi-arid developing region. He is Water Quality Manager for the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA), responsible for the protection of water resources from all forms of pollution and the assurance of good quality drinking water from ZINWA's water supplies. His research interests include tliffuse pollution, biological monitoring, and watershed management of water resources and he has given numerous invited lectures on water quality.  \MLik MLTJWAHUZI Professor Mark Mujwahuzi, a Tanzanian citizeni, is a Research Professor in the Institute of Resource Assessment of the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. His main area of research is in water resource assessment. He also teaches a course in water resources in the Geography Department. He is a consultant for the Ministry of Water and Livestock Development, Government of Tanzania, and for inter- national organizations and agencies. He recently completecl the Rural Water Policy component of the Tanzania Water Policy an(i the demonstration Aater project for the city of Dar es Salaam. Professor Muiwahuzi has published extensivetly in the field of rural and urban water supply and w ater resources management. lK(\ in ROBERTS Mr. Kevin Roherts, a citizen of Namibhi, trained as a zoologist in Bangor, North W'ales and( Pretoria, South Africa. He worked as a mammal researcher for the Department of Environment in thte southern Namib until 199- ancd then entered the aquatic field by first ohtaining an MSc in Fisheries .D 1 .and Managenment from Bangor University. His thesis was on using otoliths to age Clarias from Lake Malawi. He has since worked as a principal aquatic scientist in the Department of WVater Affairs, where he heads the ecological research section. Lcnkai T HAMAE Mr. Lenka Thamae, a citizen of Lesotho, is SADC Wetlands Project Coordinator at the IUCN Regional Office for Southern Africa. He has experience in institutional development for water resources and envirotiniental management from his previous engagement at the SADC Environment and Land NManagenment Sector as well as the Water Sector. He is currently supporting IUCN's Water and Nature Initiative activities in sotitherni Africa, as part of ILTTCN's Regional Water Programmre. This includes the development of the d'i , Delta Management Plan and the demonstration of an ecosvstems approach to water resources management in the Limpopo hasin. inc TURPIE Dr Jane Turpie, a citizen of South Africa, is a natural resource economist with a hackground in ecology. She is a lecturer and consultant hased at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. She has worked on the economic valuation of major wetland systems in the Zambezi hasin in Zambia, Namihia, Malawi and Mozambique, and on the loweer Rufiji river hasin, Tanzania. She has played a major role in the development of methiods to detetrmine environmental flows for estuaries, ancl developing methods for incorporating econ(omic con- siderations into the dcecision-niaking process for dteternmination of environmental flows in South Africa. IB U,i van ZYL Mr. Hugo van 7.y, a citizen of South Africa, is an independent economic researcher focusing on the analvsis of projects and policies wvith ma environmental and development implications. He has led, participated in and coordiniatect research in environmental resource econdomics, socio-econonmic impact assessment and project evaluation throughout South Africa over the last sLx years. Currently he is part of the team of specialists reviewing the national wastewater discharge charge strategy and has provided economic inputs into water tariff policy formulationi and energy policy review. Hugo maintains particular research interests in project evaluation, environmental valuation ancd water resource economics. CONTRIBUTORS \luii :iimL I Clhenje Ii ' Mr. Chenje is Programme Officer in the Division of Early Warning and Assessment of UNEP in Nairobi, where he is a member of the team h,,i , i ,, Glohal Environment Outlook. He is a conmmunications,.media specialist and former Director of SARDC IMERCSA. D nLm ms Mashauri, Si\xt u Kayombo chpi ae Professor Mashauri is a lecturer and Dr Kayomho is a researcher in the Civil Engineering Departnment at the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. I.iunoum]e Chidumayo Professor Chidlumavo is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Biologv at the University of Zambia. ,ix\ nc Schafer, Bcri.n Walford hiici 0 Mr Schafer is with the W'ater Resources Programme in South Africa, Mr Walford is with the Mvula Trust in South Africa.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This SADC technical report provides a framework for promoting ,, ill sustainable use and management of the region's water resources. Its preparation was supported by a collaborative partnership between the SADC Environment and Land Management Sector and SADC Water Sector with technical assistance and support from many partner institutions, individuals who are citizens and/or residents of the SADC countries, and institutions anchored in the region. Joho Molapo from SADC ELMS and Phera Ramoeli from the SADC Water Sector have been instrumental in facilitating the report prepara- tion and completion process. The report preparation, including the SADC regional workshop held in Harare in October 1999 to review the draft chap- ters of the report, and the production and dissemination of the final product, has been funded by a Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency Trust Fund managed by the Environment Department and the Africa Water Resources Management Initiative of the World Bank. The World Bank provided overall technical assistance to the report preparation process. Nine of the eleven commis- sioned chapters were prepared by a team of multi-disciplinary specialists who included environmental planners, managers and engineers. natural resources economists, river scientists, freshwater ecologists, civil engineers, biologists, land-use spe- cialists, geographers, wetlands specialists, hydrologists, water resources management specialists, political scientists, sociolo- gists, and journalists. The authors, co-authors and supplementary authors for each chapter are profiled on the previous pages. The draft chapters of the report were reviewed by the National Technical Committee members of both SADC ELMS and Water Sector at a SADC workshop in Harare from 28-29 October 1999. The 65 workshop participants included regional experts from the government, academia and non-governmental organizations. (see Annex 1) The report preparation process was guided by a management committee comprising of Prof. Paul Maro, former Senior Technical Advisor for SADC ELMS, Tabeth Matiza Chiuta of IUCN-The World Conservation Union Regional Office for Southern Africa, Phyllis Johnson and Clever Mafuta of SARDC IMERCSA, and Dr. Rafik Hirji of the World Bank. IUCN ROSA provided project management, administration and coordination support. SARDC IMERCSA produced, published and dis- seminated the report. The World Bank provided the technical editing support. Draft chapter preparation was supported by a Technical Advisory Committee comprising Prof. Charles Breen from the Universitv of Natal; the late Dr. Patience Fakudze, University of Swaziland; Prof. Chris Magadza. University of Zimbabwe; Osborne Shela, Department of Water Affairs, Malawi; and Dr. Eben Chonguica, IUCN Mozambique, now at IUCN ROSA. Draft final chapters were peer reviewed by commissioned specialists including Prof. Fred Otieno, Technikon Southern Africa, South Africa; Dr. Heather Mackay, Living Waters Foundation, South Africa; and Takawira Mubvami, University of Zimbabwe. In addition, several staff from SADC ELMS (including Nthabiseng Majara), SADC Water Sector (Lawrence Ramoseu) and World Bank (Inger Andersen, Jakob Granit and Robert Robelus) and the management committee members also reviewed some of the final chapters on behalf of these agencies. Financial and administrative support was provided by Gamuchirai Chingoma and Wendy Kahiya from IUCN ROSA and Sharon Esumei from the World Bank; editorial assistance was provided byJennifer Lee and research assistance by Cathrine Mutambirwa, Maria Mutama, Maya Tatuch and l.eo Wamwanduka from SARDC IMERCSA. Phyllis Johnson of SARDC text edited the report and helped re-shape some key chapters. Dr. Heather Mackay assisted in the structuring of the final report. The creative work of Paul Wade at Inkspots design studio gives a visual impact to the report. The contributions and pivotal role of all of the institutions and individuals who supported the preparation of this report is gratefully acknowledged. Rafik Hirji, July 2002  Southern Africa showing SADC Member States Map 0.1 Democratic oKinshasa Republic Victoria Republic Tanzania - . . . of Congo eDodoma Seychelles Dar es Salaam eLuanda Angola . Malawi Zambia Lilonwe Lusaka ,e '. Zornba Harare Zimbabe 'Mozambique 4 . Zimbabwe. Namibia Port-Louis e k Botswana Mauritius Windhoek.- I Gaboronee Pretoria Maputo Mbabane¶4aziland Maseru - Lesotho South Africa eCape Town Scale 0 500 lk  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT .,-i miid tc\t diloigye Paul Wade, Inkspots Design Studio, Harare MAips Wayne Miller, Inkspots Fnm as Cr pIli ,ro David Martin, APG lBa k h m ci phi ori 1) Martin, P Wade, M Kulberg, G Nealon bn-i itic] iitt id i i Crystal Graphics, Harare P'rield in iuih Afrl a h DS Print Media, Johannesburg  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WAThR RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A5. . . B w = '~ ~~-- - --A Pme _ ~" -,=~r- 0-r X__ - IF~~~~~~~,, ; s  CONTENTS 1.1 INTRODUCTION 3 1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THIS TECHNICAL REPORT 5 1.3 KEY WATER RESOURCES ISSUES 5 1.3 1 W'ater scarcity in soutitern Africa 6 1.3,2 Emerging policy reforms 7 1.3 3 Integration of environmental sustainability criteria 7 1.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABILITY 10 1.4.1 A svstem in crisis: a degrading and undervalued resources base 10 1.4.2 Ecosystem goods and services 10 1.4.3 Elements of sustainable water resources management: balancing use and protection 11 1.5 CHALLENGES TO SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES 11 1.5.1 Conceptual, iii..' -' 11 1.5.2 Absence of environmental quality criteria to define sustainability in the water sector 12 1.5.3 Inadequate economic analysis 12 1.5.4 Ineffective environmental impact assessment process 12 1.5.5 Inadequate consultations and participation during the ELA processes 12 1.5.6 Environmentally unsustainable water management policies 13 1.5.7 Environmental regulations for international waters 14 1.5.8 Capacity constraints 15 15.9 Emerging trends 15 1.6 OPPORTUNITIES TO BUILD UPON 15 1.6.1 Consensus on principles of sound water resources management 15 1.6.2 International agreements, conventions and initiatives 16 1.6.3 Regional water management and environmental initiatives 17 1.6.4 National water policy, legal and institutional reforms 17 1.7 AN OVERVIEW OF OTHER PARTS OF THE REPORT 19 Part 1 Water Resources Development and Management: Striving for a Sustainable Balance 19 Part 2 Water Resources Management: Safeguarding the Resource Base 19 Part 3 Legal and Institutional Framework: Mainstreaming the Environment in Water Resources Management 19 P'art 4 Lessons Learned and Recommendations for the Way Forward 19 REFERENCES 20  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 1.1 INTRODUCTION (b) sustainable water resources management must balance between the short term needs of the people for The Southern African Development Communit (SADC) their social and economic development and the protec- con missioned the preparation of this technical report on tion of the natural resource hase. D.,. . , sandMainstreamii(q Environmen/ Protection is a longer term goal for ensuring that the Soistaiiiabili, in Waiter Resources .1anagemuent in resource base is utilized wiselv so that it can continue to Southern Africa to contribute to the public policy dis- provide benefits for improving people's livelihoods and course ancl to support the development of practical 1"ll of life, Ieducing poverty and fostering economic approaches for the integration of environmental qualit) growth into the future on a sustainable basis. objectives in the planning and management of the water The report is based on two fundamental assumptions sector.' The report addresses a key SADC objective, "to that link water and environment to poverty alleviation. achieve sustainable utilization of natural resources and First, strategies to reduce poverty should not lead to effective protection of the environment", and supports further degradation of water resources or ecological the integration of environmental quality objectives into functions and services. the implementation of the SADC Protocol on Shared Second, sustainable water use ancl improved environ- Watercourses and the Regional Strategic Action Plan mental quality should contribute to reducing poverty (RSAP) for Integrated Water Resources Development and Table 1. I below summarizes the elements of a basic Management in the SADC Countries (I' . '.... This framework for id i, ry ,i, envii-onment, and poverty. A technical report is also a SADC contribution to the United broad definition of poverty is adoptecl, that extends well Nation's World Summit on Sustainable Development (\'SSD) inJohannesburg in August 2002 and to the New Partner- Dimensions of poverty Examples of water and environmental linkages ship for Africa's Development (NEPAD). The report provides policy guidance Income and Consumption Access to water for productive use, access to natural resources, sustainable growth and practical tools for addressing the Inequality and Equity Secure tenure and access to natural resources, specific I1 11li , related to the water, water rights and entitlements environment and poverty nexus. The Sustainable Livelihoods Sustainable land and water use practices Health Water quality, safe drinking water and sanitation, central messages of the report are that, protection against water-borne disease (a) effective development and effec- Security and Vulnerability Improved disaster preparedness and response, water harvesting and conservation tixe management of water resources are Inclusion and Empowerment Participation, devolution of ownership, rights and essential for sustainable growth and responsibilities to water users, community groups, poverty reduction in the SADC region, basin organizations, local governments and I Ti' rh, p crt 1 . 1iin Mnilulltiv e,f the SADC Envirn nment indi hu e n.tManagu tttt Scuor El \i' rl d thc SO' V'.titl S.tor  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT beyond income and consumption, to include inequality, stream communities. Often, these voiceless communities health, opportunity. I iii i anc Ili 1, i ii are excluded during the planning and operations of major Understanding the biophysical, social, and socioeco- hyclraulic infrastructure, and in this regard, the report nomic '-1 .1 is critical to addcressing the environiment, underscores their important role in project planning and water, and poverty nexus because in many cases it is the management decision-making. The report, however, does poor, who are most directly or indirectly dependent on not focus on individual water sector issues (such as terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems for their livelihoodls and domestic water supply or irrigation or hydropower) or on - | iiill -.l; groundwater; ancl it dcloes not focus on climate variability "Because of social and economic li ii ni the or climate change considerations. poor often live in fringe areas, where access to potable supplies anct adeqjuate sanitation facili- Misconceptions about water Box 1.1 potale uppiessaniati)n aci and Water-dependent ecosystems ties is limited and where higlher mortality, mor- hidity, anti tlisease rates prevail. Or they live in There are a number of misconceptions about water and highlv vulnerable areas II l ancd water-dependent ecosystems that are so widespread they are often taken as fact by various sectors and individuals, degradedwatersheds),where 'lb1.-,,,capaci- including in some cases, at high levels of decision-making: ty to natural andI anthropogenic shocks and * That water originates from pipes, and not from disasters is limited. Also, poor downstream watersheds, springs and aquifers. * That wetlands are wastelands with no social or communities relying on floo(d recession agri- economic value to society. culture, dry season livestock water supplies, 0 That freshwater biodiversity is not important to the region fodder I.d or fishing are often left out * That water flowing into the sea is wasted water. * That downstream impacts of major water projects are when miajor upstream water allocation or insignificant and therefore should be ignored. urban/industrial development decisions are 0 That environmental management is a concern of made without adlequate considerationis of outsiders and not of the region's people. * That environmental management provides few downstream uses. (Hirji and lbrekk 2001: 2) benefits to society, but is costly and poses a huge The overall goal of the report is to infornm economic burden. the policy and decision makers about the com- * That existing Environmental Impact Assessment policies and laws are sufficient for integrating environ- plex biophysical, social ancd economic climen- mental sustainability criteria into water resources sions of environmental sustainability in the planning and management decision-making. water sector The report underscores the fact that sustain- .1 able management of water resources must incorporate at v 1 . I an oper-ational level, the ecological, economiiic and social considerations into water resources planning ancl manage- ment decision-making. Another goal is to, provide policy guidance, practical approaches and operational tools for developing and managing the region's basic and vital resource - water - in an environmentally sustainable manner, share successful lessons and experienices about ' 'Pk environmentally sustainable water resources management practices from the region, anct define in operational terms the elements of environ- mentally sustainable water i-esour-ces managemenit't. The report attempts to dispel myths about water and dependent ecosystems (Box 1. 1 in order to assist policy makers and water managers to make informed project This wter nell. built 0r i1., at Ungilia L.ku in decisions on how to address h, r l I adverse impacts solithem Z7azibar anid still jin use, illustrates the long histonr of on important natural systems an( liveliho ods of down- developmient ad ii a magemeent of esources in theb 51DC region.  A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK This chapter provides the conceptual framework for the ing from direct water development activities, as well as report. It begins with the objectives of the report, and an indirect land use and other activities within the river overview of the key water resources issues in the region and hasin. The report is based on an analysis of best practices the emerging water policy reforms. It also highlights the from the region. The implementation of the recommen- weakness in water policy reform of the operational integra- dations of this report will contribute towards the main- tion of environmental sustainability criteria into the deci- streaming of environmental sustainability in water sion-making process. The conceptual framework for sustain- resources management in the SADC region. abilityis ii ililI'.. I next, This is followedbya reviewof The report has been prepared bv specialists from the the existing challenges to sustainable management of water SADC region,' and they include environmental planners resources. The chapter then identifies the opportunities at and managers, natural resources economists, river scien- global, regional and national levels that can be used as a tists, freshwater ecologists, civil engineers, biologists, land foundation to promote effective integration of environmen- use specialists, wetlands I*,,. i, , hvdrologists, water tal sustainabilitv in the water sector. Finally, an overview is resources management specialists, political scientists, soci- presented of the other chapters in the report. ologists, and journalists. The draft chapters of the report were presented for review to the National Technical 1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THIS TECHNICAL REPORT Committee members of both SADC ELMS and SADC Water Sector at a workshop in Harare from 28-29 October 1999, Comparecl to most developing regions of the world, the and to a scientific advisory committee. More than 65 par- Southern African Development Communitv (SADC) is ticipants at the workshop included regional experts from ahead of the curve in the search for environmentally sus- governments, academia and non-governmental organiza- tainable solutions for managing its limited and fragile tions. (See list of workshop participants in Annex 2) The water resources. However, much needs to be done to final draft was peer reviewed bv specialists from the have in place both an po ii-ri ill, effective policy and an region, the SADC ELMS and SADC Water Sector, and the institutional framework, and practices that reflect effective World Bank. integration of sustainable management principles. As a The target audiences of this report include water contribution to the discourse on environmental sustain- resources and environmental policy makers, planners, abilitv in the water sector, the SADC Environment and managers and decision-makers from the public and private Land Management Sector (ELMS), with the SADC Water sectors, and undergraduate and graduate students interest- Sector and partners- has prepared this technical report ed in various natural resources management disciplines. with the overall objective of, enhancing the understanding of the ecological 1.3 KEY WATER RESOURCES ISSUES dimensions, and promoting more effective integration of these dimen- In southern Africa, water is not only an essential resource, sions into the management of water resources, but also a limited and fragile resource. The availability of thereby! water unclerpins the social and economic fabric of the socie- addressing a key SADC objective, "to achieve ty in the region which is characterized broadly as underde- sustainable utilization of natural resources and veloped with widespread poverty. The SADC region's popu- effective protection of the environment." lation is largely rural-based but is urbanizing rapidly; and, The specific intention of this report is to provide a although it is heavily dependant on agriculture, access to framework for defining tools for sustainable management land and water in a few countries such as Namibia, South of water resources and for operationalizing complex con- Africa and Zimbabwe has remained the domain of minori- cepts related to the impacts on the water environment of ties, due to racially skewed policies of the past. Low cover- changes in the amount, timing and quality of water result- age of water supply and sanitation facilities for the rural and 2 The partners incli(le ILUCN Thie World consertation Union Regional Office for Sonthern Afriea i ROSA), the Southurn Afrtcan Research and rDCLimentation Centre SARDCt India MNusokotirtane Elit ironmenit Resoutrce Ccntre for Southern Africa lNlERCSAA the Africa W'ater Restourres Management Initiative (AWRNI\ Uncl the ERnvionment Department of the World Bank. aid the Swedish Interniatinral Dec lopmetit Cooperationt Agenc (Sidai 3 The specific numerical data tit pollution. ituter toe, and %Natce carcitv mtd t other related parameters crc dernted hr inrivitdual experts on the hasis if the information that nas avatlable ain star therefore tar' hom si-me of the officiali sactinci d 1Ltinibihrs The utlhr,r and editors haue tried to rse ficral tiata then availahle aitd tier take full responsihility for other data nhicl carinot he attrlhuted tcr SADC.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT '- 1|* water resources, and exacerbate competition and conflict between and among sectoral users. In southern Africa, water is a vulnerable resource. extreme climate variability and emerging climate change which, in a predominantlv rural-based societv and agrarian economy determines if a season will Orvx at Nacnibia s Ftosha panl. wbere wrater is a limited anid vulnerable resouirce. result in bountiful harvest or a catastrophic event urban poor has a significant impact on public health. The (such as the recent floods in Mozambique); region's wetlands support the livelihoods of 60 percent of increasing degradation of water resources due to rural farmers and pastoralists, as well as wildlife and other unsustainable water and land use practices such as biodiversity. The region's energy is generated mostly from overabstraction of surface sources or overpumping of hydroelectricity. groundwater (Box 1.2), pollution of water, watershed In short, water is an essential resource for supporting degradation (Box 1.3), loss of and encroachment on human and other forms of life, maintaining ecological sys- wetlands, i r, 1,, of aquatic weeds and tems and sustaining economic development in all sectors. introduction of alien species; and lmpact of groundwater Box 1.2 1.3.1 Water scarcity n southern Afrcaerpumping Water is also a limited resource in southern Africa (see Map 1.1). It is already scarce in a number of local basins. Groundwater is used to supply an increasing number of urban and rural communities in the Bv 2025, on the basis of data on renewable supplies and SADC region. The amount of groundwater that demographics (Map 1.2), it is expected that Malawi and can be obtained in an area depends on the South Africa will be facing absolute water scarcity,' and character of the underlying aquifer and the extent and frequency of recharge. If extrac- Lesotho, Mauritius, Tanzania, and Zinmbabwe will be water tion exceeds the net recharge and these prac- stressed;' while Angola. Botswana, DRC, Mozambique. tices are sustained over long periods, severe Swaziland and Zambia are likely to experience water quai- irreversible impacts could result. These may include a drop in the water table, land subsi- ty and E ,,I i I ii problems in the dry season. (See also dence, and saltwater intrusion, which in turn Table 2.1 in chapter 2) Water demand for a rapidly increas- can trigger impacts on ecosystems - habitat destruction, potential loss of species, and ing population (growing at a rate of 3 percent per annum) reduction of environmental services performed and an urbanizing population (growing at a rate of 6.5 per- by the degraded ecosystems and increase the cent per annum) will increase the stress on the limited cost of pumping. Impacts of land degradation in the Like WMalawi-Shire River Catchment Box 1.3 Soil erosion is resulting from deforestation caused by woodfuel harvests and cultivation on steep slopes in the Lake Malawi/Shire River catchment in Malawi, Tanzania and Mozambique. This is seriously affect- ing water resources, inhibiting fish reproduction, and possibly having serious impacts on lake levels. In Malawi, the pondage at Nkula on the Shire River, supplies both the main power plant in Malawi and the pumping station, providing the entire water supply for Blantyre. Sediment bedload transport- ed during the wet season by the Shire River tributaries between Liwonde and Nkula is accumulating in the Nkula pondage, affecting power output and Blantyre's water supply. As a short term measure, the power utility plans to dredge about 500,000 cubic metres of silt at a cost of up to US$3 million. Even more serious, recent falls in Lake Malawi levels have threatened to stop flows into the Shire altogether, and cause almost complete failure of national power generation, Blantyre water supply, major irrigation schemes in the Lower Shire, and several wildlife habitats. Together, this would crip- ple the national economy. The Malawi government recognizes the importance of improved water resources management in addressing the threats, but this also needs the cooperation of co-riparians Mozambique and Tanzania. Grey 1996 X Water scarcitv can he defined a, the availahility of 1i to cu m of freshwater, perctrnctear, or less tPAI 2000) See Chapter 2. Tahle 21 for a more detailed calculation. ; Water stress cani be clefitted a, the avAilahilitc of l,OOO1.-011 cu m of freshuater pteriont ear. (PAI 200(6 Sce Chapter 2, Tablc 21 fora more detiled calculatnin.  A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK numerous transboundary waters in the region with A review of past and ongoing efforts, and of specific complex water rights issues, contributing to the actions on the ground, indicates that, in spite of the insecurity of downstream uses and nations. ongoing important and innovative reforms taking place to address the water resources management challenges, 1.3.2 Emerging policy reforms many weaknesses remain and among the weakest areas It is now recognized that the effective management of of water policy reform is the integration of environmental water resources in southern Africa is an essential condi- sustainability objectives in operational terms into the tion for alleviating poverty and improving human health, planning and management decision-making on water food securitv, environmental sustainability, overall eco- resources investments. This is a result of many complex nomic development and regional security factors that are the focus of this report and are examined Actions to foster institutional and policy reforms for in depth. Box 1.4 describes the clifferent orders of result- improving the management of surface and ground water ing environmental impacts that can result from typical are underwav at the national, international, and regional water resources management activities. levels. Most reforms are incorporating principles of eco- nomic .JF, environmental ,i 1 ii h1ih and social Principal environmental impacts Box 1.4 of water resources management equity in water resources planning and management decision-making. At the national level, new water poli- The principal environmental issues related to water resources cies, strategies and master plans are being prepared and concern effects on the quantity, timing and quality of water (first order impact)-from direct use or management of surface new institutional arrangenments (river basin and catch- and groundwater, and from all sectors that use water or affect ment agencies) are being established. At the interna- water resources in a catchment. Hydrological and water quality modifications caused by water management and other activities tional level, agreements are beig put i place for jont may in turn cause second order impacts (including primary pro- development and management of specific shared water ductivity) and third order impact (on the food web) with conse- resources. quences on downstream aquatic ecosystems, including wet- lands, flood plains, estuaries and the marine environment and At the regional level, the SADC Water Sector human settlements. Coordination Unit has prepared a Regional Strategic Action Plan for Integrated Water Resources Development Although awareness about the environment has gen- and Management in the SADC countries (1999 - 2)iI i, erally increased over the past three decades, the actual which is being used as a basis for developing particular practice of integration of environmental qualitv objectives projects and programmes. in water resources planning and management decision- making remains problematic. The concept of environ- 1.3.3 Integration of environmental mental sustainability is neither defined clearlv bv the envi- sustainability criteria ronmental community nor is it articulated adequately in Water resources management activities in the region operational terms or integrated properly in water projects include investments for urban, rural, industrial, mining, and policies by water managers, For example, few envi- livestock, wildlife and agricultural water supply; sewage ronmental managers and even fewer water managers treatment; flood control: irrigation and drainage; understand properlv the concepts and methods for deter- hydropower and navigation projects or other projects mining water requirements for ccological uses. It is there- which directly alter the quantity and qualitv of water fore not surprising that environmental uses of water resources. Other sectoral activities affecting waters invariably tend to be compromised in water allocation and resources include changes in land use to agriculture, use decisions, and particularly during water-use conflicts. forestry, mining, and construction (indirectly influencing Often, complex decisions are made on the basis of inade- runoff characteristics and infiltration regimes and sedi- quate data, information and analvses or as a result of ment loads carried in surface waters), and industrial and introduced biases. Even when sound analyses are carried agricultural discharge (impacting the chemical, biological out, the decision-making process is often overridden by and physical properties - or quality - of water). economic and political considerations. t Other Important weaknesses tobe addresed include the effective particpation if nater users and stakeholders in the planning and maniagement decision-making. and the realization of water as an econoimic reource with adaption ef policies fir recovering the cast o f water servLies. and i ater resoUrces priri,tccti in and management.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN W'ATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Water Scarcity in Southern Africa: Water and People, 1995 Map 1.1 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 -- ,u y - I ts TanzaniaIff28.4 Seychelles 0.07 r , M I/a. _ __ Zambiall9.1 _ Ma - _ -'Zimbabwe u we 15.4 lt 11.5 Mauritius 1.41 LJziland*4t0.9 South Africa \Lobsbthol4ff1.9 39.4 Water Scarcity Index <100 Adequate 600-1000 Water stress >2000 Water barrier 100-600 Quality and dry 1000-2000 Absolute scarcity O Population figures in millions 0 500Skm season problems _ Water Scarcitv Index from Falkenmark 1993. Recalculated using water availability data from Gleick 2000 Population figures 1995 from SADC, in SADC Statistics 2000 Data on availability represent average annual freshwater resources, as the actual will vary from year to year. The data cover surface and ground water tncluding surface inflows from neighbouring countries, what FAO (1995) calls "total natural renewable water resources". Most countries do not measure sir report internal water resources data, and estimates are produned using indirect methods Data from small countries anct countries in arid and semi-arid zones are less rehable than are those for larger, wetter countries, (Ohlsson 1995) Serious gaps in regional hydrological data still exist. sce alssi Table 2.1 in chapter 2 i  A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Projected Water Scarcity in Southern Africa: Water and People, 2025 Map 1.2 .J Democratic ! _- / Republic ^ f' of Congo#A 102.8 ' - ( Tanzania§ 50.0 Seychelles Th I \ .L JL J 1-o Angola %425.9 - F 1&Ma8awi 8l8.6 Zambia#* *MAl'.2. |- Zimbabwe MozambiquelkW#f26.7 Q~~~~~~~~~~~~~ _ 7.3' Y^ l i ~~~~~~Botswana t ,; 2 |4 w 2.2 .Mauritius * *49* 1.4 S-Jaz landI#? 1.8 South Africa \1,eotho*41#3.4 *A f50.1 Water Scarcity Index <100 Adequate F 600-1000 Water stress >2000 Water barrier V 7 100-600 Qualityand dry m 1000-2000Absolute scarcity SPopulationfiguresinmillions Scale season problems _05 0km W'ater Scarcity Index from Falkenmark 1993. Recalculated using water availability d3ta from Gleick 2000. Population figures 1995 from SADC, projected for 2000 using 1999 population and annual growth rates in SADC Statistics 2000 Population projections for 2025 based on prolections 2000-2025 from UN Population Division 1998, in UNFPA 2000. and recalculated at the same rate using SADC data for 2000 Comparative data for 2025 are reliant on population projections which are not calculated uniformly for each Lountrv, thus showing outdated and unadjusterl figures, for example. for Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Geographical *ariations within countnes are also a factor, for example in Malawi and Namibia, where wNater resources are concentratecl mainly in one part of the countmr while other parts of the same countrv are already short of water. However, Maps 1. and 12 represent the situation based on the most reliable data currentlv available. (see Table 2.1 in chapter 2t  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT This finding is not unique to the SADC region, but WCD priorities for sustaining Box 1.5 represents a fundamental and widespread problem. The rivers and livelihoods African Water Resources Management Policy Conference The World Commission on Dams (2000) has in Nairobi in 1999 reinforced the need for managing water suggested the following strategic priorities for resources in an environmentally sustainable, socialiv sustaining rivers and livelihoods: * A basin-wide understanding of the acceptable and economicallv efficient manner. The World ecosystem's functions, values and require- Water Vision presented at the second World WVater Forum ments, and how community livelihoods depend on and influence them, is required in the Hague in March 2000 highlighted environmental before decisions on development options degradation as a serious emerging XulleLn,g to the water are made; * Decisions that value ecosystem, social and sector. The Report of the World Commission on Dams health issues as an integral part of project (WCD) issued in November 2000 proposes a new frame- and river basin development, and that work for decision-making for dam projects (Box 1.), priority in accordancempaiths are given which emphasizes consideration for environmental and approach; * A national policy is developed for maintain- social issues and more active involvement of stakeholders. ing selected rivers with high ecosystem functions and values in their natural state. 1.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEVJORK daSWhen reviewing alternative locations for 1.4 CONCEPTUAl. FRAMEWORK ~~dams on undeveloped rivers, priority is FOR SUSTAINABILITY given to locations on. tributaries; * Project options are selected that avoid significant impacts on threatened and 1.4.1 A system in crisis: a degrading endangered species. When impacts cannot and undervalued resource base be avoided, viable compensation measures are put in place that will result in a net The water resources system, comprising water and water- gain for the species within the region; and dependent ecosvstems. is essential for the sustenance 0 Large dams provide for releasing environ- dependent ecos'stems, is ~~mental flows to help maintain downstream and health of all species, human beings, plants, and ani- ecosystem integrity and community liveli- mals. Although water in the region is treated as a source hoods, and are designed, modified and of natural capital that provides fundamental input for a whole array of human needs and economic development activities, and as a sink that is used as a receptor for Water and water-based Box 1.6 wastewater discharges from municipal. industrial, mining, ecosVXtem values urban and agricultural activities, the important hvdrologi- The diverse values of the services and func- cal and ecological functions of freshwater depen(lent tions provided by water and water-based ecosvstems are less well recognized, and are consequent- ecosystems are: * Direct values associated with consumptive lv, poorly addressed in planning and management deci- and non-consumptive uses of water for sion-making. domestic purposes, industrial outputs, irrigating crops, watering stock, production of hydro-power, for wild plants and wildlife, 1.4.2 Ecosystem goods and services fishing, transport, recreation, etc. Aquatic ecosystems serve important ecological and hydro- 0 Indirect values which derive from logical functions which people, especially the poor, often ecosystem functions and services such as nutrient retention, filtering contaminants, directly depend upon. (Hirji and Ihrekk 2001) Box 1.6 regulating and storing flows, groundwater highlights the multiple uses, values, services and functions recharge, flood control, protection against storm surges, shoreline stabilization, of water and water-dependent ecosystems. Riverinle, micro-climate, etc. riparian and wetlands ecosystems provide many social and * Option values based on premiums placed economic services and benefits, such as fisheries, nutrient on possible future use and applications including for agricultural, industrial and removal, water supply, and forest products. pharmaceutical uses, etc. Understanding the range of benefits and services provid- * Non-use, intrinsic values on the basis of ed bv aquatic ecosystems has vital equity and distribution- cultural, aesthetic, heritage, bequest and spiritual significance. al implications when assessing possible changes to flow spirta l sni c and quality as a result of upstream actions.  A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The World Water Vision I 'i ii 1.. the fact that resource base. Thus, water resources need to he protect- there is a persistent and systemic water crisis in many ed from these impacts in order to sustain the flow of countries that is being manifested in several different goods and senrices. Protection of water resources under- wavs. (World Water Council 21)00) On one hand, the gap pins their utilization for the long term and ensures that between water supply and demand for urban, industrial, sufficient water quality and quantity is available to meet agricultural and energy uses remains very high, but on the hasic human needs and protection of hiodiversit. other hand, unsustainable land and water-use practices Equallv important is the protection of ecosystem structure are resulting in the depletion of the resource base. Some and function to maintain the resilience and sustainabilitv of the main problems in the SADC region, which are also of the resource. Protection is also important to ensure cited in the World Water Vision Report are: that the water quality requirements of water users can be Aquifers are being mined at an unprececlented rate met for the long term. (DWAF 1997h and watertables are dropping in aquifers; Excessive water diversions for irrigation and 1.5 CHALLENGES TO SUSTAINABLE regulation for 1.,1 ', production have had MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES devastating effects on downstream uses with some rivers ceasing to flow to the sea; 1.5.1 Conceptual challenge Tensions and conflicts over water use are increasing; A central l, 11, I, facing the region is that the concept of Lack of attention to maintenance in catchments has sustainahle water resources management is poorly under- contributed to I, and flood damage; stood hb policy makers as well as bv water resources plan- The problem of pollution andi water quality in rivers, ners and managers. The concept of the 'environment" lakes and aquifers is worsening: continues to remain elusive in spite of the progress made The rate of freshlwater fish species extinction is high; since the United Nations Conference on the Human Deforestation and land degradation are having signifi- Environment in 197 2, the African Mlinisterial Conference cant negative impacts on1 urban water supply and on Environment and Natural Resources in 1985, and the reservoir siltation: United Nations Conference on Environment and The ratc of wetland degradation is reaching alarming Development in 1992. Although the First Dublin proportiois: Principle, also known as the ecological principle, has been Aquatic weed infestations are impacting on water widely accepted, its implementation in the water sector is resources and imposing huge operational and poor. There is a wide disconnect between water man- maintenance costs. agers and environmental managers. Important hvdrologi- cal and ecological services provided by the aquatic envi- 1.4.3 Elements of sustainable water resources ronment are considered to be of marginal value, and wet- management: balancing use and protection lands continue to be seen as wastelands and not an inte- Sustainable water resources management encompasses gral part of the water resource base. Water flowing into two related components whiich are in a dlynamic tension the sea is considered 'wasted water" It is therefore not and which must be hrought into balance: surprising that the environment continues to be utilization (or development) of the water resources addressed narrowly. its protection is seen by water man- for various human needs; and agers as a "green" issue promoted largely by external protection (or management) of the water resources interest groups. so that they can continue to he utilized for present Three decades after Stockholm and a decade after and future generations. Rio, environmental protection is still considered as anti- WVater is used to provide various services that are uti- development. The intrinsic properties of ecosystems are lized for the benefit of people, through equitable distribu- not - 'I understood or appreciated, and consequentlI, tion of goods and) services. However, utilization of water biota are not seen as important indicators of the health of resources has impacts. Poor planning and use of water aquatic ecosystems - river, lake or wetlandi - upon which resources can, for example, result in pollution, or abuse the livelihoods of millions of people, livestock, and and degradation which in turn negatively impacts on the wildlife depend, and wlhich comprise important habitats  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES iMANAGEMENT for biodiversitv. This challenge reflects the fundamental 1.5.4 Ineffective environmental failure of the global environmental community to ade- impact assessment processes quately articulate to societv the rationale, both economic A fourth ii ill: is the over-reliance on environmental and intrinsic, for the protection of aquatic resources. It is impact assessment (ETA) as a tool for effectively integrat- important to address this in order to improve the under- ing the environmental concerns in project planning and -''ii' .. l of the ecological and hydrological services pro- decision-making. Even though ElAs are being implement- vided by aquatic ecosystems. ed in most SADC member states, only a few countries have adopted EIA legislation, and even fewer countries 1.5.2 Absence of environmental quality criteria implement this legislation effectively; fewer still have com- to define sustainability in the water sector plementary sector , I ,: that are essential for effectively A related I. 1l, ll, is the absence of clear criteria that implementing ETA. While ELAs are beginning to be consid- define environmental quality goals or objectives to guide ered as important tools for screening and predicting the water resources planners and managers in their decision- environmental impacts of projects, in most cases the ETA making. The absence of clear criteria, especially local cri- requirements are not implemented effectively. Experience teria, typically compromises the environmental use has indicated that the actual influence of EtA on project requirements of water over the uses of water for sectoral decision-making is typically limited. Often, ElAs are used purposes. The lack of specific measures of sustainability only to legitimize decisions alreadv taken (Hirji and (for allocating water and setting water quality objectives) Ortolano 1991). However, there is no question that the complicates the task of defining acceptable or allowable adoption of ETA policies has increased awareness about levels of change in quantity or quality. and this can result the environmental impacts of different investments and in an ambiguous level or degree of compliance to stipulat- development activities. ed provisions. A set of clear guiding principles defining sustainable use and management of water resources is 1.5.5 Inadequate consultations needed, to form the basis for developing specific national, and participation during the EIA process international, and regional priorities. The perception that the ETA process only legitimizes deci- sions that are already formed arises from several factors. 1.5.3 Inadequate economic analysis In societies with mature EIA practice, the ETA process A third I I: l ,,, relates to the use of limited and outdat- broadens the planning and management decision-making ed economic evaluation methods - cost/ benefit analysis process. In most SADC countries, the EtA practices are (CBA) - in project evaluation. (Turpie and van Zyl 2002) still nascent and are tightlv controlled. Opening up the CBA typically considers economic issues related to the use project decision-making process is often considered as a and management of water resources, in which maximizing loss of control and a threat by project authorities. A relat- economic efficiency entails maximizing net benefits that ed factor is the limited or controlled consultation process contribute directly to the standard measures of economic adopted during the preparation and implementation of performance, for example, Gross Domestic Product ElAs. (GDP). i i-ri'll 1,1,1 is perceived in terms of the benefits Major water sector investments not only alter the from economic activities associated with the direct use of river flows and associated ecosystems, but also impact the water resources rather than for sustaining a full range of upstream and downstream riverine communities and peo- benefits, including ecological services, functions and biodi- ple dependent on the waters, ecosystems and associated versity. This limited approach ignores the benefits of envi- products. Often, the proponents of major water ronmental management, the economic implications of resources investments are large and powerful public and degraded water resources and aquatic ecosystems, and private utilities (for example, responsible for the genera- their accounting as an opportunity cost of damaging eco- tion of energy, provision of irrigation or domestic water nomic activities and management approaches. supply) or agencies (for example, river basin authorities, Understanding the opportunitv cost implications of water irrigation districts or corporations) with the financial, supply and allocation is central to making informed deci- technical and human resources to procedurally influence sions about development and allocation trade-offs. the ETA process, and content-wise even influence the EIA  A CONCEPTUIAL FRAMEWORK Factors that can undermine the Box 1.7 influence of ETAs on project decision-making The influence of EIA on project decision-making can be dimin- ished if, * the scope of the EIA is narrow (for example, if downstream impacts of a dam project located in a sensitive ecological area are not evaluated properly); * the methods used to predict and forecast the impacts are not adequate; Pastoralists siuchc1as.laasai and olher small rural communities * the EIA is implemented late in the decision-making process are ofien -.' .' -:... 'inthedecision-maek~inpr-ocessbecause (for example, after the project has been sited or after the major project design decisions have been made); th-y lack adequate representation 601(1 leSoulceS. * there is a conflict of interest involved (between the project outcome. Whereas, downstream interests typically proponent and a regulatory agency or between the design firm and the firm that is carrying out the EIA); impacted directly by major infrastructure ivestments are * there is no independent body to oversee implementation; smaller rural communities, pastoralists. and environmen- * no analysis of alternatives is carried out; tal and other interests, who lack representation, standing * the economic value of resource degradation is not and adequate resources to effectively participate in proj- incorporated into the project's cost/benefit analysis and ect decision-making processes which have 1,11- i, con- decision-making. sequences for their livelihoods. Without adequate consul- tation, affected communities ancl important users of water are often 0i,iiil 1 in the decision-making process. Consequently, the important values associated with the whole range of uses of water are often undermined or skewed, thus biasing the decision-making process. Furthermore, often the benefits derived from major investments (such as hvdropower revenues from exports, for example) are tvpicallv for urban users far away from either the project sites or project-impacted locations. Thus, the impacted communities are twice worse off. They do not even benefit from the investments that are damaging or destroying their livelihoods. Improving project decision-making requires timely The h-ct(it, 'f major in estoents sitch as Idropower ... to urban diwellers and appropriate levels of consultation and participation, while impacted communities maY lose their li elihoods. Above, Kariba amn generates and careful attention to the factors which can diminish pouer.for Zamnbia anid Zimbabue. the influence of EIA (Box 1. 7). It also calls for sharing the project decision-making is limited if the associated water benefits of the development with the impacted communi- policies do not clearly define the principles of water allo- ties. This is a key recommendation of the World cation and prioritize water use for ecological purposes Commission on Dams (WCD) Report as well. (for example, specifving the amount and timing of flows for ecological purposes in a hydropower project). Under 1.5.6 Environmentally unsustainable such circumstances, ElAs would be required to define and water management policies determine the downstream flow requirements, and also to Reliance on outdated water policies based on command legitimize such requirements. The latter puts an enor- and control approaches, impedes the development of mous burden on the EIA process that can be manipulated environmentally sustainable, water resources manage- when major development interests are at stake. ment investments and programmes. Few water policies Equallv important is the need for developing water explicitly define and prioritize in operational terms the resources management policies that integrate appropriate environmental uses of water. The influence of EJAs on instruments:  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT economic (eg, pricing, tariffs, demand management, from successful practices need to be learned and institu- subsidies, etc,); tionalized. The tradition may also be amenable to pro- regulatory (eg, laws and regulations); and moting innovative participatory resource management participatory (eg, user representation, transparency, through consultative approaches, improved public educa- participatory planning and decision-making, tion and awareness building, and the introduction of pub- education, awareness, consultations, etc.). lic disclosure measures. In the SADC region, the post-independence tendency has been an over-reliance on inherited colonial laws and 1.5.7 Environmental regulations regulation (command and control instruments) which have for international waters proved ineffective because the overall legal and institution- A seventh ' ii, iI'-'1 - relates to the weak legal framework al environment is weak. Under such conditions, the for addressing environmental issues related to the man- chances of enforcing a good 'water law" or "environmental agement of international waters. National water policies legislation" are limited if most laws are poorly enforced. generally have weak environmental provisions, but the Most pollution control measures including those that provisions for international waters dimensions are even relate to discharging treated or semi-treated industrial and weaker or non-existent. A major consequence of this is municipal effluent into receiving water bodies, or re-using that most international waters treaties and arrangements partially treated wastewater, are poordy enforced. that are in place are without an adequate assessment of Alternative economic and participator- instruments which the downstream environmental flow requirements. Thus, provide incentives encouraging the wvise use of water and important ecosvstems in downstream countries are disincentives against harmful practices of water use and impacted - !,I" ni - [ I:1. In a few instances, minimum management and user participation and consultation, flow provisions derived on the basis of hydrological infor- which have been successful in other contexts, need to be mation are used to define such flows. It is on1v in recent explored and encouraged. years that the concept of environmental flow require- A rich tradition of successful communitv-based, water ments has been adopted as a principle in water allocation management activities exists in the SADC region, some of decisions. which were discontinued after independence. Lessons The Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) Phase lB includes a detailed Instream Flow Requirement (IFR) .. , - study to stipulate IFRs. The IFR study has just been com- Vikt. '. A.) . - pleted. The LHWP, based on a 1986 treaty between the governments of Lesotho and South Africa, provides com- pensation releases (of between 3-5 percent of the mean annual runoff) for the purpose of maintaining down- stream ecosystems, however these releases were not '_______________- ' _determined on the basis of a sound knowledge base 3 about the clownstream ecosystem flow requirements. The IFR study for the LHWP addresses downstream impacts in Lesotho. The Department of Water Affairs and Forestrv in the Republic of South Africa has carried out an independ- ent IFR assessment on the Orange River from the horder of lIesotho to the Gariep Dam, Effective implementation - of the IFR study recommendations will form the real test ; of the degree to which the LHWP balances between its l m economic and environmental objectives. This will also be The lesatbo Highlanlds Water Project .* . r~ Le.satha ~'' 0..... 'wltater sales and an important case to test the new Water Law in South heLdrepoteH anld proides Suath Africa u it eliab/e access to cheap . d . ,, Africa and the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses. wcater Phase IB iniclutdes a detailed sttudy, of Instreaw Floau Requiremients lIFR) to Most other international waters treaties and arrange- addressdlownstreami inmpacts in Lesotho. ments in the region do not adequately address the environ-  A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK mental flow requirements for downstream uses, which is a 1.5.9 Emerging trends major shortcoming of the existing allocation practices that Addressing the growing water resources management also shortchanges the downstream nations. For the SADC challenges with rapidlv increasing populations in general, region, this poses i 'yr ii, idi. , challenge since 15 major and urbanization in particular. and associated multi-sec- international rivers are shared bv more than one country. toral demands is a daunting task, but meeting these chal- (see chapter 2, Table 2.5) Mozambique, which is the down- lenges in a sustainable manner is a huge and complex stream riparian in nine river basins, bears the greatest task. Nonetheless, it is essential to address the emerging impacts of upstream development, multi-pronged challenges because water resources in the region are both limited and vulnerable. 1.5.8 Capacity constraints The recent trend in management of water and energy An eighth challenge is the limited capacity to carrn out the sectors towards privatization and deregulation of utilities, complex environmental management analysis. There is and increasing vulnerability due to the implications of cli- need to develop effective in-house capacity to carry out the mate change, compound the complexity of the F iii,. complex tasks relatecd to the management of natural While the rationale for privatization of utilities, in order to resources. Effective water resources management is a com- improve service delivery and efficiencv and to raise capital plex task. Effective environmental planning and manage- might be obvious, it is important to ensure that the ment is even more complex and requires manv and varied process of privatization and/or deregulation is carried out skills, a network of capable institutions and iFi..,ii ana- carefully, with the appropriate regulatory safeguards in lytical capacity. Much of the environmental management place to protect the water resource base. It is also essen- work in the region's water sector is being undertaken by a tial to ensure that such a process does not lead to disman- very ,,, 11I group of ecologists, environmental engineers tling of important *water resources and environmental and environmental planners of public sector and academic management regulations and legislation. The privatiza- institutions. Often -' 11 i-,. . 1, these professionals are tion process should be expected to strengthen, not weak- commonly over-hurdened, under-resourced and poorly en the capacity of national governments to regulate and compensated. They generally have limited access to pro- manage the water resources effectively. The private sec- fessional associations, peer review, mid-career training, tor on the other hand, values certainty. Thus, clear crite- books and journals, and other professional incentives. ria and guidelines are necessary to ensure that investment There is also a critical need to go beyond basic ecolo- is guided to be responsive to the social and ecological gy, engineering and environmental science to incorporate, constraints and interests. for example, social science inputs to discern the population at risk 1.6 OPPORTUNITIES TO BUILD UPON and the social risk factors involved. economic skills that can place a value on the losses The challenges for addressing the mainstreaming of envi- resulting from wetland and watershed degradation, ronmental quality objectives in the water sector cannot limnology to ascertain the limiting nutrient in a and should not be promoted in isolation, but need to be eutrophic body or nutrient loads entering a water complemented with or integrated as part of the ongoing bodv, or innovative activities and actions taking place on the to link *..l. ;rl, hydrology to estimate environ- ground. There are many opportunities to build upon and mental flow requiiements. some of these are reviewed below. Developing proper biophysical/socio-economic link- ages is essential for properlv addressing the environmen- 1.6.1 Consensus on principles of tal sustainabilit' considerations in the appropriate socio- sound water resources management economic contexts. There already exists an international consensus on the Few specialist skills exist in the local private consult- principles of sound water resources management. The ing industry, and most come from international consult- Dublin Principles call for: ants and advisers. There is need to develop greater placing greater emphasis on integrated. cross-sectoral capacity to be able to address the emerging challenges, water management;  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT addressing water quantity and quality, and 1.6.2 International agreements, environmental considerations in water management; conventions and initiatives linking land-use management as an integral part of A number of international agreements, conventions and sustainable water management; initiatives such as Agenda 21, the Convention on using river basins as management units; Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Convention to recognizing water as an economic good and Combat Desertification (CCD), which SADC member promoting cost-effective interventions; states are party to, promote the principles of sustainable supporting participatory efforts to manage water management of water resources and the environmental resources; management for the water sector. Recent initiatives focusing on actions to improve the lives of people such as the Second World Water Forum (WWF) and the and the quality of their environment; World Commission on Dams (see Box 1.5) have expand- adopting positive policies to address women's needs ed the core principles related to the social and environ- and empower women; and mental sustainability considerations in water resources incorporating mechanisms for conflict prevention and management. Follow-up initiatives to support the resolution. implementation of the WCD and WWF recommenda- Box 1.8 highlights the important environmental man- tions are underway, some of which will support water agement principles relevant for the water sector. management reforms in the SADC region. .r In addition, partners from multilateral and bilateral Environmental management principles Box 1.8 institutions are supporting various water resources man- for the water sector for & water sector ~ I agement activities at the regional and national levels, * Water-related activities should aim to enhance or to cause These include the World Bank, UNDP, UNEP, Global the least detrimental effect on the natural environment and Environment Facility (GEF), and a consortium of several its health- and life-giving properties. * The allocation and consumption of water for environmental agencies under the Global Water Partnership, several purposes should be recognized and given appropriate bilateral agencies, and non-governmental organizations emphasis. * Water conservation and demand management should be promoted to improve water-use efficiencies before new water projects are constructed. * Environmental change should be monitored so that improvements can te encouraged and detrimental mpacts l minimized. .- * The principle of stakeholder partic,pation should be encouraged as tE,s can influence the success or failure of water resources management in the region. Water-related activities should cause the least detrimental effect on the natural environment and it's life-giving properties.  A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK such as IUCN, many of which have embraced their own the vision of the Water Sector is to attain the sustainable policies or developed programmes on water resources and integrated planning, development, utilization and management. The World Bank, for example, has issued a management of water resources that can contribute to the new Environment Strategy and is finalizing a Water attainment of SADC's overall goals. Resources Sector Strategy and the World Development In pursuit of its vision, the SADC Water Sector devel- Report. The UN is preparing the first edition of the World oped in 1997 and 1998, in a participatory and consultative Water Development Report. The GEF supports interna- manner, the Regional Strategic Action Plan (RSAP) on tional waters, biodiversity and climate change projects to Integrated Water Resources Development and safeguard the global commons. These initiatives and Management. In December 1998, the Water Sector organ- activities potentially provide the region with important ized a successful roundtable conference in Geneva to opportunities for soliciting support for building and mobilize resources for implementation of the RSAP. Some strengthening local capacity for effectively mainstreaming 34 cooperating partners attended the conference, and a the environment in water resources management. substantial number have pledged their support for imple- mentation, Box 1.9 lists the main objectives of the RSAP. 1.6.3 Regional water management The preparation of this technical report on I .,. and environmental initiatives and Mlainstreaming Environmental Sustainahility in The following factors contributed to the realization that a Water Resources hianagemnent in Soutthern Africa by the regional coordination mechanism for water resources was SADC ELMS in conjunction with the SADC Water Sector is required: intended to provide a conceptual basis for the prepara- recurrent droughts (particularly 1991/92 and . tion of a wide range of environmental management pro- 1994/95); grammes and projects related to water resources manage- occasional flood disasters; ment. For example, the SADC Water Sector is preparing a increasing demand for water; project to be funded by the GEF on the management of the possibility of conflicts over access to water; aquatic weeds; chapter 8 of this report provided the basis increasing pollution; and for the preparation of that project. heightened awareness among SADC member states of This technical report also presents specific recom- the importance of Integrated Water Resources mendations for strengthening the environmental aspects Development and Management. of the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses and the There are a number of important regional water implementation of the SADC Regional Strategic Action resources initiatives which lay the foundations for further Plan for Integrated Water Resources Development and cooperative action. The most significant development Management in the SADC Countries (1999 - 2004). towards achieving integration of the regional use and management of water resources was the ratification in 1.6.4 National water policy, 1998 of the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourse legal and institutional reforms Systems, which was further reviewed in 1999/2000. The Several countries (for example, Malawi, Mozambique, Revised Protocol on Shared Watercourses was signed by Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) SADC Heads of State or Government at their annual have initiated innovative water resources management Summit in August 2000 in Windhoek, Namibia, and comes policies, legal and institutional reforms. Such reforms into force upon ratification by two/thirds of Member include the preparation of new water resources manage- States. ment strategies and river basin management plans and This followed the establishment by SADC of the activities. Some reforms include innovative, environmen- Water Sector Coordination Unit (WSCU) in 1996, in recog- tallv sound water policies and provide a unique opportu- nition of the role water resources play in the wellbeing of nity for sharing experiences. The ongoing water policv the people of the region. reforms in general offer a key opportunity for main- In view of SADC's overall development goals of pover- streaming environmental considerations in the formula- ty alleviation, food security and industrial development tion of policv on water resources management, and in within the framework of an integrated regional economy, river basin planning and management.  WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN SOUTHERN AFRICA Main$pbjectives of the Regional Strategic Action Plan for Integrated Box 1.9 Water 'esources Development and Management in the SADC Countries The major objective of the Action Plan is to provide a framework for the region to successfully meet the challenge of developing a comprehensive and integrated approach to water resources development and management. Such an objective is to be accomplished through a commitment to: * Attaining a much stronger human and institutional capacity to formulate laws, policies and norms which allow water resources to be used cost effectively as an economic and social good; and * Ensuring the more efficient use of existing and planned infrastructure projects which harness water's potential in an environmentally and economically sustainable manner. Strategic Objective 1 Strategic Objective 5 Improve the Legal and Regulatory Framework Support Awareness-building, at the National and Regional Level Education and Training * Harmonize water laws 0 Share knowledge about water resources * Set standards for drinking water 0 Identify best management practices * Develop water quality standards * Support regional and national centres of * Enforce standards excellence * Provide framework for adequate dispute settlement 0 Expand educational programmes mechanisms 0 Demonstrate effective technical co-operation * Create equitable use of shared waters through river 0 Develop training courses on water resource basin commissions management , Strategic Objective 2 Strategic Objective 6 Improve National and Transboundary River Basin Promote Public Participation Management, Planning and Co-ordination 0 Identify stakeholders and stakeholder contributions * Improve capabilities of national water authorities * Ensure full and effective stakeholder participation, * Improve regional co-operation in river basin and promote stakeholders' participation management 0 Establish community-based water management * Develop equitable use of shared waters through groups river basin commissions * Adopt positive policies to address the needs of * Establish better inter-sectoral planning and women and the disadvantaged co-ordination of water sector in each country * Strengthen SADC Water Sector Co-ordination Unit S Strategic Objective 7 Invest in Infrastructure Strategic Objective 3 * Expand infrastructure development and Strengthen Linkages between Macroeconomic, implementation Social and Environmental Policies * Meet demands of multiple users * Shift water use to most efficient use based on 0 Ensure efficient use of water resources economic values * Plan and implement works in a holistic manner * Establish cost recovery mechanisms * Balance social and environmental concerns with * Balance water resource demand and supply infrastructure development. * Conserve water resources Strategic Objective 4 Improve Information Acquisition, Management and Dissemination * Monitoring programmes * Assessment methods * Information access and exchange * Regional hydro-meteorological data banks * Interdisciplinary knowledge h Research for new initiatives h hup , ^-sudcw5cu.org.ls,programme/rtc/ric-Vl.htm  A CONCEPTtIAL FRAMEWORK 1.7 AN OVERVIEW OF OTHER in the debate, that is, how much water to allocate for PARTS OF THE REPORT downstream ecological purposes when planning a major storage dam or abstraction project for generat- This report is organized in four parts and contains 11 chap- ing power, or for irrigation, municipal supply or flood ters. The report discusses the principal areas of environ- control. mental management related to the water sector, presents Chapter 6 on WXater '.,. c. "Management ancd practical metho(lologies and approaches to address the Polluttion Control addresses issues which have not major challenges in each of the key areas, draws lessons and received the attention they deserve because of the best-practice information on topical issues related to envi- misperception that water pollution is not vet a serious ronmental sustainabilitv of water resources management, problem in the region. and recomnmends . l i, E for effectively integrating Chapter 7 Watershed Degr-adation and Aanagement environmental sustainabilitv criteria in water policies, for covers another problematic topic in the region and it improving water resources pi-oject-planning and manage- links upstream actions (land use and management) ment decision-making, and for strengthening the capacities with downstream effects on water resources, under- of water and environmental management agencies. scoring the importance of protecting source waters. ( 1 I Ip i.1 8 Aquiatic Weeds and Their Control is a Part 1 detailed review of the growing problem of water Water Resources Development and Management: weecls and their control in the region, and it evaluates Striving for a Sustainable Balance the physical, chemical, biological and integrated Part 1, with four chapters, provides the overall context methods for controlling water weeds. of the report which is to strive to achieve a sustainable balance between the development of water resources Part 3 for beneficial uses and their protection. Iegal and Institutional Framework: Chapter 1 presents the conceptual framework for Mainstreaming the Environment defining and mainstreaming environmental in Water Resources Management sustainability in water resources management. Part 3 of the report. with two chapters. addresses the Chapter 2 on Water and the Economy provides the mainstreaming of the environment in the water sector. socio-economic and ecological context of the water Chapter 9 on Conmunit v-based W,ate) Resources sector in the region. Management focuses on the critical role of ownership Chapter 3 on The Role and Importance of Aquiatic and participation as essential .,..... i.. li , in successful Ecosystems in Water Resources.Mlaniagenmenzt community-based, water resources management desci-ibes the principal threats to freshwater ecosys- programmes, and recommends actions for institution- tems and biodiversitv and discusses the associated alizing community-based water management practices social and economic costs and implications of in existing programmes and policies. resource degradation. Chapter 10,1 , - lLegislativ e and Instit ationzal Chapter 4, Vialzing the Enviri-onment in Water Frameuork, reviews the adequacy of existing Resources,llanagement, focuses on a central issue in planning tools, water policies and environmental the debate on the sustainable management of water policies, and institutional arrangements for effective resources, and describes the methods for the valua- integration of environmental qualitv considerations. tion of environmental damage and the economic trade-offs often made in allocation decisions. Part 4 Lessons Learned and Recommendations Part 2 for the Way Forward Water Resources Management: Chapter 11, A Fa)meu'o,-k for Mlainstreauining the Safeguarding the Resource Base Environnment in W'ater Resources .M1anagement, Part 2 also has four chapters, each focusing on particular draws from and is a synthesis of all the other aspects of water resources management that impact on chapters, defines a set of sustainability criteria for the the sustainability of the resource base. water sector in the SADC region and recommends Chapter 5, Environomental Flows: Requirements and specific measures for mainstreaming environmental Asse.ssnenlt, discusses the single most difficult issue qualitv considerations in the water sector. Each of the technical chatper. 3 through 10. can he tised d, stnd alonc chapters that addrc,- J paJticul,tr t1pc or thetne Cono. e1unth. . o it, o,crlapping infi )trniatton rnat e.xit and han beciIt left in to oafcgccrd the tintegritv of t cad Xhapter  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT REFERENCES Chenje, M. and Johnson, P. (eds) 1996. Water in southern Africa. SADC, IUCN, SARDC - CEP: Maseru/Harare DWAF 1997. White paper on national water policy. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, South Africa: Pretoria Grey, D. 1996. A water resources management assistance strategy for SADC Member States. World Bank intemal discussion draft. World Bank: Washington DC Hirji, R. and lbrekk, H.O. 2001. Water resources and environmental management. World Bank environment strategy paper 2. World Bank: Washington DC Hirji, R. and Ortolano, L. 1991. Strategies for managing uncertainties imposed by the Environmental Impact Assessment: Analysis of a Kenyan river development authority. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 11: 203-30. Elsevier Science Publishing Company: New York Mackay, H.M., Acreman, M.C. and Cowan, G.I. 2002. Allocation and management of water for maintaining wetland ecosystem functions. Technical paper prepared for the Scientific and Technical Review Panel of the Ramsar Convention: Gland PAI 2000. People in the balance: Population and natural resources at the turn ofl. .... .. : Population Action International: Washington DC SADC 2000. SADC statistics: facts and v. L SADC secretariat: Gaborone SADC ELMS 1996. SADCpolic and strategifor environment and sustainable development. - Toward. , .- grouth aind sus- tainable development ' .',. '' rica. SADC ELMS: Maseru SADC Water Sector 1998. Regional, . , ... . :. i....- plan for integrated water resources development and management in the SADC countries (1999-200-'): Suotmary report. SADC WSCU: Maseru Turpie, J. and van Zvl, H. 2002. Valuing the environment in water resources management. Chapter 4 in this volume World Commission on Dams 2000. Dams and development - a neu framework for decision-omaking. The report of the World Commission on Dams. Earthscan: London World Water Council/Conseil Mondial de l'Eau 2000. World water vision: Mlaking water evervbody's business. Earthscan: London World Water Council/Conseil Mondial de l'Eau 2000. World wvater vision: Results C: . . .. . ., . ' . project - a u'ay Jbr- ward. World Water Council: Marseille  WATER AND THE ECONOMYr Tabeth Matiza Chiuta, Phyllis Johnson and Rafik Hirji . §;;:~~~~~~~~~1 *. . .. . I , * * ,.x . K, , r * , I I'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ' -~~ ~ ~ . , ,: ' . - ~~~~~. r. ,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'  CONTENTS 2.1 OVERVIEW 23 2.2 FRESHWATER RESOURCES 23 2.2.1 Water availability and use 25 2.2.2 Transboundarv waters 28 2.2.3 Climate variabilitv: an uncertain water resource base 31 2.2,3.1 Rainfall 31 2.2.3.2 Evaporation 32 2.2.3.3 Distribution 33 2.3 SECTORAL USES OF WATER 33 2.3.1 Irrigated agriculture 33 2.3.2 Hydropower generation 34 2.3.3 Domestic supplv and sanitation 35 2.3.4 Water for mining and industrial use 36 2.3.5 Environmental uses of water 37 2.4 WATER MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES 37 2.4.1 Population and declining per capita supplv 37, 2.4.2 'WYater supplv and sanitation coverage 38 2.4.3 Implications of climate variability 39 2.4.3.1 Drought 39 2.4.3.2 Floods -±0 2.4.4 Climate change 41 2.4.5 Urbanization 41 2.4.6 Degradation of water and other resources 41 2.4.7 Artificial water storage 42 214.8 Inter-basin transfers 43 2.4.9 Competing demands for water 43 2.4.10 Conflict over water resources 4-i 2.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 44 2.5.1 Agricultural output 45 2.5.2 Domestic water supplies 45 2.5.3 Hvdropower generation 45 2.5.4 Commercial and industrial development 46 2.5.5 Commercial and subsistence fisheries 4o 2.5.6 Tourism and recreation 47 2.5 .7 Povertv y7 2.6 SUMMARY 49 REFERENCES 50 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This chapter builds on earlier SADC work through the Communicating the Environmeni Programme (CEPD partnership with IUCN and SARDC, such a.sState ofthee Entvironment in Southen Africa (1994), WVater in Soutbern Africa (19, , .. ,.L and Woodlands (2000,) and State ofthe Environmtent Zambezi Basini 2000 (in English and Portuguse). The authors would like tn acknowledge the work of the former Director of SARDC IMERCSA, Munvaradzi Chenje, now at UNEP. whose first draft was used in the development of this chapter.  WATER AND THE ECONOMY 2.1 OVERVIEW challenges are summarized, raising fundamental questions about the conventional (or supply side) water-resources Freshwater is a scarce resource in southern Africa and its development approaches that have been used and 1l1i, level of development for consumptive anl non-consunmp- for a reassessent. The chapter lays the foundation for tie use s vern low. These are limiting factors for sustain- the rest of the report which, able growth and poverty alleviation. For a region whose looks at water resources from a broader perspective, population is rural-based and still heavily depend- as a resource witli multiple uses and functions; ent on agriculture for their livelihood, the availabilitv of defines specific issues and practices that are water largely determines when and vhere development unsustainable and therefore economicallv inefficient can take place. (Pallett 1997) For evern country in the as they threaten the resource base; andc Southern African Development Community v ' -, water proposes policy and institutional reforms, planning and is an essential resource for all sectors of the national econo- management practices that are environmentally sus- ow:1, i- iu '5, the generation of hydropower, commercial tainable, socially acceptable and economicall) efficient. and industrial development, sustenance of wildlife and national parks, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, sanita- 2.2 FRESHWATER RESOURCES tion and navigation; and water also nourishes a range of spiritual values that contribute to the -.111 --:-l,,of society. Freshwater is a renewable resource made available bv the Subsistence and commercial agriculture. livestock sun's '_- - 1.1 evaporates vater into the atmosphere production. fisheries and tourism account for the bulk of from the oceans and land surfaces, and ... 1 I nd i, - it employment. economic output and export earnings in into the stocks, flows and interactions of ice, liquid and much of the region, and all of these activities are depend- vapour that are known as the hydrological cycle. Through ent on water supply. rainfall, mist and dew, there is a continuous transfer of Floods and droughts directly impact on livelihoods water to the land, which runs off in rivers and streams or and quality of life, and poor people are most vulnerable to is stored in lakes, soils and groundwater aquifers. Water is such water shocks. Local and seasonal water scarcity is in continuous and rapid transformation from one form competition between and among sectoral and stock to another. (Gleick 2000) Southern Africa's uses of water, and a w-1. liii consequence is that eco- freshwater resources are found in - -. 1'1 ill l,; order by logical uses of water are being undermined as they are volume as determined for global freshwater stocks): typically accorded the lowest priority. This in turn is com- Fresh groundwater aquifers; promising the sustainability of the resource base. Freshwater lakes and reservoirs; This chapter highlights the importance of water to Soil moisture; the region's economy and the huge gaps that exist in Atmospheric xvater vapour; water demand ancd developed supplies in many sectors. Freshwater aquatic ecosystems, i ,i)rt, wetlands; The existing and emerging water resources management Rivers.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Main International River Basins of the SADC Region Map 2.1 A> sr2 L,' -4 i, < Democratic g/ t .. -. 7 ' RR ublic 5' -, - ~~~ofetongo GrWg>-~~~~~~~~~~~ . . ~ ~ L LT.,,p,k Tanzania L MW@U -j - aI , L. M.hwfft.. Angola Mo Clawi ci,, Zambia , c,,c ,, TaMozambique K__-~~~~~~~~~~~~~cm jZmbabwe PJamZaba rzbu * I Botswana -.d r,, * Ltc,ila! ian nk.:5. .h;aN.'@; 8 ^ tho F7Congo F-]Save 1= Ruvuma 0 Pungwe M Orange Okavango nMaputo 0Scale ,Nile =1Limpopo F Ilncomati F- Cuvelai _|Cuee =Zarnbezi < Buzi °_ SOOk SADC Water Sector 2002 The smallest international nver basin in the SADC region, the Umbeluzi, is not shown here. (see Table 2.5 in chapter 2)  WATER AND THE ECONOMY Map 2.1 shows the lakes and major international river shows the availabilitv of renewable freshwater resources for systems in southern Africa, and it is evident from the map each countrv per year, population pressure over a period that these river basins cover a large part of the SADC of 30 vears, and a Water Scarcity Index. Table 2.2 shows per region. Namibia, for example, has access to five interna- captia availability. Data on i i,i ri represent average tional river basins, yet it is one of the most arid countries annual freshwater resources, as the actual renewable sup- in the region. Mozambique shares nine rivers with neigh- ply will vary from vear to year. The data cover both surface bouring countries upstream. (Table 2.5) The largest river water and groundwater, including inflows from neighbour- basin wholly within the SADC region is the Zambezi, ing countries, thus "total natural renewable water which drains part of eight countries. resources". (UN FAO 1995) A river basin is the area that contributes hydrologically Most countries do not directly measure or report to a river svstem that ends in the ocean or a terminal internal water resources data, and estimates are produced (closed) lake or inland sea. A basin is considered "interna- using indirect methods. Data from small countries and tional" if anv perennial tributary crosses the political bound- countries in arid and semi-arid zones are less reliable than aries of two or more countries. These international river are those for larger and wetter countries. Ohlsson (1995) basins are the foundation of the SADC Protocol on Shared adds that many figures still in frequent use are drawn Watercourses and the main focus of the Regional Strategic from Belvaev's work in the 1970s at the Institute of Action Plan (RSAP) for Integrated Water Resources Geography in the Soviet Union. He compiled data on Development and Management in the SADC Countries, water resources availability from models using other data, such as area under irrigated agriculture, livestock popula- 2.2.1 Water availability and use tions, and precipitation. Freshwater is unevenly distributed within national bound- Serious gaps in regional hydrological data still exist, aries and across the countries of southern Africa. Table 2.1 and Ohlsson concludes that the unsatisfactory state of Year of Annual Population Population pressure Water scarcity index estimate renewable (000) on water availability and source water (people/M cu m/year) resources (cu km/yr) Country 1995 2000 2025 1995 2000 2025 1995 2000 2025 Angola 1987 b 184 11 558 13 302 25 940 63 72 141 1 1 2 Botswana 1992 c 14.7 1 459 1 651 2 270 99 112 154 1 2 2 DRC 1990 c 1 019 43 900 50 730 102 830 43 50 101 1 1 2 Lesotho 1987 b 5.2 1 930 2 140 3 400 371 412 654 2 2 3 Malawi 1994 c 18.7 9 374 10 160 18 695 501 553 1000 2 2 4 Mauritius 1974 c 2.2 1 122 1 205 1 410 510 548 641 2 2 3 Mozambique 1992 c 216 15 400 17 245 26 730 71 80 124 1 1 2 Namibia 1991 c 45.5 1 590 1 817 2 460 35 40 54 1 1 1 Seychelles - n/a 75 82 110 - - - - - - South Africa 1990 c 50 39 477 44 000 50 160 790 880 1003 3 3 4 Swaziland 1987 b 4.5 908 1 046 1 800 202 232 400 2 2 2 Tanzania 1994 c 89 28 400 32 422 56 090 319 364 630 2 2 3 Zambia 1994 c 116 9 100 10 755 18 285 78 93 158 1 1 2 Zimbabwe 1987 b 20 11 526 13 485 17 395 576 674 870 2 3 3 SADC 1 784.8 175 820 200 040 327 525 98.5 112 184 1 2 2 *Water Scarcity Index 1 Adequate 2 Quality and dry season problems 3 Water stress 4 Absolute scarcity 5 Water barrier Index from Falkenmark, 1993: <100-1, 100-600=2; 600-1000=3; 1000-2000=4:>2000=5 Recalculated using water availability data from Gleick 2000, as indicated above b/Belyaev 1987 and c/tN FAO 199S. Poipulation figures 1995 from SADC, projected for 2000 using 1999 population and annual growth rates in SADCStatistics 2000 Population prolections for 2025 based on projections 2000-2025 from UN Populatirn Dhiision 1998, in UNFPA 2000, and recalculated at the same rate using SADC data for 2000 (see also Maps 1.1, 1.2 in chapter 1) Population projections to 2025 rely on ihe UN calculations which are not uniform bv country, and show unadjusted figures for Angola and DRC  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Country Total annual 1995 1995 2000 2000 2025 2025 renewable Population Per capita Population Per capita Population Per capita freshwater available (000) water UN medium water UN medium water (cu km/yr) availability projection availability projection availability (cu m) (000) (cu m) (000) (cu m) Angola 184 11 558 15 920 13 302 13 832 25 940 7 093 Botswana 14.7 1 459 10 075 1 651 8 904 2 270 6 476 DRC 1 019 43 900 23 212 50 730 20 087 102 830 9 909 Lesotho 5.2 1 930 2 694 2 140 2 430 3 400 1 529 Malawi 18.7 9 374 1 995 10 160 1 840 18 695 1 000 Mauritius 2.2 1 122 1 960 1 205 1 826 1 410 1 560 Mozambique 216 15 400 14 026 17 245 12 525 26 730 8 080 Namibia 45.5 1 590 28 616 1 817 25 041 2 460 18 496 Seychelles n/a 70 - 82 - 110 South Africa 50 39 477 1 266 44 000 1 136 50 160 997 Swaziland 4.5 908 4 956 1 046 4 302 1 800 2 500 Tanzania 89 28 400 3 134 32 422 2 745 56 090 1 587 Zambia 116 9 100 12 747 10 755 8 275 18 285 6 345 Zimbabwe 20 11 526 1 735 13 485 1 483 17 395 1 150 SADC 1 784.8 175 820 10 151 200 040 8 922 327 525 5 449 X ate ax xallahilltx data ndl papulation Projlectans as indicatcl for Ta ble 2.1 Note that dex,pite In)proC entf in nlitoring tcchnologv. esuntatex of water aaildhilitv are approximatmoes md the average anuitial figairex rnmak large sx.a,nal. inter-annual and 1nog-ter Xari*atiajax Geographi"il araatont are alsR a fax tor, for cxamapile in Nanuibla andl Malawi. basic data for water ,I J.,l 1 i in southern African merits development assistance to basic hydrological investiga- Water demarnd, use, need, Box 2.1 tions, giving priority to programmes designed for local witdrawal, consumption 'l m|l 'i,,Iim ill,and consumptive use Table 2.3 contains the most up-to-date data on total There continues to be confusion in the water lit- freshwater withdrawals by country, illustrated in Figures erature about the terms "use", "need", "with- 2.1 and 2.2, and gives a breakdown of water use bv the drawal", "demand", "consumption", and "con- sumptive use". Therefore, great care should be domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors. "Withdrawal" used when interpreting or comparing different refers to water taken from a water source for use; it does studies. Typically, the term "withdrawal" refers to water removed from a source and used for not refer to water "consumed" in that use. Domestic sec- human needs. Some of this water may be tor includes household, municipal, commercial and gov- returned to the original source with changes in ernmental water use. Industrial sector includes water usecl the quantity and qualitycofnsumption refers to for power plant cooling and industrial production. water withdrawn from a source and made unus- Agricultural sector includes irrigation and livestock. A able for reuse in the same basin, such as through irrecoverable losses like evaporation, major limitation of these data is that they do not include seepage to a saline sink, or contamination. the use of rainfall in agriculture, and manv countries in the Consumptive use is sometimes referred to as "irretrievable losses". The term "water use", SADC region use a significant fraction of the rain falling on while common, is often misleading or at best their territory for agricultural production. However, this uninformative, referring at times to consumptive water use is not accurately measured or reported. use and at times to withdrawals. "Need" for water is also subjective, but typically refers to In the past few, years, the UN Food and Agriculture the minimum amount of water required to satis- Organisation (FAO) has begun a systematic reassessment fy a particular purpose or requirement. It some- of water-use data, and hopefullv a more accurate picture of times refers to the desire for water on the part of a user. "Demand" for water is used to national, regional and sectoral water use will soon emerge. describe the amount of water requested or Based on the calculation of annual renewable fresh- required by a user, but the level of demand for water may have no relationship to the minimum water resources, current consumption patterns and the amount of water required to satisfy a particular projected population growth, a sharp reduction in per requirement. capita freshwater availability is predicted for most coun- Gleick 2000 tries of the SADC region by the year 2025. (Figurc 2.3)  WXATER AND THE ECONOMY Year Total Estimated Water use Estimated freshwater year 2000 year 2000 withdrawal per capita population (cu km/yr) withdrawal Domestic Industrial Agricultural Domestic Industrial Agricultural (000) (cu m/p/yr) (% of total water use) (cu m/person/yr) Country Angola 1987 0.48 36 14 10 76 5 4 27 13 302 Botswana 1992 0.11 67 32 20 48 22 13 32 1 651 DRC 1990 0.36 7 61 16 23 4 1 2 50 730 Lesotho 1987 0.05 23 22 22 56 5 5 13 2 140 Malawi 1994 0.94 92 10 3 86 9 3 80 10 160 Mauritius 1974 0.36 300 16 7 77 48 21 231 1 205 Mozambique 1992 0.61 35 9 2 89 3 1 31 17 245 Namibia 1991 0.25 138 29 3 68 40 4 94 1 817 Seychelles - - - - - - - - - 82 South Africa 1990 13.31 302 17 11 72 51 33 218 44 000 Swaziland 1980 0.66 631 2 2 96 10 15 606 1 046 Tanzania 1994 1.17 36 9 2 89 3 1 32 32 422 Zambia 1994 1.71 159 16 7 77 26 11 122 10 755 Zimbabwe 1987 1.22 90 14 7 79 13 6 71 13 485 Total SADC 21.23 106 200 040 WnithdraNal ctinnates X FAO9 1995 in eick 20it dot Population figures for the rear 2000 calculatecl using \-DC aistircs 2001 for 1999 population figures and the annual growth rate, hrr t )untn Population Distribution Figure 2.1 Total Annual Freshwater Figure 2.2 in SADC 2000 Withdrawal by Country Angola Lesotho Mozambique South Africa Zambia I I Botswana Malawi Namibia L I Swaziland Zimbabwe DRC Mauritius EII Seychelles f Tanzania  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Per Capita Water Availability by Country, 1995-2025 Figure 2.3 water usage between the countries and their key economic sectors. (cubic metres/person/year) However, the framework for estab- 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 lishing and developing joint manage- - _ I ' 'ment arrangements is now in place Angola . Angola through the SADC Protocol on Botswana Shared Watercourses. Most of the continental coun- DRC tries within the SADC region lie entirely or largely within interna- tional river basins, and all but one Malawi ; have more than half of their total land area in international basins. Mauritius (Table 2.4) The Congo river basin Mozambique (3,699,100 sq km), which lies almost Namibia entirely within the SADC region, is second in size only to the Amazon South Africa basin (5,866,100 sq km) in South _--- - . -- - _ _ _ America, and is larger than the Nile Swaziland . - basin (3,038,100 sq km) in Tanzania___,__ central/north Africa. (Table 2.5) Tanzania The development of these Zambia =_ shared river basins is complex, -- . .whether large or small, since exist- Zimbabwe i.-Y ing national uses occupy preferen- _l J - -tial positions and foreclose other SADC* ,_ -- - projected or anticipated uses, including regional. This is valid for 1995 E 21 12025 both upstream and downstream -exduding Seychelles riparian countries. To overcome Per capita water availability fm Table 2.2 this situation and reach a sustain- 2.2.2 Transboundary waters able development option, trust must be built and sus- One important feature of the region is the presence of 15 tained, and joint management regimes developed by all transboundary rivers and consequential groundwater riparians on the shared watercourses. This concept resources. The combined drainage areas of these interna- emphasizes a move from sharing the actual volume of tional rivers cover over 78 percent of the region's continen- water towards sharing the economic benefits of different tal land area (Table 2.4). As populations grow and their uses between riparian states." (Alemu et al 2001: 4) demands increase, the need to coordinate the develop- These data do not provide information on the actual ment and management of the shared watercourses is cross-border water flows. Thus a country can have a signif- becoming a very real regional priority, without which there icant fraction of a watershed but generate only a small or could be substantial economic losses and potential for con- negligible fraction of a total river flow, or conversely, may flict. More regional disasters could occur due to lack of pre- have a small fraction of the watershed, but be responsible paredness to manage floods and droughts on a basin-wide for generating a large amount of flow. In many cases, the basis. The absence of cooperative management of water flow and runoff of rivers contained within national bound- resources, including data sharing and appropriate regulato- aries are as high or higher than that of international rivers. rv and institutional frameworks, has resulted in inefficient Table 2.6 shows some comparative figures.  WATER AND THE ECONOMY Country Total area Area in international Fraction of country in International river basins (sq km) basins (sq km) international river basins (%) Botswana 581 730 581 730 100 Zambezi, Orange, Okavango, Limpopo DRC 2 345 000 2 345 000 100 Congo, Nile and others Zambia 752 614 752 614 100 Zambezi, Congo Zimbabwe 390 759 390 759 100 Zambezi, Sabi, Okavango, Limpopo, Buzi, Pungwe Swaziland 17 164 16 800 97.9 Umbeluzi, Incomati, Maputo Malawi 118 484 111 170 93.8 Zambezi, Ruvuma Namibia 824 269 563 670 68.8 Zambezi, Orange, Okavango, Cunene, Etosha-Cuvelai Angola 1 246 700 846 830 67.9 Zambezi, Okavango, Cunene, Etosha-Cuvelai, Congo Lesotho 30 352 19 900 65.6 Orange South Africa 1 221 040 797 500 65.3 Orange, Maputo, Limpopo, Incomati Mozambique 802 000 455 080 52.8 Zambezi, Umbeluzi, Sabi, Ruvuma, Maputo, Limpopo, Incomati, Buzi, Pungwe Tanzania 945 087 410 800** 43.5 Zambezi, Congo, Ruvuma, Nile, Lake Natron, Umba SADC 9 275 199* 7 291 853** 78.6 As above and Table 2.5 'excluding the islands of Mauntius and Sevchelles e*Umba nver and Lake Natron in Tanzania are shared with Kenva and not with other SADC members, and DRC also shares basins with non-SADC members. This causes a slight difference between the Country area in international basins in Table 2.4 and Basin area in SADC region in Table 2 5. Wolf et al 1999 in Gleick 200K adapted using Pallett 1997 in SADC Water Sector 1998, total areas from Deconsult ZACPRO studs 1998 and SADC Statistics 2000 The SADC region also contains Major lakes in the SADC region Box 2.2 some of the major aquatic ecosystems on the African continent (see chapter Lake Victoria is the largest in area of all African lakes and the second widest freshwater body in the world. The lake covers an area of 68,800 sq km and has a 3) including key wetlands, as well as total water volume of 2,750 x 109 cu m. The maximum depth of the lake is 84 m three of the largest freshwater lakes. and the mean depth is 40 m. The water level is regulated and the shoreline is (Box 2.2) 3,440 km. Lake Victoria drains at the rate of 600 cu m/second at Jinja, Uganda. The lake is a source of water, navigation, recreation and fisheries, and the indent- There is limited data on the sta- ed shoreline provides beautiful landscapes used for tourism and sightseeing. The tus of groundwater resources in towns of Bukoba, Mwanza and Musoma (Tanzania), Kisumu (Kenya) and Entebbe almost all of the countries in southern (Uganda) rely on the lake for domestic and industrial water supply. Lake Tanganyika, one of the Rift Valley lakes, is the second largest lake in area Africa, even though a large part of the in Africa and the second deepest and longest lake in the world. The surface area is region's population is dependent on 32,000 sq km, with a water volume of 17.8 x 1012 cu m. Maximum depth is 1,471 m, while the mean depth is 572 m. The length is 670 km. The water level is gen- groundwater for domestic and indus- erally unregulated and the shoreline is 1,900 km. Lake Tanganyika is extraordinary in terms of fish species. Of the 214 native fish species found in the lake, 176 are endemic. The lake is generally used for fisheries and nav- igation. Lake Malawi/Nyasa is the southernmost of the deepwater lakes associated with the formation of the East African Rift Valley. The Rift Valley lakes are of moderate antiquity and, despite major fluctuations D in water level over the centuries have been the sites of much evolution- ary radiation, especially in some fish groups and freshwater molluscs. This lake is 560 km long with a maximum width of 75 km, and covers a total area of 6,400 sq km. The lake holds a total volume of 8.4 x 1012 cu m. Its maximum depth is 706 m while the mean depth is 292 m. The water level is regulated, and the lake is used as a source of water, navigation/transportation, tourism and fisheries. Lake Victoria is usedfor navigation, recreation andfish- Kira 1994 Owen etal 1990 www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-06.html eries, and the indented shoreline *'^ .>f.' .a lnscapes.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT River basin Basin area in River Mean annual No. of SADC states Basin area within country* SADC region length runoff at SADC in river basin (sq km) (0/%) (sq km) (km) river mouth states (M cu m/yr) Congo 2 942 700 4 700 1 260 000 4 *DRC 2 307 800 62.39 of total 3 699 100 *Angola 291 500 7.88 *Zambia 176 600 4.77 *Tanzania 166 800 4.51 Zambezi 1 388 200 2 650 94 000 8 eZambia 577 900 41.63 *Angola 256 500 18.47 *Zimbabwe 215 800 15.55 *Mozambique 163 800 11.80 *Malawi 110 700 7.97 *Tanzania 27 300 1.97 *Botswana 19 100 1.38 *Namibia 17 100 1.23 Orange 947 700 2 300 11 500 4 *South Africa 565 600 59.68 *Namibia 240 600 25.39 *Botswana 121 600 12.84 *Lesotho 19 900 2.09 Okavango/Cubango 708 600 1 100 11 000 4 *Botswana 359 000 50.67 *Namibia 176 800 24.95 *Angola 150 100 21.18 *Zimbabwe 22 700 3.20 Limpopo 415 500 1 750 5 500 4 *South Africa 184 100 44.31 *Mozambique 87 300 21.01 *Botswana 81 500 19.61 *Zimbabwe 62 600 15.06 Etosha-Cuvelai 167 600 430 ephemeral 2 *Namibia 114 370 68.24 aAngola 53 230 31.76 Ruvuma 152 200 800 15 000 3 *Mozambique 99 530 65.39 *Tanzania 52 200 34.30 *Malawi 470 0.31 Nile 142 000 6 700 86 000 2 *Tanzania 120 300 3.96 of total 3 038 100 *DRC 21 700 0.71 Sabi/Save 116 100 740 7 000 2 *Zimbabwe 85 780 73.88 *Mozambique 30 320 26.12 Cunene 110 300 1 050 5 500 2 *Angola 95 500 86.57 *Namibia 14 800 13.43 Incomati 46 200 480 3 500 3 *South Africa 29 200 63.19 *Mozambique 14 300 30.97 *Swaziland 2 700 5.84 Pungwe 32 500 300 3 000 2 eMozambique 31 050 95.54 *Zimbabwe 1 450 4.46 Maputo 31 300 380 2 500 3 *South Africa 18 600 59.43 *Swaziland 11 000 35.02 *Mozambique 1 700 5.55 Buzi 27 900 250 2 500 2 *Mozambique 24 780 88.81 *Zimbabwe 3 120 11.18 Umbeluzi 5 400 200 600 3 *Swaziland 3 100 57.41 *Mozambique 2 300 42.59 SADC 7 234 200 Some area totals mam iot ardd up tcx 100% Irite to rouaiding. Basin areas aitcl stateo front X olf ct x/1999. xn Gleirk 2000tt; Pung^xre naox arei in Zimbabxe, Nanx erc 21002 Rixer leietlx and rtunoff from Pallett (ed) 199. in ADC X SCUI 1998  WATER AND THE ECONOMY 2.2.3 Climate variability: an uncertain water __ _ W _ _ s _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~resource base River Mean annual Countries Climate vas t runoff Climate variability is the (M cu m/yr) most important factor Congo 1 260 000 DRC, Angola, Tanzania, Zambia affecting the temporal and Zambezi 94 000 Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, spatial distribution of rain- Angola,Tanzania, Botswana, Namibia fall and water resources Cuanza 26 000 Angola Rufiji 22 250 Tanzania within countries and across Kilombero 14 470 Tanzania the region. It has a signifi- Orange 11 500 South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho cant influence on the Okavango 11 000 Botswana, Namibia, Angola, Zimbabwe Lurio 7 000 Mozambique amount, timing and fre- Cunene 5 500 Angola, Namibia quencyofprecipitation Limpopo 5 500 South Africa, Mozambique, Botswana, Zimbabwe eve offpation events and runoff patterns, FAO Source Book 1990: Rudengre et at 199-. Pallett 199' in SADC XXater Sector 1998 and on resultant droughts and floods. Year-to-vear trial supply. A project to address groundwater manage- rainfall variability can be as high as 30 - 35 percent. The ment in the region is in preparation by the SADC Water trend over the past century is for the region to experience Sector Coordination Unit (WSCU'), funded by the Global periods of wetness and dryness. For example. the 1970s Environment Facility (GEF). (Box 2.3) was a relatively wet decade. (Figure 2.4) The rainfall of the early 1990s was about 20 percent lower than that of the Protection and strategic uses BoxT:3 1970s. (Chenje and Johnson 1996) There were significant of groundwater resources in the drought years in the 1980s and early 1990s pnor to the Limpopo basin and other drought- prone areas of the SADC region drought conditions that gripped the region in 2002. (Box 2.4) The climate variability of the region is strongly influ- The objective of the SADC project on ground- enced bv the El Nino/Southem Oscillation (ENSO) phe- water management is for member states to co-operatively develop a strategic regional nomenon, the periodic warming of the tropical Pacific approach to support and enhance their Ocean and related shifts in the atmospheric circulation, capacity in the definition of drought manage- which brings disruption to many low latitude areas. ment policies, specifically in relation to the role, availability (magnitude and recharge) (Hulme 1996) The ongoing ENSO signals are worrying and supply potential of groundwater signs as parts of the region including Malawi, Zambia and resources. This will reconcile the demands of socioeconomic development and those of the Zimbabwe have already started to experience serious principal groundwater-dependent ecosystems. deficits in rainfall and massive food shortages are antici- At regional level, the project seeks to: pated. * identify transboundary impacts of groundwater development in the various river basins of the region; 2.2.3.1 Rainfall * identify priority groundwater resources in The distribution of rainfall is spatiallv and temporally drought- prone areas; and, * provide regional management tools such uneven within the countries and across the region, and as hydro-geological maps, drought this results in unreliable water supplies. The surface vulnerability and water scarcity maps, a runoff in the region is characterised bv seasonality and minimum regional groundwater monitor- ing network, and a regional information this has an impact on water resources. Many SADC coun- system. tries are partially or largelv and or semi-arid, and in a tvpi- At the river basin level, the role of groundwater in proactive drought mitigation cal year there mavbe no runoff. Annual rainfall reliability is will be demonstrated in the semi-arid low and droughts are endemic in the region. Rainfall Limpopo river basin. ranges from about 10 mm in some parts of Namibia to SADC wSCU 2000 about 2800 mm in some parts of Malawi and Tanzania. The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) brings  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT . ,^ Rainfall trends in southern Box 2.4 most of the rainfall to the region. The ITCZ is a zone of Africa 1967 - 2000 intense rain-cloud development between a dry, equatorial warm air mass and a moist, cool northern air mass. The 1967-73 This 6-year period was dry across the entire region. Some records show a severe drought in movement of the ITCZ southward away from the equator 1967. marks the start of the main rainy season in the Southern 1974-80 This period was relatively moist over much of southern Africa. In 1974 the mean annual rainfall Hemisphere. was 100 percent above normal throughout the The migration of the ITCZ between mid-Tanzania and region. southern Zimbabwe brings good rains to most of south- 1981-82 Drought in most parts of southern Africa. 1982 Most of sub-tropical Africa experienced drought. ern Africa, while the Botswana Upper High creates 1983 A particularly bad drought year for all parts of the unfavourable conditions for heavy or widespread rainfall 1984-85 Near normal seasons, but drought strains and its frequent occurrence almost always results in from the previous three years were still felt in drought in some countries in the region. (Matarira 1990) most parts of the region. In some instances, it pushes the rain-bearing ITCZ and 1986-87 Drought conditions returned to the region. 1988-90 Near normal seasons. active westerly cloud-bands out of the region and over the 1991-92 Severe drought in southern Africa, excluding Indian Ocean. During winter and dry spells, the Botswana Namibia. Upper High, along with the eastern mountain belt stretch- 1993-94 Conditions improved. 1994-95 Many SADC countries were hit by the worst ing from the Drakensberg in South Africa right up to drought in memory, surpassing effects of the Tanzania, blocks the moist air from entering the region. 1991-92 drought in some parts of the region. 1995-96 Widespread rains in most parts of the SADC region prompted forecasts of a bumper agricultural yield. 2.2.3.2 Evaporation 1996-97 Normal rainfall for most of the region. In most parts of the region, potential evaporation is almost 1997-98 Normal rainfall throughout the region including the north-east, although impacts of El Nino were twice as high as rainfall totals and this plays a dominant role significant. in the overall water balance, with the consequence that 1999-2000 Cyclone Eline hit the region and widespread floods devastated large parts of the Limpopo generally less than 15 percent of the raifall contrbutes to basin (southern and central Mozambique, south- runoff, river flow and infiltration to groundwater. The high eastern Zimbabwe, parts of South Africa and evaporation rate is also an indicator of the region's arid and Botswa na) . semi-arid state in which irrigated agriculture plays an Chenje 2000 important role in national economies. Table 2.7 lists the Mean Annual Rainfall in Zimbabwe, Departure from Normal, 1901/2 - 1992/3 Figure 2.4 Millimetres 600- above normal rainfall 500 L below normal rainfall 400- 300- 200 100 o DuHNC0 U | ] uuI1 -100 -400 1901 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 MeteorologicA Seices Zimbabwe 90 year mean 662.3  WATER AND THE ECONOMY 2.3 SECTORAL USES OF WATER 2.3.1 Irrigated agriculture Country Rainfall Average Potential Total range rainfall evaporation surface Seasonal variations and unreliable (mm) (mm) range runoff rainfall have made irrigation an (mm) (mm) essential factor for sustained agricul- Angola 25 - 1600 800 1300 - 2600 104 tural production in the region, par- Botswana 250 - 650 400 2600 - 3700 0.6 ticularly as growing populations Malawi 700 - 2800 1000 1800 -2000 60 Mozambique 350 - 2000 1100 1100 - 2000 275 increase the demand for food. Namibia 10 - 700 250 2600 - 3700 1.5 Irrigation is often regarded as a way South Africa 50 - 3000 500 1100 - 3000 39 of increasing agricultural productivi- Swaziland 500 - 1500 800 2000 - 2200 11 Tanzania 300 - 1600 750 1100-2000 78 tywithout increasing the amount of Zambia 700 - 1200 800 2000 - 2500 133 land underproduction. South Africa Zimbabwe 350 - 1000 700 2000 - 2600 34 is the region's largest irrigator, and Pallctt 199: 14 although only one percent of the agricultural land is irrigated, this rainfall, evapotranspiration and surface runoff ranges in the produces 30 percent of the value of national agricultural region. These determinants of the hydrological processes production. (Chenje and Johnson 1996) Over 50 percent have a direct influence on the occurrence and distribution of the available water resources in South Africa are used of water in the region. However, a significant portion of in irrigated agriculture, while the other sectors combined runoff in southern Africa is not harvestable, especially in consume the remainder, (Figure 2.5) countries where runoff is strongly seasonal. Other natural factors such as geological formations also influence the Water Usage in South Africa Figure 2.5 occurrenceand i l,ilihi' of groundwaterresources. by Sector 2.2.3.3 Distribution The .1, l l i -, i l, - of freshwater resources in the SADC region is venr uneven, and one consequence of this is localised water scarcities that affect economic develop- ment and social security. Demand for water by the differ- ent competing users in the region is increasing against a background where the cheaper water sources for most countries have alreadv been developed and any new sources require more financial resources. In addition, some of the countries consume more water than thev have within their own boundaries. For example, South Africa accounts for 63 percent of total annual freshwater withdrawals in the region, primarily for agricultural pur- poses (Table 2.3), and yet its annual renewable freshwater resources are just 50 cu km/yr (Table 2.1), less than three Irrigation 51%0/ Forestry 7.5% percent of the regional total, Conservation* 15.5 0/ Mining 2.7% The spectre of water scarcitv in the region is now a Domestic 12%0/ Hydroelectric 2.3% reality and it is likely to seriouslv undermine food produc- tion, environmental conservation and economic develop- ment unless mechanisms are sought and effectively imple- 'Nature conservation and ecological concerns mented for joint monitoring, planning and management Government of South Africa, "National Water Conservation Campaign Launch" 1995, in Chenje and Johnson 1996 of the availability and use of freshwater resources.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Country 1961 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1997 (thousand hectares) Angola 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 Botswana 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 Lesotho 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Malawi 1 1 4 13 18 18 20 28 28 Mauritius 8 12 15 15 16 17 17 18 18 Mozambique 8 16 26 40 65 93 105 107 107 Namibia 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 7 7 South Africa 808 890 1 000 1 017 1 128 1 128 1 290 1 270 1 270 Swaziland 36 40 47 56 58 62 67 69 69 Tanzania 20 28 38 52 120 127 144 150 155 Zambia 2 2 9 18 19 28 30 46 46 Zimbabwe 22 34 46 70 80 90 100 150 150 *no information availjble for DRC, Sevchelles Gleick 2000 Although irrigated agriculture has a vital role to play 2.3.2 Hydropower generation in meeting the demand for food from an expanding pop- Hydropower generation is one of the most important ulation, the water-use efficiency in this sector is very instream uses of water in the region because most coun- low. In order to reduce the volume of water consumed tries rely heavily on hvdroelectric energy for domestic and by irrigated agriculture and improve water-use efficiency, industrial use as well as for water pumping and other agri- many countries in the region are exploring and introduc- cultural uses. Often, hvdropower production is associated ing water demand management measures that could with the construction of large dams, which in recent years release water resources from irrigated agriculture for have become a source of increased concern largely because other uses. of the way the associated social and environmental impacts Table 2.8 shows total irrigated areas (in thousands of and consequences have been addressed. hectares) by country in the SADC region, between 1961 Southern Africa has a few, very large dams intended and 1997, the latest vear for which reliable data are avail- primarily for hvdropower generation - Cahora Bassa, able. The data depends on in-country surveys, national Inga, Kariba and Kafue Gorge. Large hydroelectric dams reports, and estimates by the UN FAO, and no differenti- which release water through the top, hold vast amounts ation is made regarding the quality of land in produc- of water known as "dead storage" which cannot be used tion. otherwise, although it can serve as fish habitat. Lake The Botswana National Water Master Plan Study from Kariba has 114 cu km of dead storage, equivalent to 1991 is one of the most realistic plans for sustainable almost 20 percent of the entire region's annual runoff water resources on the continent (Ohlsson 1995), and (Ohlsson 1995) and more than five times the annual clearly demonstrated that Botswana's water resources do freshwater withdrawals for the region (21.23 cu km/yr, see not allow for any largescale irrigation. As a result of the Table 2.3), yet little of this can be used without jeopardis- _ , study, Botswana abandoned its previ- ing power generation. ous strategy of self-sufficiency in food Hydropower generation is a function of several fac- production and adopted an alternative tors including water flow and the hydraulic head. policy of economic development for Although often thought of as a non-consumptive use of * food security, in which the economy water, water for hvdropower generation is also associated _ ^ ^' has to be strong enough to purchase with substantial evaporation and seepage losses. food from abroad. This deliberate poli- Sometimes the location of the power facilities can influ- cy decision which is counter intuitive ence other water uses. In Tanzania, although the total U; 4i represents a sound analysis and defini- electric generating capacity is low, about 80-90 percent of tion of a water resources management the electricity is generated from hvdropower. In the and development strategy appropriate Pangani and Rufiji basins the major hydropower generat- for the country. ing facilities are located downstream from major irrigated  WATER AND THE ECONOMY areas. During drought years, hydropower generation is in most urban areas, although peri-urban areas and informal direct conflict with irrigated agriculture. Tanzania's nation- urban settlements face severe difficulties in this regard. A al electricitv authority, TANESCO, has accused upstream majoritv of the rural population generally still does not irrigation schemes of depriving its hydro dams of water have access to safe water or sanitation. (see Tables 2.10, and has demanded their closure. In Malawi, hydropower 2.11) There is, however, a huge variation in access across generation uses more water than irrigated agriculture. the region, and some countries such as Botswana, The Congo river holds the potential for Africa's Mauritius and Zimbabwe have been doing very well in largest hvdroelectric resource (SADC 21 11,, and some 40 terms of extending supply of safe water and sanitation to possible sites for new hvdropower plants have been iden- the rural population. tified in the Zambezi basin. About 85 percent of this More than 60 percent of people in the region as a capacitv is on the Zambezi river and the remainder on its whole have access to safe drinking water, while 40 per- tributaries. About half of the mapped potential is in cent of the population does not; and more than 50 per- Mozambique, 25 percent in Zambia and 20 percent in cent are without access to sanitation, thus increasing their (Chenje 2000) Angola, DRC, Mozambique and exposure to water-borne diseases. In the period 1990- Lesotho have great potential to develop more hydroelec- 1996, for example, only 27 percent of people in Zambia tric power. The Lesotho Highlands Water Project which had access to safe water, and just 16 percent of Malawi's draws water from Lesotho to supplv South Africa's indus- population had access to sanitation. (SAPES 1998) trial heartland, is designed to include a total of 274 MW of In DRC, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland and Zambia, hvdroelectric generating capacity. (www.un.org/esa) between 25-50 percent of the population has access to safe Some of the major hvdroelectric installations in SADC drinking water, while in Namibia and Lesotho, between 50- countries are shown in Table 2.9. 75 percent have access. Botswana, Mauritius and Zimbabwe have higher coverage of between 75-99 percent. In manxy countries of the region, the coverage has been fluctuating from Facility Country Capacity M W) high to low (Angola, Lesotho) while in Mauritius, high coverage has been main- Cahora Bassa Mozambique 2 075 tained since the 1970s. Inga DRC 1 771 InsouthemnAfrica womenarethe Kafue Gorge Zambia 900 Kariba South Zimbabwe 666 main managers of water resources. "As Kariba North Zambia 600 food producers, water collectors, and Kidatu Tanzania 204 Lower Kihansi Tanzania 180 fuelwood gatherers, rural women are in Victoria Falls A-C Zambia 108 frequent and direct contact with land, Nkula B Malawi 100 waterandforest Mtera Tanzania 80 w a New Pangani Falls Tanzania 68 resources. Women Tedzani III Malawi 52 fetch and supply Tedzani I &II Malawi 40 Nkula A Malawi 24 drinking water for Hale Tanzania 21 their families, and Mulungushi Zambia 20 are heavilv depend- 7 - Lunsemfwa Zambia 18 Lusiwasi Zambia 12 ent on rain-fed agri- Nyumba ya Mumbu Tanzania 8 culture and, in some Wovwe Malawi 5 parts of the region, Deconsult. 1998. ZACPL4N Sector Studv 5, in Chenje 2000 on fisheries. Rural : - "%i .ich.no, he2001 fact-tnzanra.htrn mnw un nrg esajafrica energxreport htm women spend a lot of their time tend- - 2.3.3 Domestic supply and sanitation ing, collecting and using water and Access to safe water supplies and sanitation is limited in other natural resources." (Chenje and many parts of the SADC region, with better coverage in Johnson 1996: 11)  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Industrial Water Use in SADC Countries Figure 2.6 Mining groundwater in Botswana Box 2.5 as % of Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals Rural people in remote areas of Botswana depend entirely on underground sources of 0/0 of annual withdrawals water, as do the large diamond mines and 0 5 10 15 20 25 associated towns at Orapa and Jwaneng. The mineral industry is the largest contributor to the country's economy, and in Botswana's poli- Angola cy, the immediate social and economic consid- _____________________________________ erations get first priority. It is accepted that Botswana - mining groundwater is justified as long as suffi- cient value is generated for the nation, in terms DRC - ;;3i _ of national economic wealth and improved liv- ing conditions. It is argued that using fossil water buys time to develop other options such Lesotho . , a'vg< ..as deeper aquifers, distant (and therefore more m expensive) surface waters, or new methods of Malawi - water conservation. Supplying water for the mining industry forms a central part of the Mauritius National Water Master Plan, which contains -~ guidelines for groundwater abstraction. Mozambique 1 Pallett 1997 Namibia _ - _ Current and Projected Figure 2.7 Water Demand by Sector South Africa g= _,,_. . . .:=70 Swaziland 69% 63%/ Tanzania - 60 Zambia Zimbabwe 50 Table 2.3 40 2.3.4 Water for mining and industrial use This sector has the lowest usage of the available U) 30 water in the SADC region, according to Table - . 2.3, well behind agricultural and domestic uses. o The above graph, Figure 2.6, shows industrial 0_______ water use in some SADC countries as a percent- 15% age of total annual freshwater resources avail- -1 able. - 10, Comprehensive figures on water use in min- X ing are not readily available for the SADC region. However, individual country statistics show that, 0 in South Africa's Crocodile/Limpopo and Irrigation Industry Livestock Olifants basins, mining water requirements were Domestic Mining/energy estimated at eight percent of the total available 1995 1_ 2020 water in 1996 and this is expected to rise to nine PaDett 1997: 38 percent by the vear 2030. (Basson 1997)  WATER AND THE ECONOMY Commercial forestry is also a consumptive water user water policy gives priority to the use and allocation of which competes with aquatic ecosystems for water, and in water to the environment. It is believed that the demand South Africa it is listed as a streamflow reduction activity. for water by this sector will remain largely constant up to (Mackay 2002) year 2030 in all basins except the Mgeni/Mzimkulu, The general pattern of water use by the major sectors Mzimvulu and Mbashe/Kei basins. (Basson 1997) of the region's economy is not expected to change in the Water allocated to the environment (and to some next 20 years, although the total volume of water required extent hvdropower) is also used for recreational activities. to satisfy human needs will almost treble. (Heyns 1995) Recreational use of water has been increasing in the SADC Irrigated agriculture is likely to continue to consume region as the tourism industries of many countries are more than half of the available water resources, although developing. Lakes Kariba and Malawi/Nyasa are important total water use by this sector is expected to decline by recreational centres. At times, however, the recreational about 5 percent. Industrial use is expected to increase by use of water is in conflict with other uses, around 20 percent and domestic use by about 35 percent. The increase in water use in industry and domestic sec- 2.4 WATER MANAGEMENT CHAULENGES tors will be a direct result of population growth and planned expansion of the industrial sector. (Figure 2.7) Many countries in southern Africa are facing the challenge of effectively managing the available water resources to 2.3.5 Environmental uses of water meet the needs of a growing population as well as the The environment uses and needs water to sustain river ecological needs on which the available water resources health and ecological functions. As shown in Figure 2.5 depend. Some of the major challenges are discussed in for South Africa, the environmental sectors of conserva- more detail in subsequent chapters. tion, forestry and water stock, when taken together, use a amount of water, second only to irrigation. The 2.4.1 Population and declining per capita supply use of water by the environment is both consumptive and Demographic changes and rural-urban migration have a non-consumptive. Fish and other aquatic life require major impact on water demand. Rapid population growth water of certain quality and quantity for survival. and urbanisation are increasing the demand for domestic, Vegetation (both terrestrial and aquatic) and wildlife con- industrial and agricultural uses of water resources, posing sume water to sustain growth. a major challenge for the region. The combined popula- The use of water by the environment in southern tion of 14 SADC member countries increased by more Africa has not vet been well studied although initiatives than 30 percent in just a decade, from 153 million people have been started in South Africa, where the national in 1990 to 200 million in the year 2000. Water for the'environment - what does this mean? Box 2.6 A range of terms and meanings is used by different authors, although there are quite significant policy implications associated with the different terms: * water for the environment (meaning aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems) * water for the environment (meaning aquatic ecosystems only) * water for ecosystems (meaning sometimes aquatic and terrestrial, or sometimes just aquatic) * water for environmental use * environmental water * water for conservation * ecological use of water * water for environmental maintenance * [water for] ecosystem maintenance. * [water for] river maintenance It is recommended that the term "water for aquatic ecosystems" be used, since this is reasonably specific but not too limiting, and that when the intention is to indicate something different, such as water for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, then this is explicit. Mackay 2002  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Population Growth and Figure 2.8 as potential growth nodes. As a result all water develop- Water Availability in the SADC region ment projects have been geared largely towards serving the urban areas rather than meeting the water needs of rural areas. 350 000 L . _ 2.4.2 Water supply and sanitation coverage 300 000 Meeting the urban and rural water supply and sanitation 250 000: needs will remain a fundamental challenge for the region. * - - Tables 2.10 and 2.11 show the rural and urban popula- 200 000. 0 tions of SADC countries in relation to coverage of water 150 000 . supply and sanitation. Due to the scarcity of water and infrastructure in many countries in the region, women, 100 000 - particularly those in rural areas, are forced to walk long 50 000 F - - distances to fetch water. According to a World Bank esti- , . , r.- . .t - -mate, some African women use 40 percent of their daily 0 nutritional intake in travelling to collect water. Despite increasing urbanization, rural areas will con- tinue to be home to tens of millions of people in south- _Population In (000) ern Africa, and activities in these areas will continue to _ Per capita water availability (cu m) impact on natural resource use, including water resources Table 2.2 and the environment. National populations have been increasing steadily, and this increase is taking place However, the total supply of renewable freshwater against a background of diminishing quality and quantity resources available remained the same, or in some case of water resources. Water that has been contaminated was reduced due to pollution. The regional population is with untreated human waste and sewage often facilitates projected to reach beyond 327 million in the next 25 the spread of cholera and other water-borne diseases. years. (Table 2.2) Two-thirds of Mozambique's population, for example, The estimated amount of water available per person draw water from unprotected sources, and less than half per year in the SADC region was just over 10,000 cu m in of the population has latrines. (Box 2.7) Inadequate sani- 1995, but this is projected to decrease significantly to less than 5,000 cu m per capita bv 2025. (Table -- 2.2) Country Total 2000 % rural Rural Population % Population % 2.2) population population population with access to with access to The impact of popu- (000) 1995 (000) safe drinking sanitation lation growth on water water 1998 1998 , ,,lil-,ilir, is likely to be Angola 13 302 68 9046 22 27 significant, and innova- Botswana 1 651 72 1 190 88 41 DRC 50 730 71 36 020 7 - tive and cooperative Lesotho 2 140 77 1 650 57 35 solutions based on equi- Malawi 10 160 86 8 740 40 1 tv and sustainability con- Mauritius 1 205 59 710 100 100 Mozambique 17 245 66 11 380 37 26 siderations will be neces- Namibia 1 817 63 1 145 71 20 sarv to meet the growing Seychelles 82 - - - - South Africa 44 000 49 21 560 70 80 water needs of the Swaziland 1 046 - - - - region. Development Tanzania 33 422 76 24 640 58 83 policies in the region Zambia 10 755 57 6 130 10 57 Zimbabwe 13 485 68 9 170 69 32 generallyhavenot SADC 200 040 66 131 381 emphasised rural areas  WATER AND THE ECONOMY tation was one of the main causes for recent cholera out- 2.4.3. Implications of climate variability breaks in some parts of Mozambique, Zambia and The high degree of rainfall variability provides for an Zimbabwe. uncertain water resource base. The associated water shocks (droughts and floods) that result from extreme cli- Water supply and sanitation Box 2.7 matic events pose a constant risk to the region's economv in Mozambique and its people. According to a survey conducted and pub- lished by Mozambique's National Institute of 2.4.3.1 Drought Statistics (INE) in October 2001, just 37.1 Droughts are endemic to southern Africa, and often trig- percent of the country's population has access to safe drinking water through piped water or ger serious hvdrological imbalances, causing loss or dam- protected wells. The rest of the population age to crops, a shortage of water for people, livestock and derives its water from sources such as rivers, wildlife, as well as famine and disease. Drought exerts a lakes or unprotected wells, which may be con- taminated. severe impact on a wide range of environmental and eco- Worse still is basic household sanitation. nomic activities. As a result of drought during the 1994- The majority of the country's population (57.5 percent) has no latrines in their homes, and 1995 season, cereal harvests in southern Africa declined only 9.7 percent use modern flush toilets. by 35 percent compared to the previous season, with The picture is not homogeneous across maize harvests falling by 42 percent. (SADC 1996) In the country. In general, the healthiest place to live in is Maputo, while the provinces with Zimbabwe for example, the aggregated Gross Domestic the most severe problems are Zambezia and Product (GDP) dropped by six percent as a result of Nampula. In Zambezia, 74.6 percent of the popula- drought during the 1991-1992 season, while the manufac- tion and in Nampula 69.7 percent, walk for at turing sector declined by 9.2 percent in the city of least an hour to the nearest health facility, Bulawavo where water shortages were severe. The impact whereas in Maputo the figure is only 3.8 per- cent. In Zambezia, 93 percent of the popula- on hvdropower generation was significant. tion has no latrines, while in the capital city There was considerable variation in harvest outcomes Maputo the figure is just 0.7 percent. across the region during the 1994-1995 drought and three Mozambiquefile 2001, Gumende (ed) 2001 countries (Botswana, Malawi and Mozambique) actually produced more cereals than their five-year production average, while six coun- tries (Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, ; ,i 11.wd Country Total % urban Urban Population % Population % Zambia and Zimbabwe) population population population with access to with access to (000) 1995 (000) safe drinking sanitation fell far short. There was water 1998 1998 a north-south pattern to Angola 13 302 32 4,256 46 62 the harvest failure rate, Botswana 1 651 28 461 100 91 consistent with El Nino DRC 50 730 29 14,710 53 - events, and this was Lesotho 2 140 23 490 91 56 Malawi 10 160 14 1,420 95 18 reflected internallv in Mauritius 1 205 41 495 95 100 Mozambique where the Mozambique 17 245 34 5,865 85 68 challenge lay in trans- Namibia 1 817 37 672 100 93 Seychelles 82 - - - - porting the surplus from South Africa 44 000 51 22,440 99 92 the northern part of the Swaziland 1 046 - - - - Tanzania 33 422 24 7,782 92 98 country to the drought- Zambia 10 755 43 4,625 84 94 stricken south, a prob- Zimbabwe 13 485 32 4,315 99 96 lem eventuallv resolved SADC 200 040 34 67,531 byT exporting from the Table 2 10 and 2 11: Total population 2000 calculated using 1999 population and annual growth rates in 5ADC Statistics 2000 Ruralturban population % from UNFPA 2000; safe water and sanitation from UNICEF 2000 north and importing for the south. In Zimbabwe,  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT the highest levels of crop failure were found in a crescent resources planning and management decision-making is an running from the northwest to the west and then to the essential prerequisite for improving the security of the southwest. Southern Zambia was vulnerable, and also the region's people and economy. Interventions to deal with a highly productive maize triangle around the Northern, temporary production deficit will generally not address the Gauteng and Free State provinces of South Africa. long-term structural problems. (Ohlsson 1995) In manv cases, however, emergencv" food needs are 2.4.3.2 Floods related to chronic poverty and chronicallv high malnutri- Over the last two decades, heavy floods have devastated tion rates due to endemic food deficits rather than parts of the region, resulting in massive damage to phys- drought. In many areas, people are short of food even in ical infrastructure, crops and livestock, loss of lives, and good production years. Other areas are perennially identi- public health hazards due to water-related diseases. The fied as drought-affected, since they are almost alwavs drn. 1999-2000 floods during Cyclone Eline had a severe In arid, non-agricultural areas, in fact, crop failure will be impact on the Mozambican and Zimbabwean economies. felt less intensely than in more productive areas, as local production accounts for a small amount of total consumption and coping strategies are the norm rather than an exception. Examples include - ,_ southern Namibia, Botswana, southern Mozambique, southern Zimbabwe, southwestern Lesotho and southeastern Swaziland. A study of these trends indicates the need to take into account the underlying causes of povertv in deciding how to address "drought-related" problems. (Ohlsson 1995) The recurrent droughts experienced in southern Africa highlight the sensitivi- tv of the region's water resources to climate vari- EL= ability. With recurrent droughtsandchronc (US$ millions) Direct Indirect Relief Reconstruction droughts and chronic (S ilos water shortages experi- Food Aid 35.5 encd n mnvpats f he Health 15.7 5.2 25.8 enced in manvyparts of the Education 18.7 0.5 37.3 region, most countries and Housing & private property 29.1 43.6 people will pay an increas- Government property 5.2 6.0 10.2 Sub-total: Social sectors 68.7 47.2 116.9 ingly high price for water Water & Sanitation 13.4 6.6 13.4 or for lack of it. This will Energy & telecommunication 13.6 7.4 15.5 Roads 47.0 30.0 11.0 87.2 affect the poorer people, Railways 7.3 10.7 49.2 especially women and chil- Sub-total: Infrastructure 81.3 48.1 17.6 165.3 dren, who will spend more Agriculture 57.9 63.0 57.9 Livestock 7.9 0.8 7.9 time and energ, fetching Fisheries 8.5 6.1 8.5 water and mav suffer Industry 25.7 68.0 30.8 impaired health from con- Tourism 207 10.5 125 taminated water or too lit- Sub-total: Productive sectors 117.7 163.4 123.3 tle water. The ability to Sub-total: Environment 2.0 2.8 mnonitor and forecast Sub-total: Disaster prevention 3.4 19.4 Grand total 273.1 211.5 64.8 427.7 changes in climatic pat- DOreci costs = phvsical damage to assets and inventories Indirect = output losses and foregone earnings terns and to internalize cli- Table 1, Teclbncal Annex for a proposed credit of SDR 22 s million to the Republic of Mozambique for a Flood Recoverc Project, matic variability in water- Repo rt NO. t-30-no0z, ' April 2000. in Christie anal Hanlon 2001  WATER AND THE ECONOMY The government of Mozambique reported that GDP With urban population increasing at more than seven grew by only 3 percent compared to 6 percent predicted percent per year in some countries, it is becoming clear before the floods. Agriculture production grew by 2 per- that most cities in the region have not been able to devel- cent compared with 9 percent in 1999, and livestock op the basic services (such as water supplv and sanitation, production fell to 4.3 percent compared to the 21.3 per- solid waste disposal systems, sewage treatment, and ade- cent in 1999. quate industrial pollution control) to keep pace with the rapid growth of the urban population. Urbanization is pre- 2.4.4 Climate change senting new challenges to urban authorities in terms of Climate variability has alwavs been a fact of life in south- provision of facilities and services. For example, the popu- ern Africa. and the emerging challenge is the expected lation influx into urban areas such as Harare and increase in variability due to global climate change. Chitungwiza in Zimbabwe, Lusaka in Zambia, and the Climate change as a result of the coupled effects of Johannesburg-Pretoria area in South Africa is greater than global warming and greenhouse gases is likelv to have the capacity of the existing sewage systems. a measurable impact on the water sector in the region. Urbanization could be the biggest threat in terms of In response to climate change, southern Africa is water pollution if not properlv planned, due to the prob- expected to experience gradual warming, and the most lems of improper sewage disposal. Most water bodies significant warming in mean surface temperature of close to urban areas tend to have localised high coliform more than two degrees is expected to occur over the counts, This is caused bv the discharge of untreated interior upland plateaux encompassing Botswana, east- sewage into nearby water sources such as rivers and lakes, ern Namibia and Angola, and western Zimbabwe and contributing to water qualitv degradation, which in turn is Zambia. Rising temperatures are likely to increase evap- reducing the volume of water i idi l-I.- for consumptive otranspiration rates and reduce the potential water use or requiring costly treatment before it can be re-used. i lli d,d i Climate-change rainfall scenarios suggest Urban health hazards resulting from a lack of clean water that annual rainfall will decrease by up to 5 percent and and proper sanitation have a disproportionate impact on this will be experienced in Namibia, Mozambique, and the poor. parts of Zimbabwe and South Africa. (Hulme 1996) It is Urban runoff carries significant amounts of sediment, also predicted that the wet season will shorten and nutrients and organic material and this is a major factor in become less reliable. the degradation of urban dams and rivers. In southern One of the most significant impacts of global climate Africa, dams whose catchment areas have been heavilv change is likelv to be on the hydrological system and this urbanised are eutrophic. There is massive proliferation of will affect river flows and the region's water resources. aquatic plants and blue-green algae in these water bodies. Climate change will also impact on water uses; and irriga- Signs of deterioration of lakes, streams and rivers in the tion, the most climate-sensitive sector, is likelv to be region are evident and a number of lakes register high impacted significantly, as well as power production and levels of conductivity, as well as high concentrations of other uses. dissolved solids, nitrates and suspended solids. Marine pollution caused bv urban runoff and by direct discharge 2.4.5 Urbanization of domestic sewage is a problem for coastal cities More than 65 percent of the people in southern Africa throughout the region. still live in the rural areas (Table 2.10), but most SADC states will see urbanization continue to grow over the 2.4.6 Degradation of water and other resources next decade. South Africa and Zambia alreadv have more Associated with growing rural and urban populations and than 50 percent of their populations living in urban low level of service deliver- is another serious and a grow- areas. In Malawi, the population is getting more ing challenge, the increasing degradation of the region's urbanised with projections showing that 3.8 million water resources, which poses a serious threat to the sus- Malawians will be living in urban areas bv 2012, a 400 tainability of the water resource base. This is due to sever- percent jump from less than one million in 1988. al factors including unsustainable and over abstraction, (Government of Malawi 1998) insufficient regulation of surface and groundwater for con-  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT sumptive and non-consumptive uses, increasing water pol- rationing is becoming common during dry months. lution from municipal, industrial, mining, agricultural (OhIsson 1995) wastes and urban runoff and forest clearing, and water- Dams collect a huge amount of runoff, and farm dams shed degradation resulting from poor land-use practices, in South Africa have reduced runoff by up to 40 percent proliferation of invasive weeds and species. These issues in the Orange river basin. There can be serious down- form the core concerns addressed in this report and are stream flow impacts of damming, especially on local com- discussed in detail elsewhere in this report. (see Part 2, munities. if this is not jointly managed in a manner that chapters 5 through 8) includes the governments of all riparian states as well as other stakeholders. (see chapter 5) 2.4.7 Artificial water storage Siltation of dams is also a major concern in the Water storage (natural or artificial) retains water during region, generally resulting from soil erosion caused bv periods of excess supply for use during periods of reduced poor land-use practices. Siltation can cut the useful life of natural availability. Natural storage can be provided by a dam by one quarter, and major dams can silt up in less properly managed catchments, wetlands and groundwater than 20 years. (Ohlsson 1995) aquifers and artificial storage from construction of instream It is important to recognize the limitations in the use or offstream dams and development of groundwater banks. of artificial storage per capita as a proxy for development Often, natural and artificial storage facilities are not consid- if storage facilities are only operated as single purpose ered as complementary parts of a single system of storage facilities such as many structures in the SADC region. requirements in a river basin. Often artificial storage is built "The Cahora Bassa and the Kariba reservoirs were built to replace natural storage but without adequate under- during the colonial period and were designed for a single standing of the natural storage characteristics. Artificial purpose - electricity generation. Due to this operational storage structures such as dams and reservoirs are also orientation, it is difficult to convert them into multi-pur- used to store floodwater and provide flood-control bene- pose dams and use them, without major change and cost- fits. The artificial storage per capita is a useful indicator of IN investment, to effectively mitigate water shocks. the level of development of water resources available for However, opportunities exist for conjunctive management direct consumptive and non-consumptive use. of the two reservoirs to increase hvdropower production Africa as a whole has a verv small amount of artificial within the framework of the Southern Africa Power Pool storage per capita compared to all other regions of the (SAPP). This would entail the establishment of an inclu- world, and consequently, its ability to buffer itself against sive, riparian-led management framework that also could major water shocks such as floods and droughts is verv consider the existing reservoirs on the Kafue and Shire small. Compared to North America and Australia the per rivers as well as other planned reservoirs in the basin. The capita storage in Africa is smaller bv more than 1-3 orders output of this cooperation would be a joint strategp of magnitude. addressing other kev issues and objectives (besides In the SADC region, the Cahora Bassa and Kariba hydropower development) such as environmental flows. dams have created large storage and account for 90 per- Without the contribution of Cahora Bassa and Kariba cent of the storage in Zimbabwe, Zambia and which provide more than 90 percent of storage capacity Mozambique. South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and for Mozambique. Zambia and Zimbabwe, the investment Tanzania have grossly inadequate artificial storage facili- in storage capacity is not at an appropriate level to ensure ties. (Alemu et al2001) adequate risk coverage and protection against the region- The region has more than 300 medium-sized dams al effects of water shocks. This is clearly demonstrated bv and thousands of small ones for urban and rural water looking at the disastrous human and economic conse- supply, livestock watering and irrigation. South Africa has quences of the 2000 floods in the Limpopo basin in over 500,000 dams, and Zimbabwe has about 8,000, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, and in the lower parts of the Botswana has just 300 dams, largely for livestock, with Zambezi basin in 2001. Such effects could have been miti- additional storage to allow for limited irrigation. Namibia gated if an appropriate joint management framework at has 13 major state dams and another 500 small farm- both national and regional. basin-wide levels had been in dams. There are no supply dams in Swaziland, and water place at the time." (Alemu et al 2001: 9)  WATER AND THE ECONOMY 2.4.8 Inter-basin transfers Water Demand Management: Box 2.8 Proposed solutions to water scarcitv in the short term the case of Mozambique and Namibia include demand management (Box 2.8) and inter- Water Demand Management (WDM) is a management approach basin water transfer from other countries. The that aims to conserve water by controlling demand. This involves Lesotho Highlands Water Project is the largest water the application of selective incentives to promote efficient and transfer scheme in the SADC region, under an agree- equitable use of water. A range of measures can be used to modify the demand for water and these include economic measures (water ment in which South Africa pays royalties to Lesotho pricing), regulation, education and awareness-raising, technology for water exported from the Senqu/Orange river to improvements, water-loss control, water reuse and recycling. The Mozambican study was carried out at the Chokwe irrigation the water-scarce Gauteng province. The export of scheme. The price of raw water for agricultural production is heavi- water across other boundaries has also been suggest- ly subsidized and water is wasted because consumers are not told ed. such as the import of water by South Africa from about the real value of the resource. Given the vulnerable nature of the water resources in Mozambique, WDM strategy is of crucial as far away as the Zambezi river and even further importance. However, due to the lack of research in water manage- north, from the Congo river. However, such inter- ment associated with the shortage of measuring and regulating basin transfers are not without costs, and somc entail devices for controlling the supply and use of water, coupled with the general lack of financial and human resources, WDM principles substantial social and environmental risks that need to have not yet received sufficient attention. A serious constraint to be evaluated and mitigated earlyx in the planning and the establishment of demand management is the lack of data relat- ing to water quality, quantity, accessibility, dissemination, and use. decision-making process. This case is discussed fur- An appropriate legal and institutional framework for the water sec- ther in chapter 5. tor in Mozambique would contribute significantly towards the cre- ation of an environment in which WDM strategies could be imple- mented. 2.4.9 Competing demands for water The Namibian case study concentrated on the urban water sup- There are competing demands for water from the major ply (residential, commercial and industrial), and agricultural (com- mercial irrigation), mining and tourism sectors. A wide range of sectors of the region's economy. These include agricul- WDM measures were implemented. In the urban sector these ture, mining, energy, transport, recreation, and environ- included a block tariff system to reflect the real cost of water and mnplaces the highest demand on water to curb excessive water use. Public campaigns were used to edu- ment. Irrigation plaesth hghst emndonwaer cate the people about the importance of water. In order to prevent and the ecological needs are only now being recog- undue water consumption on private properties, Water Control nised. The greatest challenge facing the SADC countries Officers were employed to ensure that water wastage is addressed immediately. Efforts were made to reduce unaccounted for water is the management of the ever-growing demand on the through a leak detection programme, repairing and replacement of waters of the region to ensure sustainable growth and leaking pipes, carrying out continuous water audits and properly poverty alleviation. managing water meters. The report however suggests that the Sinc th ecnomes o sothen Aricaareheaily price charged for water still does not reflect its true cost. Since the economies of southern Africa are heavilv In the tourism sector, the case of Etendeka Mountain Camp is dependent on water resources, any expansion in the noted, where all staff members are trained to use water efficiently. Guests, mainly from overseas, are informed about the scarce water wateron usuallygteresultsina corresponding increase resources of Namibia and are asked to help by minimizing their water demand, Long-term growth prospects will depend water use. The showers are restricted to 15 litres per person by on how well agriculture performs since it is expected to using a bucket shower system. o l l f c e to In the agriculture sector, WDM techniques include drip irriga- be the main source of foreign exchange and water sav- tion management and use of sprinklers on days without wind, the ings in most countries, as well as sustenance. use of plastic covers over the soil to reduce evaporation and the Ailrwlls rce ouse of tensiometers at the pump to control the pumping pressure. Agriculture will also bean important source of inputs WDM techniques also include laser leveling of the land to avoid for industry and a major contributor to the market for excessive losses from the flood irrigation (pooling and flooding newly established industries. If the current trend in etc), optimizing the irrigation scheduling and the use of special crop varieties which have short growing periods. However, farmers water use in agriculture does not change. the excessive generally lack the skills required for optimal irrigation techniques, use of water in agriculture will remain a serious threat and extension services could improve the water consumption fig- ures substantially. to the sustainabilitv of the resource.ursubtnily t the sustainability of the resource. The Desert Research Foundation of Namibia has contributed to While inter-basin transfer is an option in the medium greater awareness of WDM in the SADC region through two recent to long term for augmenting local water supplies, water publications, Sharing Water in Southern Africa, edited by John Pallett and Namibia's Water - a Decision-makers's Guide, edited demand management (WDM) in the short to medium by Piet Heyns, Sharon Montgomery, John Pallett and Mary Seely. term provides a more cost effective and sustainable solu- Goldbiatt et al 2000 tion to addressing the increasing demands for water.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT WDM is aimed at maximising water-use efficiency to derive region as a whole. Achievement of this appropriate level the greatest value from the available water resources. of implementation will immeasurably strengthen the Various methods and tools are used to manage water region and its development, but failure could precipitate demand and these include economic measures, regulation, confrontation and conflict. Stronger mechanisms for com- education and raising awareness, improved technology, munication and mediation, and early warning of potential controlling water loss, and re-using and recvcling water. conflicts are essential to the future stability of the region. WDM is now widely accepted in the SADC region and vari- ous studies have been undertaken to promote its use. 2.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 2.4.10 Conflict over water resources Tensions over access to water and competition for The unreliability and variability of water resources in decreasing water supplies can create the conditions for southern Africa have a severe impact on economic conflict, and SADC is establishing mechanisms to deal development in a region where economic growth rates with these concerns, such as the Protocol on Shared are among the lowest in the world, partly due to water Watercourses, the Regional Strategic Action Plan, and the scarcity and related problems. In several countries establishment and strengthening of river basin organiza- there is growing evidence of a positive correlation tions. However, while these strategies can facilitate joint between rainfall variability and real GDP growth. management and strengthen channels of communication. Inefficient management of water resources, including the implementation requires full commitment of the unsustainable land and water use practices are com- member states in an atmosphere that will often require pounding the problem, and are not only impacting the close consideration of national interests within the frame- economy, but are also degrading the resource base and work of the interests of neighbouring countries and the threatening its sustainability. ~ .C N;' *.... . 'plans to draw, vaterfrom rbe Okavango river tabove) in timies of need, drew protests. Howlever, the Ramisar Convention, which binds signatories to the "wise utse' of wretlands suich as Okavango, does not provide guidance oni bowt to balance the protectOon of environmental r-esourtces which wtater suistainis, anid commnunitY demandsjhr basic wvater suipplies.  WATER AND THE ECONOMY Rainfall Variability and Maize Output in Zimbabwe, 1970-93 Figure 2.9 30000 Maize output ('000 Mt) Rainfall variability (%) 80 2500 __w0 60 2000 ji ___ 40 20 1500 1000 J - i, :V 0 2 -20 500-4 0 -60 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 9293 r NF,J5''7F.Maize - Rainfall Alemu et al 2001 2.5.1 Agricultural output the region experienced major failures in water supply. The recurrent droughts and floods that southern Africa During the drought many sources of supply, including has experienced have resulted in the loss of human life, groundwater, failed, Overall, water supply systems were livestock and other property as well as severe localized not prepared for the impact of these events. Box 2.10 shortages of the main cereal crops and other food. During describes the impact of the 1996 El Nino floods on Dar es the 1991-92 drought, cereal production in Namibia Salaam's water supplv. dropped bv 70 percent, while in Zimbabwe agricultural production declined by 45 percent. Due to the massive Flood damage to city Box 2.9 crop failure, the region spent about US$2 billion on water supply in Dar es Salaam drought relief. In early 2000 and 2001, massive flood- The El Nino-related floods in 1996 resulted in ing and a cyclone caused severe damage with loss of severe damage to the Dar es Salaam water sup- life and property in Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia ply, which is dependetialnloodwaters exceeded and Zimbabwe. Agricultural output and food produc- the hydraulic capacity of the Ruvu river and tion have suffered due to water scarcity in some sea- almost altered the course of the river system away from the water supply intake because large sons and water damage to infrastructure at other sections of the riverbank were breached due to times. Increasing competition in demands for water excessive bank erosion. A large segment of the threatens to curtail irrigated agriculture unless that lower Ruvu pipeline, which carries two-thirds of the city's supply was washed away at a critical sector becomes more efficient in its use of water point due to the floods and bank erosion, and this resources. resulted in almost a million people in the city Figure 2.9 shows asrongoing without reliable water supply in the midst of Figure 2.9 shows a strong positive correlation major floods for almost 10 days, a potentially between the variabilitv in rainfall and the output of dangerous situation for a serious outbreak of maize production during the period 1970-93 in water-related diseases and a public health crisis. Zimbabwe. The average annual precipitation fluctuated Hiri et al 2001 from 335 to 1004 mm, and averaged 640 mm. Maize output stronglv followed the volatility. Such volatility can 2.5.3 Hydropower generation even disrupt the agro-industry production chain. (Alemu Hvdropower is one of the major sources of energy in et cil 2001) southern Africa. The availabilitv of affordable sources of energy is seen as a strong impetus for economic growth. 2.5.2 Domestic water supplies However, the uncertainty of the water resource base, Floods and droughts have had negative impacts on competing demands for water, and droughts have signifi- domestic water supplies. During the 1991-92 drought cant impacts on hvdropower generation. Hydropower is and 2000-2001 floods, a number of the affected areas in also usually in direct conflict with aquatic ecosvstems due  ENVIRONMENTAL SlUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT to the highly regulated and non-natural flows as a result of drought go far beyond agricultural production alone, hvdropower requirements. In Tanzania, competing water impacting on a wide range of economic activities. Box demand between irrigation and electricity is affecting 2.10 shows the impact of drought on the economy of hvdropower generation. Increasing watershed degrada- Zimbabwe. tion in the Luangwa river basin in Zambia is believed to While droughts can cripple the economy of a country, threaten power generation at Cahora Bassa in floods often destroy infrastructure, property and livestock. Mozambique. During the 1991-92 drought, Zimbabwe suf- During the 1998 El Nino floods, the transport system in fered a 15 percent decline in power generation. Water Tanzania suffered major damage to bridges, roads, railway supply for thermal power stations is also affected by infrastructure and city water-supply pipelines. This was drought. also the case in Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe during the 2000-2001 floods, with 2.5.4 Commercial and industrial development the impact most severe in Mozambique. Water scarcity is a serious threat to commercial and industrial Drought impacts on Zimbabwe's economy Box 2.10 development. In South Afrca for example, water scarcitv has The 1991-92 drought had a devastating impact on the economy of Zimbabwe. The specific impact on the manufacturing sector was as a retarded industrial develop- result of water and electricity shortages. Most of the municipalities ment and mining. Industrial imposed rationing of water, with severe water shortages affecting urban areas such as Bulawayo, Chegutu and even Mutare in the eastern high- development In Zimbabwe's lands. Electricity shortages led to load-shedding. Rationing from second largest city. Bulawavo September 1992 and increased electricity tariffs affected the whole has been handicapped bv country. Load-shedding caused a reduction of about US$56 million (Z$560 million) in GDP in 1992, US$20 million in exports and loss of water scarcity. In order to 3,000 jobs. boost industrial development Zimbabwe's manufacturing output declined by 9.3 percent in 1992 and there was a 6 percent reduction in foreign currency receipts from and investment in this city, the manufactured exports, equivalent to a two percent reduction in total Matabeleland Zambezi Water export receipts. The most severely affected sub-sectors were textiles project has been proposed, (including cotton ginning), clothing and footwear, non-metallic mineral products, metal and metal products, and transport equipment. estimated to cost Z$1,650 mil- The value of the Zimbabwe stock market declined by 62 percent in lion based on the 1994 esti- 1992 partly as a result of the drought, leading the International Finance Corporation (IFC) to identify the country's stock market as the worst mnates (approx. US$ 180 mil- performer of 54 world stock markets in that year. GDP declined by 11 lion at that time). The esti- percent. mates will be significantly high- Benson and Clay 1994 er in 2002. Drought sends negative shockwaves through the commercial sector in the region. During the 1991-92 2.5.5 Commercial and subsistence fisheries drought, about 20 million people were affected and The degradation of water resources has severe conse- almost 70,000 jobs were lost. In South Africa, the econom- quences on the region's fishing industry, which is the back- ic impact of the 1991-92 drought was modelled and the bone of some national economies. Pollution in some sur- results indicated a reduction in real disposable income of face water bodies has affected aquatic life in many parts of about 1.8 percent, an increase in consumption expendi- the region. In the early 1990s eutrophication and the sub- ture of 0.5 percent due to lower disposable income and sequent invasion of aquatic weeds in Lakes Chivero and higher food prices, reduction in gross domestic saving of Manvame in Zimbabwe, resulted in massive fish kills that 5 percent and an incremental rise in the rate of inflation affected both commercial and subsistence fisheries. The of 0.8 percent. Overall, the drought was estimated to excessive regulation of river flows affected prawn produc- have a net negative effect of at least RI, 200 million on the tion within the Sofala bank of Mozambique, well known as current account of the balance of payments. It also result- a key element in the country's commercial fishery. ed in the loss of 49,000 agricultural jobs and 20,000 formal Climatic and human-induced desiccation of wetlands sector jobs in non-agricultural sectors. The effects of and other water bodies has destroved fishing industries in  WATER AND THE ECONOMY some parts of the region. In Botswana and Namibia for and damage to their habitat, therebh It.:. n-l, the opera- example, the drying of Lakes Ngami and Liambezi corn- tion of tourism activities. pletely destroved thriving fishery industries, making fish- processing facilities obsolete. 2.5.7 Poverty Povertv levels have been rising steadily in southern Africa, 2.5.6 Tourism and recreation a trend projected to continue over the next 25 years, pos- Recreation and water-based tourism is an important eco- ing a serious threat to the sustainabilitv of water nomic activity in the region. The Zambezi river and its asso- resources. SADC estimated a decade ago. in 1992, that ciated water bodies are extensively used for recreation and some 50 million people, one-third of the population of tourism. The Victoria Falls between Zambia and Zimbabwe the region at that time, lived in absolute poverty7. (SADC is one of the world's unique scenic sites while the gorges ELMS 1996) Current estimates suggest that this figure has downstream of the falls are renowned for whitewater raft- more than doubled, to more than 60 percent of a total ing. T,. F i'.. is an important intemational sport sup- regional population of over 200 million people. ported bv the Zambezi river. WXater pollution and over- Povertv (in conjunction with a weak policy environ- abstraction of water have a serious affect on these activities. ment) is viewed as the main cause and consequence of The coral reefs off the coast of Tanzania are attracting environmental pressure that continues to clegrade the visitors interested in diving and snorkelling but the reefs water resource hase and threaten its sustainabilitv. continue to be damaged by illegal dvnamite fishing, despite Poverty and environmental degradation are linked in a national laws against it. The vast biodiversitv of wild ani- vicious circle in which people cannot afford to take prop- mals, birds, insects and vegetation in national parks such as er care of their environment. Grev and 1if postulate Serengeti in Tanzania, Etosha in Namibia and Kruger in that "Africa's water resources endowment seriously con- South Africa, ancl the Okavango delta in Botswana attract strains economic growth." (2002:1) Mozambique's official large numbers of tourists from all over the world. Droughts report to the U'N Conference on Environment and and floods can affect the viabilitv and sustainability of these Development (UNCED) stated bluntlv that it cannot recreation and tourism activities, and some facilities were achieve sustainable tlevelopment in the short term extensivelv damaged by the recent floods. Drought reduces because it cannot yet meet the basic human needs of its water levels and may precipitate the death of wild animals population. Country Debt as % 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 of GDP 1997 US$millions US$millions US$millions US$millions US$millions US$miIlions Angola 127.8 7 281 10 001 8 488 9 589 9 777 9 273 Botswana 32.3 752 1 377 1 406 1 481 1 400 n/a DRC 140.4 10 170 13 459 13 961 14 390 14 390 14 390 Lesotho 42.1 356 517 531 427 352 514 Malawi 139.5 1 674 2 618.3 3 732.5 3 591.6 3 600 3 800 Mauritius 29.4 830 1 100 1 208 1 205 1 238 1 209 Mozambique 158.5 4 960 5 472 5 692 5 643 5 929 n/a Namibia 10.5 312 369 357 343 343 343 Seychelles 26.2 126 156 152 149 157 0 South Africa 27.9 23 056 35 554 37 655 41 409 41 164 n/a Swaziland 19.8 208 218 267 243 203 n/a Tanzania 110.9 5 902 7 888 7 118 7 601 7 865 n/a Zambia 192.0 7 237 6 400 6 571 7 144 6 800 n/a Zimbabwe 20.6 2 153 2 452 2 010 1 607 2 081 n/a SADC 46.2 75 015 87 583 89 148 94 824 95 298 n/a Sub-Saharan Africa 67.9 Least developed(LDCs) 99.5 Developing countries 42.8 .94DC staIti.stics 200o)/  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT A key factor hampering access to financial resources poverty issues and achieve greater equity for sustainable for appropriate water resources management is the eco- development. Many of the past and current strategies nomic instability caused by the region's burden of foreign have largely failed to improve the lives and livelihoods of debt, which continues to climb and which doubled the majority of the population, as clearly shown by the between 1980 and 1991. (Ohlsson 1995) In some cases, increasing debt burden and the increasing burden that the debt burden increased by three or even six times in poverty places on women. that period, although economic research shows both pos- In an attempt to address this problem of poverty and itive and negative connections between debt levels and equity, SADC defined the SADC Polici and Strategy for income growth depending on the countries studied. Environment and Sustainable Development - Toward Some countries have foreign debt greater than GDP. Equiti-led Growt& and Sustainable Development in (Table 2.13) Southern Africa. This policy and strategy provided the The need to increase economic output to meet the basis for implementing the global action plan for environ- need of an expanding population will intensify pressure ment and development, Agenda 21, adopted at the 1992 on resources, and the development of water resources Earth Summit. will have to be increasingly self-financing. (see chapter The document recognises poverty as the main cause 4) It seems unlikely that most southern African coun- and consequence of environmental degradation, and tries would be able to advance in regulation and man- poverty alleviation as SADC's overriding goal and priority; agement of water and environmental resources until the and identifies equity as a crucial element to be added to debt burden is reduced, and the most obvious environment and development in order to make Agenda resources to be affected bv pressure to increase eco- 21 more applicable and operational in southern Africa. nomic output will be land and water. (Ohlsson 1995) The document quotes the regional report to the 1992 Land is needed to grow food, support industry, graze Earth Summit: livestock and support human habitats and livelihoods, "We must never forget the majority of people and while water is needed for all of these activities, for basic countries in the region and the world are poor. If the survival and for sustaining the health of the natural envi- poor sometimes behave in a way that degrades the envi- ronment. ronment it is not because they choose to do so. They only Throughout the SADC region the burden of family do so when they have no other choices... The Earth sustenance falls on women, in both rural and urban areas. Summit and Agenda 21 must expand the development In rural areas, this is accompanied by hard physical labour choices and opportunities for the majority of poor peo- in carrying water and fuelwood over long distances, and pie, communities and countries... The Earth Charter and for the most part, in generating agricultural production. Agenda 21 must provide a new basis for a new deal for Policy and behavioural changes can begin to alleviate this the majority of poor people and countries in order to burden, including for example, serious secure and sustain our common support for the infrastructure of solar future." energy to enable widespread use. With the main goals of accelerating SADC's Gender Unit and the SADC . - . I economic growth with greater equity Parliamentary Forum, among others, and self-reliance, improving the health, have in place visionary programmes on -- income and living conditions of the advancing the role of women in deci- . poor, and ensuring equitable and sus- sion-making, which should ultimately tainable use of the environment and assist in mainstreaming some of these natural resources, SADC as a regional basic policies that can reduce the bur- bodv has put in place the main build- den on women and free some of these ing blocks for addressing equity issues. energies for development purposes and ; It remains to be seen whether the income generation to reduce poverty. 5 international community will fully sup- Major changes in economic develop- , port these regional initiatives to over- ment policies are needed to address the a come poverty.  WATER AND THE ECONOMY 2.6 SULMMARY of rainfall variability translates into high output volatility and, as risk coverage against water shocks is not necessarily Water has been described as more valuable than gold and optimal, this also affects the cost of capital (in)flows and that should not be considered lightly as an exaggeration. the rate of capital accumulation as well as investor profiles. The message is that water has a value. Water is priceless In this context, the role of domestic and regional invest- in the sense that it is the very essence of life, but it is also ments in artificial and natural storage capacity is crucial in scarce, as it is finite, and its scarcity is exacerbated by lessening the impact of water shocks. However, invest- increasing degradation. Effective legislative and institu- ments in the overall storage capacity have to be comple- tional frameworks to efficiently manage the resource are mented by cost-effective integrated and sustainable man- critical for both the current and future generations. The agement of the water resources to provide an effective and context of sustainability must encompass broad economic comprehensive risk coverage." (Alemu et al 2001: 7-8) policies for sustainable development and to address In southern Africa, water sets the parameters of devel- poverty. Water resources management in the region must opment, either opening opportunities or foreclosing attain the sustainable and integrated planning, develop- options. The SADC Regional Strategic Action Plan ment, utilization and management of water resources that addresses the needs for the development of the region's can contribute to the attainment of SADC's overall devel- water resources in an integrated manner. This report opment goals of poverty alleviation, food security and supports and complements the SADC Regional Strategic industrial development within the framework of an inte- Action Plan. It provides specific guidance and directions grated regional economy. for defining criteria that determine environmentally sus- Fruhling (1996) makes the point that "the belief that tainable water use and management and for integrating more water can always be available if only some technolo- them in water resources policies and in water resources gy is added is obsolete and destructive. Water must be planning and management decision-making. The report seen as a limited and vulnerable resource; an element that helps to fill the knowledge gap regarding the different ele- links land, vegetation, animals and man [sic people] ments of environmentally sustainable, water resources together." It must be treated and managed as a scarce management. These issues are discussed in greater detail resource with important social and economic values. in subsequent chapters. Each of the chapters highlight the The region's recurring droughts and floods are pre- issues, the signposts and the way forward in terms of dictable and if not preventable, at least carry the potential enhancing environmental sustainability in water resources for significant impact reduction through appropriate plan- management in southern Africa. ning and communication, and especially, through addressing the root causes of poverty which is accompa- Pula Box 2.1i nied by chronic malnutrition and endemic food shortages. "Adjusting the structure of the economies and moving Water is so essential to life in southern Africa that people of Botswana use the greeting the southern African countries out of the water dependent, Pula, meaning rain, a term also used for their low-equilibrium, poverty trap requires reducing the uncer- currency. 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The state of the ivorld population 2090.'.. ..20 0.. orlds apart: MIen an(d u'onten in a time of change. LUnitecd Nations Population Fund: New York UNICEF 2000. The state of the w'orld's children 2000. United Nations Children's Fund: New York UN Population Division, 1998. World population prospects: The 1998 re'ision. UN: NewN York Van W'yk, I.A. 1998. River dry, mountain high. The Star 2-4 November, Johannesburg 'olf, A.T., Natharius,J.A., Danielson,]J., Ward, B.S and Pender, J.K. 1999. International rnver basins of the world. International Journal of Waiter Resources De'elopment 15-7 ) December World Bank 1999. World Bank atlas 1999. World Bank: Washington DC World Bank 1990. Ent'iroinntenttl .llatters, Fall 1996. World Bank: i '"' - i. ., DC  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT  imA $1 .4k e la r t 5,~~~~~ -at m--- - - - - ,, Bo, _ -- 1 - ----~~~~~-- --- -- .9 P YIl .,, -; ' --- E 1I he_ - ............................................................................... l:-An tr- - - - - BF -k.i ....................................... ~ v , . l-0;-JS w\ >~iltor w-:D:- a- ~~~~~AR  CONTENTS 3.1 INTRODUCTION 55 3.6 NATIONAL, REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVES FOR THE CONSERVATION AND 3.2 DEFINITION OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS 56 MANAGEMENT OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS 74 3.6.1 Regional initiatives S 3.3 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES 57 3.61.1 SADC Inland Fisheries Forestry 3.3.1 Goods and services provided and Wildlife (SADC IFFW) wetlands conservation and managemcnt 75 b3 aquatic ecosvstems as 3 3 2 Aquatic ecosvstems as ~~~~~~~~~~~~~3.6.12 IUCN ROSA regional wetlands programmre S5 renew Aquable reosourems a8 3.6.1.3 Wetlands International waterfowl census 76 renewable resources S8 3.3.3 The importance of ecosystem health to 3.6.1.4 Ramsar Convention initiatives 76 3.6.2 National Initiatives 76 sustainable water resources management 38 3.6.2.1 The World WYide Fund for Nature (5WWF) - 3.4 IMPORTANT SOUTHERN AFRICAN Zamhia wetlands project 76 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS 59 3.6.2.2 Botswana national wetlands policv 7 3.4.1 Classification of aquatic ecos stems 3.6.2.3 South African national wetlands programme 77 in southern Africa 59 3.6.2.4 National wetlands activities in Tanzania 77 3.4.2 Distribution of aquatic ecosystems 59 3.6.2.5 National efforts in other countries 7 3.A 3 Significant aquatic ecosystems 3.6.3 International initiatives and mechanisms 78 of southern Africa 62 3.6.3.1 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 78 3,4 3.1 Aquattc ecosystems of 3.0.3.2 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 8 international importance accorcling 3.6.3.3 SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses 79 to the Ramsar Convention 02 3.0.3.4 Protocol on Wildlife Conservation and Law 3.4.3 2 Aquatic ecosvstems of Enforcement in the SADC Region 79 socio-economic importance 62 3.6.3.5 Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD) 79 3.4.3 3 Aquatic ecosvstems of physical/ hydrological importance 64 3.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR WATER POLICY 80 3.4.4 Important freshwater and freshwater- dependent terrestrial biodiversity areas 04 3.5 KEY THREATS TO THE SUSTAINABILITY REFERENCES 83 OF WATER RESOURCES 67 3.5.1 Over-abstraction of water and river flow regulation 67 3.5.2 Increasing pollution 68 3.5.3 Encroachment by settlement anti land use and threats to biodiversity 68 3.5.4 Degradation of watersheds 69 3.5.5 Proliferation of invasive and alien species 0 3.5.6 Policy inadequacies 71 3.5.7 Institutional deficiencies 72 3.5.8 Conflicts and tensions 9  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 3.1 INTRODUCTION cal diversity. See Table 3.1, which lists the direct and indi- rect values derived from aquatic ecosystems in the VXater scarcits has strengthened awareness of the eco- Zambezi basin. In southern Africa, aquatic ecosvstems nomic value of water for consumptive and non-consump- face severe threats, the consequences of which have tive uses in southern Africa. However, the full value to potentially significant implications for the sustainability of society has yet to be understood and appreciated, of a the water resource base. water resource base which comprises aquatic ecosystems This chapter addresses the functions, role and impor- including riverine, estuarine. coastal marine and wetland tance of aquatic ecosystems in water resources manage- systems. floodplains, lakes (natural and artificial) and ment, and identifies key ecological aspects such as biodi- grouncdwater. W'ater resources provide a wide range of versitv and ecological integritv which underpin the sus- goods and services which are dependent on the mainte- tainability of water resources in the Southern African nance of healthy aquatic ecosvstems. Development Community (SADC) region. It comple- Aquatic ecosvstems are productive svstems upon ments chapter 4 which details the methods and approach- which many people, often the poor. directlv depend for es for cletermining the economic values of the full range their livelihoods and from which they derive important of goods ancl services provided by water resources. This socio-economic benefits such as flood recession agricul- chapter also identifies and briefly discusses the major ture, wildlife and livestock water supply, and fishing. threats facing aquatic ecosystems in the region, which Aquatic ecosystems also perform numerous ecological include over-abstraction of water and loss of flow. degra- and hydrological functions, ancd often are hubs of biologi- dation of water qualitv, proliferation of nuisance species, Wetland component Direct use value Indirect use value River and channels Fish, gamefish & wildlife (game) Riparian zone Reeds, wood, fruits, wildlife (game) Breeding habitat for fish and waterfowl Reed marshes, papyrus swamps Reeds, fish, birds, wildlife (game) Nutrient cycling and pollution absorption Estuary including mangroves Fish, wood, wildlife (game) Breeding habitat for fish and prawns, sediment trap Floodplain Fertile agricultural soils, grazing grasses, Groundwater recharge wildlife (game), birds, wood Whole wetland Biodiversity and aesthetic beauty Turpie et 119%  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT degradation of land, and weak institutional and policy must be included in the working definition of an aquatic frameworks. Each of these threats, and options for mitiga- ecosystem. For the purposes of this chapter: tion, are addressed in detail in the thematic chapters An aquatic ecosystem includes the water, physical which follow chapter 4. Chapter 5 relates to provision of habitat, vegetation, biota and biochemical and water for aquatic ecosystems; chapter 6 relates to water ecological processes contained between the outer quality management; chapter 7 relates to land degrada- edges of the riparian or fringing zones and within tion; and chapter 8 to the management of aquatic weeds. groundwater bodies. In conclusion, this chapter provides a list of recommenda- Groundwater has tended not to be considered as an tions for water policy which can support the sustainable aquatic ecosystem until quite recently, rather being management of water resources according to an integrat- seen as a source of water for surface aquatic ecosys- ed ecosvstem approach. tems. However, new research from Australia and South Africa has shown that groundwater bodies often contain 3.2 DEFINITION OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS rich floral and faunal populations, and biodiversitv scores measured in certain groundwater bodies in There are several internationally accepted ways to define Australia recently, are some of the highest vet recorded aquatic ecosystems, but in southern Africa a uniformly in the world. (Humphreys, pers. comm.) The hydrolog- accepted definition does not exist. Aquatic ecosystems are ical, biochemical and ecological processes which link considered to include riverine systems. estuarine systems, groundwater and surface water ecosystems are complex coastal marine systems, wetland systems, floodplains, lakes (natural and artificial) and groundwater systems. Multiple definitions Box 3.1 The Ramsar Convention (1971) defines wetlands as, of wetlands areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether The wide range of definitions of wetlands natural or artificial, permanent or temporarv, with given below illustrate the different percep- tions that people have of wetlands in the water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, region. Despite the widespread acceptance of including areas of marine water, the depth of which at the Ramsar definition, a number of country- low tide does not exceed six metres. specific definitions exist. * In Malawi, wetlands are areas that are The widely used Ramsar definition includes all tvpes periodically wet or periodically dry, or of aquatic ecosystems, but for the purposes of this chap- permanently flooded with a water layer not exceeding several metres. ter, the term "wetland" will be used to refer to typically * In Namibia, wetlands include areas where swampy systems, whether temporary or permanent, and water accumulates on land even if it "aquatic ecosvstems" will be used as the more encompass- happens to dry up temporarily. * In South Africa, wetlands are places ing term. Box 3.1 shows the different perceptions of wet- where marine, aquatic and terrestrial lands in the region. ecosystems meet and interact. An aquatic ecosystem generally has several 0 In Zambia, wetlands are understood as areas that are permanently flooded components: including littoral zones of lakes, rivers, water, whether standing, flowing or underground; swamps and dambos. * In Botswana, wetlands are all areas in physical habitat, including channel morphology or which water sits on or above the surface bathymetry, sediment characteristics and bedforms; of the soil for periods of time thus vegetation, including riparian or fringing vegetation affecting the ecological characteristics of and instream vegetation (both submerged and t In Zimbabwe, wetlands are understood to emergent), algae and phytoplankton; be land that is subjected to permanent or biota, from macrofauna to microfauna; and seasonal flooding or areas of subsurface water accumulation through seepage such biochemical and ecological processes, such as as in vleis or dambos. nutrient cycling. Adapted from a number of sources including a paper presented at the Malawi All of these components are necessary, and must be National Wetlands Seminar, 1991; Pallett (ed) 1997: Wetlands ofSouth Africa, 1995; W F,T/Zambia National Parks and Wildlife Service, undated information present with some degree of health, quality or integrity, In sheet; and Mukahanana 1994. order to maintain a fully functional ecosystem, and so  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS and difficult to measure, but are proving to be signifi- Significant inland fisheries Box 3.2 cant and worthy of attention in water resources man- resources in the SADC region agement and environmental impact assessments. (Steyn, Very important and productive fisheries are supported by the pers. comm.) numerous wetland ecosystems of the region, such as: * Wembere plains and Bahi swamps in Tanzania; 3.3 SLISTAINABLE MANAGEMENT * Bangweulu swamps, Mweru wa Ntipa, Kafue flats and OF WATER RESOURCES Barotse floodplains in Zambia; * Lakes Malawi, Chilwa and Chiuta in Malawi; * Estuaries in Tanzania and Mozambique; and 3.3.1 Goods and services provided 0 Many smaller wetlands that support signficant fisheries. by aquatic ecosystems Dams in the region also support vibrant fisheries. In Lake Cahora Bassa, potential catches are estimated at 15,000 Although there has been and remains a tendency to think tonnes per year. By 1993, the annual yield from the Lake of water itself as the only commoditv of value which is Kariba fishery was about 30,000 tonnes with a producer value of US$55 million. (Masundire and Matiza 1995) provided by water resources, in fact aquatic ecosystems Annual fish landings from inland fisheries, mostly wetland provide a number of goods and services that are of value fisheries, range from about 35 tonnes in Lesotho to 300,000 to people (see chapter 4 on valuation of ecosystem servic- tonnes in Tanzania. (FAO 1995) The total annual fish catch from inland fisheries is over 4 million tonnes. es). These include: supply of water with reasonable assurance and of adequate quality which can be abstracted for and protect aquatic ecosystems as the resource base offstream use, to meet commercial, agricultural, from which the commodity of water and other valuable industrial or basic human needs; goods and services are derived, rather than as users of the ability to dilute and transport wastes, and to water which compete with people for a limited water purify some biodegradable wastes (see Figure 3.1); supply. biological products for harvest, such as fish, reeds, Wetlands can also contribute to pollution abatement food plants, medicinal plants and shellfish by removing pollutants such as bacteria and oxygen- (see Box 3.2); demanding substances; reducing dissolved concentrations opportunities for transport; of toxic heavy metals such as lead, chromium, copper, zinc aesthetic, leisure and tourism opportunities; and cadmium; and processing and storing nutrients such as use for cultural and spiritual purposes; nitrogen and phosphorus. attenuation of floods (see Box 3.3); maintenance of microclimate; Rate of Nitrate Removal by Wetland Ecosytems Fig 3.1 maintenance of agricultural societies (see Box 3.4); and Percentage removal maintenance of terrestrial ecosystems, particularly in the case of groundwater. 80 The common thread running through all of the goods and services list- 60 ed above is that their maintenance depends directly on the maintenance of 40 all the components of healthy, function- ing aquatic ecosystems. For example, if 20 nutrient cycling is affected by loss of key insect and microbial species which aid 0 I I X I x 1. - . the natural decomposition process, then 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 aquatic ecosystems will not be able to Nitrate loading (kg/ha) process and purify wastes efficiently. Thus there is a need to consider, manage  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES iMANAGEMENT The role of wetland ecosystems in Box 3.3 3.3.2 Aquatic ecosystems as renewable resources flood attenuation and flow regulation The perspective that aquatic ecosystems are the resource Wetland ecosystems may act as flood detention and flow regu- base implies that, in order for water resources to be man- lation reservoirs. aged as renewable resources, such that the flow of goods As a flood enters a wetland, flow becomes attenuated. and services from aquatic ecosvstems is sustained in the There is a lag period between the time the peak enters the wetland and when it leaves, and the peak flow leaving the long term, then water resources should be managed as wetland is usually significantly lower than that entering it. This ecosvstems, linked to the land and terrestrial ecosystems has the effect of offering protection for communities living in a river basin, rather than just as reservoirs or transport downstream of the wetland. The Okavango delta, the Linyanti and the Barotse swamps systems for water. Water resources management should best illustrate this function. include the management and protection of all compo- Wetlands store water that is gradually discharged into river systems throughout the year, helping to maintain base flows nents of aquatic ecosystems, not just the water. during the dry season. Approaches to ensure inclusion of all components of The Barotse floodplain stores 8,600m cu m at low flow and as much as 27,000m cu m during peak flood. This wetland aquatic ecosystems in economic cost-henefit analyses are ecosystem stores water that contributes towards maintaining discussed in more detail in chapter 4. the perennial flows of the Zambezi river. The floodwaters of The sustainability of the goods and services which are the Zambezi in the Barotse floodplain play an important role in securing year round freshwater supplies for human and animal so valuable to people, and some of which are critical for populations. our life support, require that the structure, function and The Kafue basin above Itezhitezhi is subject to significant health of all components of aquatic ecosystems he pro- regulation by the Lukanga, Busanga and other swamps. tected, by supplying the aquatic ecosystems with suffi- cient water, at the right time, in the right quantities and of suitable qualitv; bv ensuring that riparian and instream - c" habitat are not degraded as a result of poor land-use prac- tices or over-exploitation, and that natural biotic commu- nities are not compromised by the introduction of inva- sive alien species. 3.3.3 The importance of ecosystem health to sustainable water resources management W'etlanzd ecosistems malt act as, , - ..., reservoirs. seeni here in Zambezi basin. As long as aquatic ecosvstems remain healthy and retain a degree of natural ecological functioning, they are resilient, The importance of floodplain Box 3.4 meaning they are able to recover from the pressure of utili- reces_~ion agriculture sation of various goods and services by people, and are Wetlands have been used for several centuries for flood reces- able to sustain a steadv flow of goods and services to peo- sion agriculture. Early civilizations and settlements especially ple. This means that thev can be managed as renewable in the Middle East thrived on floodplain agriculture. The varia- a tions in inundation levels of wetlands result in very fertile soils resources, so long as they are not over-exploited bevond that attract human settlement. their capacity to recover, whether by over-abstraction of In the Kafue flats, the permanent area of inundation is water the addition of too much waste degradation of habi- 13,000 sq km and seasonal inundation covers a total area of 28,000 sq km. The variations in flooding create fertile soils tat or the introduction of invasive alien species. used to support intensive agriculture. The resilience of an ecosvstem to natural or artificial The main floodplains in the region, ie Barotse floodplain, Wembere plains, East Caprivi wetlands and the Kafue flats events, including the pressures of utilisation and exploita- have a long history of settlement and this is partly attributed tion, depends on a number of factors, amongst them: to the fertile soils found in these areas. the diversitv of the svstem (habitat and species The Barotse floodplain supports more than 300,000 people whose livelihood is dependent on the fertile alluvial deposits diversity); from the Zambezi. the presence of refuge areas from which the In Namibia, the fertile floodplains of the East Caprivi sup- ecosystem can be repopulated if certain species are port a total of 134,708 cattle and 18,470 goats. lost due to degradation, catastrophic natural events or Bethune 1998 accidents such as toxic spills;  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS the ecological integrity of the system, which is a tion to provide a more detailed breakdown. Box 3.5 measure of its degree of I. ., .' from natural shows the classification adopted in South Africa for the conditions; purposes of developing a wetland inventory (Dini et al the ecological health of the system, which is a 1998), which is also based on the Cowardin et al classifica- measure of the degree to which major ecological tion. processes are functional, such as cycling of nutrients, decomposition of organic matter, feeding and 3.4.2 Distribution of aquatic ecosystems reproductive processes of kev species. The majority of natural inland aquatic ecosystems in As a general rule, the more natural an ecosystem is, southern Africa are associated with major drainage sys- the higher its integrity and resilience, especially if its natu- tems of the ,, di. 1'1 rivers: ral biodiversitv is high. However, an aquatic ecosystem Cunene does not have to be in pristine condition to be ecological- Cuito-Cuhango l!; healthy: even modified systems can he ecologically Okavango healthy and provide goods and services, including water. Zamhezi Hence in water resources management, a balance must he Limpopo achieved between protecting the ecological health of Save aquatic ecosystems at a level such that the water Orange resources remain able to sustain utilisation in the long Ruvuma, and term, and utilising the water resources in orderto meet the Lakes Malawi, T ii, n I and Victoria. (Map 3.1) short term imperatives for economic development, subsis- In the arid lands such as in the Kgalagadi and Namib tence livelihoods or provision of basic water and sanita- deserts, pans are the prevalent type of aquatic ecosvs- tion services. The two objectives of protection and utiliza- tems. Artificiallv constructed aquatic ecosystems such as tion need not be conflicting, and particularly in rural areas dams are designed to store water during the rather short they may often he complementary, since great reliance is rainy season for use during the rather long dry seasons. usually placed on the natural functions and products of Reservoirs have been constructed to store water for use in aquatic ecosystems bh rural communities. agriculture, domestic consumption, hydroelectricity gen- eration and wastewater stabilisation. Many of these have 3.4 IMPORTANT SOUTHERN AFRICAN now developed -zgnlfi aquatic ecosvstems that almost AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS overshadow the primarv reason for the creation of the reservoirs. Kariba and Cahora Bassa are the largest artifi- 3.4.1 Classification of aquatic ecosystems cial reservoirs in the southern African region but there are in southern Africa thousands of other large dams throughout the region, as There are divergent views on .' ",r ,1. and classifica- defined bv the International Commission on Large Dams tion of aquatic ecosystems. Numerous classifications of (ICOLD), especially in the drier countries: Namibia, aquatic ecosvstems exist and the most quoted one is that Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe. of Cowardin et al (1979). According to Cowardin et al, Some of the well-known natural wetland ecosystems aquatic ecosystems can be classified into five major sys- are: tems - marine, estuarine, riverine, lacustrine and palus- the Okavango delta and ' lii ,,i pans in trine. Some authors have classified aquatic ecosystems by Botswana; their geographical location, water qualitv and mode of for- the Barotse swamps. Bangweulu swamps and the mation. This has given rise to classifications such as inter- Kafue flats in Zambia; tidal and sub-tidal marine systems, lakes (natural and arti- the Linyanti-Chobe swamps in Botswana and ficial), riverine systems. '1 . .. . i. , swamps, marshes and Namibia; dambos. Dugan (1990) classified aquatic ecosvstems into the Zambezi delta in Mozambique; three main categories. based on the quality of water and the Wembere plains and Rufiji delta in Tanzania; mode of formation, ie salt water, freshwater and artificial Etosha pan, Namibia; and wetlands. Masundire (1995) modified Dugan's classifica- St Lucia wetlands, South Africa.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Distribution of Major Aquatic Ecosystems in Mainland SADC Map 3.1 LE. Ed ,' .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~L Ki il 'C, L. M u, , _'' '{9 R L rBgw,w,,,,,, (f Eh ,- , , d i J X t . ,, ,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ MalaWilNe ceeo . L LKautbo 0 ~ ~ ~ L, CaaC4 '< .-' g' ^ Etosha Pah A.* ;E li Der a- " '' ,f M1kgd&gd. Pa- sa. (Ds D PansJ:~ Sa . Y M LnesothoNA F/I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' Modi Cab 9 Con laionsgr me fr Lrak an d Pm Jn ads1 Pan Dabo E3Mnrvs l Dlt cl iOk Moiidfo Cawl,H191 'tad AClsrJtonPorm eorSlbr fic.i hneM.adPJhsn es 94 Saeo h rvrnez nSotenAna  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS Classification of aquatic ecosystems Box 3.5 Marine systems Marine systems consist of the open ocean overlying the continental shelf and its associated exposed coastline. Marine habitats are exposed to the waves and currents of the open ocean and the water regimes are determined primarily by the ebb and flow of oceanic tides. Shallow coastal indentations or bays without appreciable freshwater inflow are also considered part of Marine systems because they generally support typical marine biota. Estuarine systems Estuarine systems consist of tidal wetlands that are usually semi-enclosed by land but have open, partly obstructed or sporadic access to the open ocean, and in which ocean water is at least occa- sionally diluted by freshwater runoff from the land. Estuarine systems include both estuaries and lagoons, and are more strongly influenced by their association with land than is the Marine system. In terms of wave action, estuaries are generally considered to be low energy systems. Salinity and temperature regimes tend to be highly variable, and salinities may periodically be increased above that of the sea by evaporation. Estuarine systems are often highly turbid and contain distinctive fauna. Salt marshes and mud and sand flats bordering estuaries and with an intertidal character are also considered Estuarine. Riverine systems Riverine systems include all aquatic ecosystems contained within channels. A channel is an open conduit, either natural or artificial, - which periodically or continuously contains flowing water. The fol- lowing two exceptions are not considered Riverine wetlands: 1 wetlands dominated by mosses or lichens, persistent emergents (eg Phragmites australis), shrubs or trees (greater than 30 per- cent surface area coverage); and 2 habitats with sea-derived salinity in excess of 0.5 g/l. Water is usually, but not always, flowing in the Riverine system. Non-wetland islands or Palustrine islands may occur in the chan- nel, or on adjacent flooded plains, but they are not included in E- the Riverine system. Oxbow lakes are placed in the Lacustrine or c- Palustrine systems unless they are connected to a Riverine sys- , tem by an open channel at both ends, either permanently or intermittently. Floodplain wetlands are included in the Palustrine Tembe river, Maputo province, Mozambique. system. Lacustrine systems Lacustrine systems include permanently flooded lakes and dams. Lacustrine waters may be tidal or non-tidal, but ocean-derived salinity is always less than 0.5 g/l. Typically, there are extensive areas of deep water, and there may be considerable wave action. Islands of Palustrine wetlands may lie within the boundaries of a Lacustrine system. Palustrine systems The Palustrine system groups together vegetated wetlands traditionally called marshes, swamps, bogs, dambos, fens and vleis, which are found throughout southern Africa. Palustrine wetlands may be situated shoreward of river channels, lakes or estuaries; on river floodplains; in isolated catch- ments; or on slopes. They may also occur as islands in lakes or rivers. The erosive forces of wind and water are of minor importance except during severe floods. Endorheic systems Aquatic ecosystems of the Endorheic type are commonly referred to as pans in South Africa, and as small closed basins or playas in geomorphological literature. The Endorheic system has been added to Cowardin's original complement of five systems in recognition of the significant ecological role played by pan ecosystems in southern Africa (Goudie and Thomas 1985). Being located largely in dry regions, pans display characteristic patterns of ephemeral and irregular inundation. Pans in the arid western regions of South Africa may remain dry for years between temporary flooding, while those in the higher rainfall regions display seasonal inundation regimes, and may remain flooded over a number of seasons. Some of the larger pans on the Mpumalanga highveld are permanently inundated, large, deep and have rooted vegetation (Allan et al 1995). As such, these pans would be classified as Lacustrine if their water depth exceeds 3 m. Being endorheic, pans lose water largely by evaporation, which also contributes to the high salinity observed in many of these systems. Dini et al 1998, based on Cowardin et al 1979  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 3.4.3 Significant aquatic ecosystems obligations of parties to the convention is that each party of southern Africa should designate at least one wetland as a wetland of The major aquatic ecosy:stems of southern Africa are char- international importance. Table 3.2 shows the designated acterised in Table 3.8 in the Annex to this chapter with an sites in the SADC region (Ramsar Bureau 1999). It can be assessment of current threats facing these systems. The argued that these wetlands designated as wetlands of following discussion addresses the importance of various international importance or Ramsar sites are the critical kinds of aquatic ecosystems in southern Africa. wetlands of southern Africa. They have been placed on All aquatic ecosystems are important to varying the Ramsar list because they deserve special conservation degrees within their locality. They may be important as effort to maintain, use and manage them. habitats of wildlife and plant biodi- , . . . versity, as grazing areas for live- stock, as sources of fish, as ; ____ sources of water for human use Aquatic ecosystem Country Date designated Area (ha) or as a means of disposal of wastes. However there are some Okavango Delta System Botswana 09.12.96 6 864 000 wastes. However, Lake Chilwa Malawi 14.11.96 224 800 aquatic ecosystems that are Etosha Pan & Cuvelai Namiba 23.08.95 600 000 deemed to be of national, region- Orange River Mouth Namibia 23.08.95 500 Sandwich Harbour Namibia 23.08.95 16 500 al or even, global importance. Walvis Bay Namibia 23.08.95 12 600 Such importance maybe because Barberspan S. Africa 12.03.75 3 118 they are representative of a wet- Blesbokspruit S. Africa 02.10.86 1 858 De Hoop Vlei S. Africa 12.03.75 750 land type, or they are unique in De Mond S. Africa 02.10.86 918 one form or another, or thev are Kosi Bay S. Africa 28.06.91 10 982 Lake Sibaya S. Africa 28.06.91 7 750 important as breeding sites for Langebaan S. Africa 25.04.88 6 000 waterfowl and for other reasons. Natal Drakensberg Park S. Africa 21.01.97 242 813 The importance of aquatic Ndumo Game Reserve S. Africa 21.01.97 10 117 Nylsvley Nature Reserve S. Africa 07.07.98 3 970 ecosystems can be defined using Orange River Mouth S. Africa 28.06.91 2 000 three parameters: St Lucia System S. Africa 02.10.86 155 500 importance in terms of the Turtle BeachesS.Arc02186 3 0 Seekoeivlei Nature Reserve S. Africa 21.01.97 4 754 ecological/biodiversity Verlorenvlei S. Africa 28.06.91 1 500 I,.l or Wilderness Lakes S. Africa 28.06.91 1 300 Bangweulu Swamps Zambia 28.08.91 250 000 in terms of their socio- Kafue Flats Zambia 28.08.91 83 000 economic value; or Ramsar Bureau 1999 uas of 22 1099 their physical/hydrological importance. 3.4.3.2 Aquatic ecosystems of 3.4.3.1 Aquatic ecosystems of international socio-economic importance importance according to the Ramsar Convention Although some of the region's most significant aquatic The criteria for listing an aquatic ecosystem as being of ecosystems are not listed as Ramsar sites, this does not international importance according to the Ramsar mean that they are not important. Indeed the most local Convention include the uniqueness of the svstem, its role or nearest aquatic ecosystem to a community, however in supporting populations of endangered species, and its small, is likely to be perceived as very important by the role in supporting waterfowl populations. In order to community concerned. The measure of importance is designate aquatic ecosystems as wetlands of international both relative and subjective. In arid areas such as importance, states must be parties to the Ramsar Botswana, Namibia, parts of South Africa and parts of Convention. Six of the 14 SADC member states are par- Zimbabwe, any aquatic ecosystem of any size is of signifi- ties to the Ramsar Convention: Botswana, Malawi, cant local importance for human, livestock and/or wildlife Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania and Zambia. One of the use.  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS Furthermore, it should not be assumed that those countries, which are not yet parties to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, do not have important aquatic ecosystems at local, national or international levels. Most of the systems listed in Table 3.2 have socio-economic importance to the _ . communities found around them and the coun- tries in which thev are found. These are areas that are culturally or traditionally important for _ local and indigenous communities and have a . potential to contribute to the economy by virtue of their conservation and sustainable manage- -< _ ment (ie, refuge or nurserv area, recreation or appreciation by tourists, subsistence by local Shumu1 (199) .:;. ,. n . .: potid 'zer 25 percenlt of the continzelt's protein. inhabitants). These are areas that also provide Sbumuav(1999).. ' . proiide important sources of food and protein for the local diet _ and generate export revenue. In Tanzania, aquatic ecosvstems such as the Wembere plains, Utengule Swamps Bahi swamp, Rufiji delta and many others sup- 1986 1990 1994 1998 port large populations of people and underpin the Aquaculture Production Inland production (000 tonnes) 2 5 7 8 economy of the countrv.Some 80 percent of Tanzania's Percentage of world total 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 prawn harvest is currently derived from the Rufiji delta. Marine production (000 tonnes) 0 2 4 4 This fisherv (which is based on several different species Percentage of world total 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 of prawn) is of particular economic importance, as it is Fisheries Production both lucrative and a major source of foreign exchange. Inland production (000 tonnes) 594 694 560 619 Percentage of world total 10.0 10.8 8.3 7.7 Timber from the mangrove forests is an asset of consid- Marine production (000 tonnes) 1 013 1 032 1 038 1 158 erable economic significance. Over 150,000 people Percentage of world total 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.5 inhabit the Rufiji delta and floodplain, the majority of Food Balance whom rely on the resources of the wetland ecosystems Total food supply (000 tonnes) 1 364 1 511 1 085 n/a for their livelihoods. Per capita supply (kg) 10.0 9.9 6.3 n/a Fish as share of animal protein (%) 21.8 21.8 17.2 n/a Elsewhere in the region, wetlands such as the Bangweulu swamps, Kafue flats, Barotse floodplain. Trade in fishery commodities Chobe/Caprivi, Etosha, Okavango, Lower Shire, Zambezi Total imports (US$millions) 223 264 249 256 Percentage of world total 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.5 Delta and St. Lucia have social and economic values to the Total exports (US$millions) 165 203 665 843 communities living around them. In the Barotse flood- Percentage of world total 0.7 0.6 1.4 1.6 plain, the Ndau and Lealui communities derive their uN FAO 2000 entire livelihood from wetland resources. The communi- ties harvest fish, papyrus, water reeds for crafts and fuel, estates found within and around aquatic ecosystems offer wild birds, grass for thatch and crafts, wild animals, forest opportunities for game viewing, canoeing, white-water products, wild vegetables, clay for potterv, water for live- rafting. photographic and walking safaris, boating and stock and drinking, use grass for grazing and soils for agri- leisure cruising. Nature-based tourism is one of the fastest culture (Turpie et al 1998). Table 3.8 in the Annex to this growing industries in the region and a large proportion of chapter highlights some of the important values of select- this industry is supported by important wetlands such as ed wetlands in southern Africa. Okavango delta, Etosha pans, and Lake St. Lucia to name The abundant wildlife and scenic beauty offered by a few. Apart from supporting nature-based tourism, some aquatic ecosvstems. particularly wetland systems, form the wetlands provide good soils for agriculture and grazing backbone of the tourism industry in the region. Wildlife for livestock. The Kafue sugar scheme and the livestock  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT industry of Zambia's Western province are supported by Okavango river and delta (about 390 species of birds wetland systems. Dambos in Zimbabwe and the rest of including 18 threatened species and 99 species of the region play a very important role in sustaining rural mammals); livelihoods. Rufiji delta and surrounding environments; Barotse floodplain (more than 7,000 flowering plants, 3.4.3.3 Aquatic ecosystems of 200 reptiles and 90 amphibians); physical/hydrological importance Kafue flats with more than 700 species of birds; and Aquatic ecosystems can also be viewed as important from the Congo river basin (with more than 700 species of a physical and hydrological perspective. A number of fish). Table 3.4 lists significant examples of the major swamps and marshes in the region perform very impor- aquatic ecosystem types in the region, and highlights tant hydrological functions. As indicated in section 3.1, some of their important uses. many wetlands, especially palustrine systems, store flood- A number of important terrestrial biodiversity sites waters and discharge them gradually, helping to maintain (some of them National Parks and Conservation Areas) steady river flow throughout the vear. In the SADC depend on water to sustain terrestrial ecosystems, and region, the Barotse floodplains and Chobe/Caprivi water-dependent ecosystems are a central feature of the swamps on the Zambezi river, the Moyowosi/Malagarasi in terrestrial landscapes in these areas. Aquatic ecosystems Tanzania, and the peat bogs of the Drakensberg moun- in the region, particularly the large wetland systems, are tains in South Africa and Lesotho are critical wetlands often sites of very high hiodiversitv. The tourism revenue from a hydrological point of view. If the Barotse flood- generated by protected areas and National Parks such as plain is destroyed, the Zambezi river may lose its perenni- Lake Manyara, the Okavango delta, the Kruger national al flow. The dambo wetland found in many parts of the park and its rivers, the Luangwa, Selous and Serengeti region also plays a very important hydrological role in reg- parks, all of which are centred around aquatic ecosystems, ulating river flows. is critical to the region's economy. Especially in arid areas, surface water aquatic ecosys- tems may play an important role in the process of aquifer recharge. An example of this is the Kuiseb river in Namibia, where critically important aquifers which sup- port local communities and the town of Swakopmund are recharged during surface flow events in the Kuiseb. Vegetation in the river bed, and the unconsolidated nature of the bed material, facilitate infiltration of surface . A water into the soils and to the unconfined aquifer beneath the river bed. 3.4.4 Important freshwater and freshwater dependent terrestrial biodiversity areas 5 The region's aquatic ecosystems and water bodies contain a variety of biodiversity, some of local significance and others of global significance. Sites are considered of bio- logical importance if they represent unique ecological units and contain globally significant habitats with a wide diversity of species, or habitats for migratory, endemic or threatened species. Freshwater systems that contain unique biodiversity include: Lakes Malawi, Tanganyika and Victoria (in each of the lakes, there over 250 species of fish and high Tourism revenue generated 1n,protected areas sucb as the endemism); Okavango delta in Botswana, is critical to the region's economy.  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS Type Major examples Country Area (sq km) Some uses Floodplain Barotse Zambia 9 000 Wildlife, fisheries, livestock grazing Pongolo South Africa 100 Wildlife, fisheries, livestock grazing Liuwa Zambia 3 500 Fisheries, agriculture Luangwa Zambia 2 500 Wildlife, agriculture Rufili Tanzania 1 500 Wildlife, agriculture, fisheries Palustrine wetland Okavango delta Botswana 16 000 Wildlife, agriculture, fisheries, tourism Linyanti-Chobe Botswana, Namibia 350 Wildlife, agriculture, fisheries, tourism Floodplain wetland Kilombero Tanzania 6 650 Wildlife, agriculture, fisheries Malagarasi Tanzania 7 400 Wildlife, agriculture, fisheries Kafue flats Zambia 6 500 Wildlife, agriculture, fisheries, tourism Riverine Zambezi Angola, Botswana, n/a Wildlife, fisheries, hydropower, Namibia, Malawi, water supply, navigation, tourism Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe Orange Lesotho, Namibia, n/a Wildlife, hydropower, South Africa water supply, tourism Okavango Angola, Namibia, Botswana n/a Wildlife, water supply, tourism Limpopo Botswana, South Africa, n/a Wildlife, water supply Zimbabwe, Mozambique Congo DRC, Zambia, Tanzania n/a Wildlife, hydropower, water supply, tourism Shallow lake Mweru Zambia, DRC 4 600 Fisheries Mweru Wantipa Zambia 1 300 Wildlife, agriculture, fisheries Rukwa Tanzania 2 300 Wildlife, agriculture, fisheries Shallow lake Bangweulu Zambia 11 000 Wildlife, agriculture, fisheries and wetland Chilwa Malawi, Mozambique 6 500 Fisheries Deep lake Malawi/Nyasa Malawi, Tanzania, 17 500 Wildlife, agriculture, fisheries, Mozambique transportation, tourism Tanganyika Tanzania, Zambia, DRC Fisheries, transportation Victoria Tanzania Fisheries, transportation Human-made lake Kariba Zambia, Zimbabwe 5 500 Hydroelectric power, wildlife, agriculture, fisheries, tourism, transportation Cahora Bassa Mozambique 2 660 Hydroelectric power, fisheries Pans Makgadikgadi Botswana 23 000 Mining, wildlife, tourism Etosha Namibia 4 600 Wildlife, tourism Estuarine delta Zambezi delta Mozambique Fisheries, agriculture Limpopo/Inkomati Mozambique Wildlife, fisheries Chahwela 1991. Breen etal 199', Masundire et al 1999 Southern Africa is renowned for its biological within the site, 90 of which are wetland birds. (Cowan resources and its diversity. Many species represented in 1996) Results from a biodiversitv study in the Zambezi Table 3.5 (see next page) are dependent on aquatic basin wetlands indicated that wetlands are centres of ecosystems for their survival. The physical character of biodiversitv. In the basin, the Barotse floodplain was these different aquatic ecosystem tvpes determines the observed to support 133 bird species, Chobe/Caprivi biological diversity that exists in the different habitats. wetlands 129 species, Lower Shire in Malawi 132 In terms of animal life, Lake St. Lucia in South Africa species, and the Zambezi Delta 118 species. These is well known for its large population of crocodiles, hip- include nine globally threatened species such as Slaty popotami and pelicans. Within the wetland, some 52 egret, Wattled crane, Shoebill, Rock pratincole, African dragonfly species have been recorded, 38 freshwater skimmer and Carmine bee-eater. Changes in the flood fish species, 182 estuarine fish species and 50 amphib- regime along the Zambezi are the major threat to these ians. Over 350 species of birds have been recorded species. (Timberlake 2000) In the Zambezi basin, 197  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Country Area (sq km) Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fish Flowering Plants Angola 1 246 700 276 872 150 80 268 5 000 (endemism) 4 0 0 20 0 1260 Botswana 600 372 154 569 143 36 81 2 000 (endemism) 0 0 0 0 0 17 Lesotho 30 350 33 288 50 35 8 1 576 (endemism) 0 0 0 2 1 2 Malawi 118 484 187 630 124 69 600 3 600 (endemism) 0 0 5 4 450 69 Mozambique 783 030 179 666 170 62 500 5 500 (endemism) 2 0 1 2 400 219 Namibia 824 292 154 640 140 32 97 3 159 (endemism) 0 0 0 2 0 45 South Africa 1 221 040 247 774 310 95 220 20 300 (endemism) 4 4 116 49 0 18 000 Swaziland 17 366 47 496 106 39 45 2 636 (endemism) 0 0 0 0 0 4 Tanzania 886 040 310 1016 273 121 250 11 000 (endemism) 12 13 48 40 230 110 Zambia 752 614 229 732 160 83 156 4 600 (endemism) 6 1 0 1 0 211 Zimbabwe 390 245 196 634 156 120 132 6 000 (endemism) 2 0 0 2 1 95 Cumming 1999 species (114 reptiles and 83 i .. I .i ,il , are found in dependent species in southern Africa is not readily avail- the wetland systems. The Barotse floodplain has the able. There is need for collection of data on species sta- richest herpetofauna in the basin. The region's wetlands tus in a manner that enables the data to be linked to spe- are also known for their freshwater fish diversity. By far cific wetland ecosystems. the most diverse area is Lake Malawi with around 500 There are 24 species of freshwater fish listed in the species of fish, 99 percent of which are endemic to the IUCN Red List. (Skelton 1993) Of these, 7 are endangered, lake. Lake Tanganyika and Victoria have between 200 - 7 are vulnerable and the remaining 10 are rare. Table 3.6 300 species of fish endemic to the lakes. shows some of the threatened fish species of southern Several species of southern Africa are classified as Africa. threatened. Threat in this context is interpreted to mean The IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants gives num- critically endangered or vulnerable, according to the IUCN bers of threatened vascular plants only, and not all the Red List of Threatened Animal Species. IUCN denotes vascular plant species enumerated in Table 3.7 are wet- threatened species by placing them on the Red List of land species. In southern Africa only South Africa listed Threatened Species and categorizes threat levels as extinct vascular plant species. The high numbers of endangered (E), vulnerable (V) or rare (R). Although threatened plants listed for South Africa could be a reflec- IUCN has produced extensive data on threatened animal tion of the level of available knowledge and interest on species throughout the world, information on wetland- the status of plant species.  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS Species Common Name Level Austroglanis barnardi Barnard's rock fish E Clarias cavernicola Cave catfish E .- Nothobranchius sp. Caprivi killifish E Pseudobarbus burgi Berg river fish E -. .7. P. phlegethon Fiery red fin E P. quathlambae Drakensberg minnow E .- Tilapia guinasana Otjikoto tilapia E Barbus andrewi Whitefish V B. erubenscens Twee River red fin V B. serra Sawfin V B.treurensis Treur River barb V B. trevelyani Border barb V Chiloglanis bifircus Incomati rock catlet V '- Sandelia bainsii Eastern Cape rocky V Clockwisefrom top left, Cap riv killifish, Border barb, Fierny edji] Drakenisberg miin?ouw. Bergriv!erfish and.t... I Skelton 1993 E Endangered V Vulnerable CountrV Extinct Endangered Vulnerable Rare Intermediate Threatened °/ Angola 0 0 2 13 15 0.6 Botswana 0 0 0 6 1 0.3 Lesotho 0 1 2 14 4 1.3 Malawi 0 1 3 54 3 3.2 Mozambique 0 5 8 58 18 1.6 Namibia 0 4 5 56 10 2.4 South Africa 53 226 368 1264 357 9.5 Swaziland 1 9 9 17 6 1.5 Tanzania 1 14 63 103 256 4.4 Zambia 0 2 0 9 1 0.3 Zimbabwe 0 4 11 58 27 2.3 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plant, 199' 3.5 IEY THREATS TO THE SUSTAINABILITY dams. Because most of the dams were built for single OF WATER RESOURCES purpose use and without adequate consideration or pro- visions for addressing downstream uses, thev often have 3.5.1 Over-abstraction of water resulted in decreased downstream flow rates and and river flow regulation reduced aquifer recharge, lowering of the water table, Over-abstraction of water resources and excessive river desiccation of wetlands and saltwater intrusion. In many flow regulation are some of the major factors threatening countries of the region, as water becomes scarcer, water the sustainabilitv of southern Africa's water resources. requirements for the environment are often given the With the growing demand for water in response to the lowest priority. With increasing demands to support increasing population and industrial development, water greater agricultural production, industrial expansion and withdrawals in the region have been increasing steadily urban growth, more water is required to meet human over the years to the detriment of aquatic ecosystems needs at the expense of maintaining aquatic ecosystems and biological diversity. Most of the region's major rivers and many other species and environmental services thev have been dammed to meet the demand for water from provide. This does not only affect aquatic resources, but the expanding population and economic development. also threatens the sustainabilitv of the water resource South Africa and Zimbabwe have the largest number of base itself.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Both surface and groundwater resources are threat- collected due to lack of human, financial and material ened by over-abstraction in many countries. As far as sur- resources. A considerable quantity of this waste finds its face water resources are concerned, the Zambezi is a way into the region's water bodies. good example of a river basin threatened by increasing Mine tailings are another source of serious water pol- withdrawals of water. Many of the rivers in South Africa lution. This problem is most serious in South Africa, and Zimbabwe experience excessive water abstractions, Zambia and Zimbabwe. In Namibia, uranium mining at which have resulted in zero flows even during the rainy Rbssing affects both surface and ground water. Mines are season. Over-abstraction of water, especially from rivers, sometimes described as "arsenic factories". (Saleem 1996) affect river ecology as environmental flows available for In South Africa, a dump left by a prospecting team con- the river ecosystems are drastically reduced, The impact tained so much arsenic and cadmium that it killed all the of water abstraction on river ecology has not been well aquatic life in a nearby dam. (Coetzee and Cooper 1991) researched in southern Africa, The issue of environmental It is also believed that 60 percent of the salt load entering flows is discussed in detail in chapter 5. the Vaal River Barrage is caused by effluent from the sur- Over-abstraction also affects groundwater resources. rounding four mines. The Copperbelt in northern Zambia, Southern Africa is probably the most boreholed region in the gold and nickel mines of the midland greenstone belt the world. (Saleem 1996) In Namibia, 130,000 boreholes in Zimbabwe and other small-scale mining activities con- have been dug of which 32,000 (25 percent) are currently taminate the watercourses through introduction and dep- being used. Botswana has 15,000 boreholes of which 45 osition of minerals, including heavy metals. These come percent are productive. Zimbabwe has about 35,000 bore- from the processing plants, leachate dumps or stockpiled holes, while Tanzania and Malawi have 4,000 and 9,700 by-products and wastes. Studies done by the University of boreholes respectively. (Saleem 1996) Studies have shown Zimbabwe's Lake Kariba Research Station and the that as more boreholes are sunk, the ground water levels Zimbabwe Department of National Parks and Wildlife have are lowered, requiring greater depths for both new and indicated that the agricultural use of the chemical pesti- existing boreholes. Due to the costs of sinking deeper cide dichlorodiphenyvl-trichloroethatne (DDT) is threaten- boreholes, the provision of water in the rural areas has ing aquatic life in the Zambezi basin. been affected. Pollution from industrial and domestic sewage efflu- ent, is a major problem along the main river systems. 3.5.2 Increasing pollution There are a number of sprawling urban centres in most Pollution is by far the most critical factor affecting the sus- river basins, particularly in the Zambezi and Limpopo tainabilitv of the available water resources in southern basins. Due to poor sanitation facilities, a number of set- Africa. There are increasing levels of pollution in the tlements such as Mongu, Senanga, Katima Mulilo (approx. region, resulting in high levels of eutrophication and 18,000 people), Kasane-Kazungula (8,301 people), widespread infestation of aquatic weeds. Much of the Sesheke, Livingstone, Victoria Falls, Kariba, Siavonga, water pollution results from human activities such as agri- Chirundu and Tete are causing serious water pollution, culture, mining, manufacturing and poor management of and at times discharge raw sewage into the river. Poor urban waste. This hampers the use of water for down- sanitation in denselv settled areas such as the wetland stream purposes and increases the cost of treatment. areas of the Barotse floodplain, East Caprivi, Chobe Water pollution is a serious problem in South Africa, enclave, Lower Shire river, Rufiji floodplain and Kafue flats Zambia and Zimbabwe and a limited problem in Namibia. has created problems of human waste disposal resulting Chapter 6 in this report addresses in detail the issue of in groundwater pollution through contamination. water pollution from both point and non-point sources. Industrial and domestic waste is increasing at alarm- 3.5.3 Encroachment by settlement ing rates in the region, particularly due to rapid economic and land use and threats to biodiversity and population growth. For example, Lusaka with a popu- Aquatic ecosystems throughout the world play very lation of 1.32 million residents produces 1,400 tonnes of important roles in river flow attenuation, flood control, solid waste daily of which only 10 percent is collected by water purification and aquifer recharge. In southern the city council. Ninety percent of the solid waste is not Africa, a number of floodplains, marshes and swamps per-  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS form these functions. The Barotse floodplain, Chobe/ Barotse floodplain and Caprivi where large tracts of habi- Caprivi wetlands, Kafue flats and Elephant/Ndinde marsh- tat are damaged everv year. In some localities, deep peat es are known to perform the functions of river flow atten- fires can go on smouldering for months, destroying flora uation. The aquatic ecosystems of the region are also and fauna. Overexploitation of riverine vegetation such as believed to play a role in maintaining water quality reeds and grasses is threatening wetland ecosystems. The because of their ability to function as water filters for harvesting of grasses, and reeds in the Caprivi/Chobe, removing pollutants and sediments from water. Rufiji, Shire and Barotse floodplains has caused habitat (Chabwela 1994) Research by the Environment Council of changes that have resulted in the loss of some of the Zambia on the Lukanga swamps on the Kafue river has hydrological functions of these wetlands. shown that the quality of water upstream of the Lukanga swamps is of poor quality compared to that coming out 3.5.4 Degradation of watersheds below the swamp. Research on constructed wetlands in The protection of watersheds that are important sources southern Africa and East Africa also shows that wetlands of water supplies is essential for the sustainability of water are effective in treating wastewater. resources. Water resources ili .iddlo. and sustainability Despite the important functions performed by aquatic within a watershed is influenced by both land and water ecosystems, many of the region's systems are being use within the watershed. Studies carried out in manv threatened by encroachment and biodiversity depletion. parts of the world and the region show that the degrada- This has to a large extent impaired the ability of wetlands tion of the watershed has a significant impact on water to purify water, attenuate river flow, control floods and quality and quantity. In poorly managed watersheds, recharge aquifers, therebv threatening the sustainability of deforestation reduces vegetation cover, resulting in the available water resources. Manv aquatic ecosystems in reduced rates of infiltration and increased surface runoff. the region are experiencing population pressure (both Studies have shown that the reduction in infiltration from humans and animals) and this has resulted in habitat affects the recharge of aquifers and the amount of avail- change and loss of species. In the Caprivi, recent esti- able groundwater resources. The increase in surface mates are that 83,000 people reside in the wetland areas, runoff causes soil erosion, exerting immense pressure on the wetland resources. In Magadza (1995) established that the changes in the the Barotse floodplain, people are settled on the river lev- flow of the Gwaai river over the last half century are ees, banks of ponds, oxbow lakes and lagoons, and on ter- linked to the use and management of dambo wetland mite mounds. Uncontrolled fire is a major problem in the ecosystems in the catchment. In that period the river has Population pressure from both humanas and animals threatens many aquatic ecosystems, . in habitat change and species loss. '.,, X X ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - - ; - _ , . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT been transformed from a perennial river to a highly sea- threatening to reduce the useful life span of the Cahora sonal river, with a significant increase in the number of Bassa dam. days per year on which no flow was observed (Figure 3.2). The degradation of watersheds does not only affect The headwaters of this river are in the lower Gweru dam- the sustainability of water resources but also has negative bos. The observed changes in Gwaai river flow rate reflect impacts on economic development. Due to excessive soil fundamental change in catchment performance mainly erosion, the productivity of the land is affected resulting attributed to mismanagement of the dambos. in the reduction of agricultural productivity. Chapter 7 Poor land-use practices have exacerbated deforesta- details the specific issues of watershed degradation. tion and overgrazing, which increase surface runoff and cause soil erosion, impacting the availability and quality 3.5.5 Proliferation of invasive and alien species of water. Soil erosion is becoming an increasingly seri- Many aquatic ecosystems have been negatively affected by ous problem and is having a significant impact on water the release into water resources of invasive alien species resources and the aquatic environment. Reports from (see Box 3.6). Release of alien species can be accidental, different countries show that there is widespread defor- such as the transfer of aquatic weeds through movement estation due to agricultural expansion and fuelwood col- of people or boats; or it can be deliberate, such as the lection. In Malawi, land under agriculture increased from release of bass and trout to develop sport fisheries. 2.1 million hectares in 1965 to more than 4.54 million Frequently, these alien species have no natural enemies in hectares by the beginning of the 1990s. (Government of the ecosvstem into which they have been released, and Malawi 1998) On average, the countor loses about 20 begin to proliferate to nuisance proportions, crowding tonnes of soil per hectare annually. High rates of soil out natural species, causing imbalances in natural ecologi- erosion have negative impacts on water resources due to cal processes and loss of natural biodiversity. Once increased sedimentation in rivers and reservoirs. In released into a system, alien species are very difficult to Zimbabwe, for example, more than 8,000 small- to medi- eradicate (this is particularlv true of breeding populations um-sized dams constructed throughout the countrv are of alien fish species). Hence, early preventive manage- threatened by sedimentation induced by soil erosion. ment is usuallv the most cost-effective approach to con- The Save, an international river shared by Zimbabwe and trol of invasive aliens. Mozambique has been reduced from a perennial to a A growing problem affecting water resources in seasonal river system due to sedimentation induced by southern Africa is the issue of aquatic weeds. Aquatic soil erosion. In Zambia, the silt-laden Luangwa river is weeds such Salvinia mnolesta (Kariba weed) and the water hvacinth Eichhornia cras- Gwaai River: Five-Year Moving Average of No Flow Days/Year, Figure 3.2 sipes are becoming a major Showing An Increase in the Number of Days with No Flow problem confronting the as a Result of Dambo Mismanagement region's water resource 250 planners and managers. | ; :-; .' ... g ': Aquatic weeds are plants 200 _ _ ' - that grow at a place and/or . -~ =_ _ P ^j j jgji time where it is considered 150 LL, . - ~ - ~~ - _ undesirable. There are sev- eral types and problems 100 .. with aquatic weeds in the region. Aquatic weeds 50~~~~~~~~~~t -, - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~affect water supply and quality, interfere with O ____________________________________________________________________________ hydropower generation 1955 1962 1969 1976 1983 and irrigation schemes, impede navigation and Magaciza 1995 fishing, create habitats for  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS Alier) invasive species in Box 3.6 still very much guided by the traditional soutFiern African aquatic ecosystems approach to water management whose main emphasis remains on engineering The problem of alien invasiveT _ _ _ species is becoming a critical biodi- 4b solutions for expanding supplv without versity issue in freshwater ecosys- adequate consideration of either social tems. Alien weed species, Salvinia or the environmental dimensions. molesta and Eichhornia crassipes, o t e d (especially the latter), thrive very L Sectoral approaches are often used to well in southern Africa, having origi- plan the management and use of nated in South America. Water _ _ _ hyacinth weed, which causes a ! resources on which the demands and reduction in dissolved oxygen and Waterahyacint uses are multi-sectoral. Truly integrated light levels in water, is a major threat water resources management plans are to many wetlands. The weed has caused a decline in fish catches in the Lower Shire river in Malawi, Lake Chivero in rare in the region. Zimbabwe and in many rivers in Zambia. The weeds have been While all countries in the region observed to cause problems on Lake Victoria, Kafue river, Linyanti-Chobe rivers, the lower Shire river, the Zambezi river have policies relating to water and envi- and several dams in Zimbabwe. Elimination or control of these ronmental management. unfortunately weeds is both difficult and expensive (see chapter 8). some of these policies are contradictory Several species of exotic fish have also been introduced into natural lakes and impoundments. One of the best-docu- and their enforcement is weak. mented cases is that of the Nile perch introduced into Lake Ineffective management of water Victoria. Prior to the introduction, Lake Victoria had a very rich . . species diversity of about 300 haplochromine cichlids. As the resources due to lack of accountahlity population of the Nile perch increased, an estimated 200 and transparency is another problem endemic cichlids disappeared. faced by manv SADC countries. Inadequate co-operation and co-ordina- insect vectors, and cause very large water losses due to tion (both nationally and regionally), poor institutional evapotranspiration. All these consequences impose a arrangements and insufficient human capacity, inadequate huge burden on a water scarce region. regulatory and legal frameworks at local, national and The economic consequence of weed proliferation is regional levels all combine to create an environment that very significant. The control of aquatic weeds has not is not always conducive to sustainable water resources been very effective in manv places although the momen- management. Another issue is insufficient stakeholder tum to eradicate these undesirable weeds is now wide- involvement in water resources management, particularlv spread and regional programmes for the control of these by women and children. weeds are being developed. Today, aquatic weeds threat- Most national policies are not well coordinated with en the sustainabilitv of the water resources in southern regional trends and policies, and at country level, institu- Africa. The problems of aquatic weeds are most severe in tional responsibilities can be unclear and overlapping. At Zimbabwe, Zambia, northern Botswana and northeastern the beginning of the 1990s, the SADC states indicated that Namibia, South Africa and Malawi. Chapter 8 addresses in they have inadequate environmental monitoring, research detail the whole range of issues concerning the control of and planning capabilities. (SADCC 1991) They also have aquatic weeds. inadequate institutional arrangements, legal framework and enforcement measures for environmental protection 3.5.6 Policy inadequacies and improvement. However, by the end of the 1990s, the In addition to social, economic and environmental threats situation had improved due in part to the introduction of to the sustainability of water resources, continued inade- various capacity-building measures. Since the mid-1990s, quacies in water policv, legislation and strategies, and weak the SADC member states have negotiated and ratified vari- enforcement are some of the challenges facing water ous protocols dealing with diverse issues such as trade, resources in southern Africa. Although many countries in mining, shared watercourse systems and transport, mete- the region subscribe to the Dublin and Rio principles, the orology and communications, While the various sector operationalization of these principles is still lacking. The coordination units have mechanisms for collaboration, in water resources management strategies in the region are reality only limited collaboration takes place and the onlv  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT other cross-sectoral policies or documents are the 1992 the Kariba area, many communities adjacent to the dam SADC Treaty, the 1996 SADC Policy and Strategy for sometimes suffer serious water shortages. Fortunately, Environment and Sustainable Development, and the 1998 such a disjointed approach should be significantly Regional Strategic Action Plan for Integrated Water reduced as the SADC countries begin to implement the Resources Development and Management. 1998 strategic plan for integrated water resources devel- Another weakness is that SADC-developed policies opment and management. are not being quickly translated into national policies, The absence of effective institutional arrangements resulting in fragmented approaches in different member has resulted in disparities in water rights and water user states. Even though some countries have ratified the pro- allocations, and poor stakeholder/community participa- tocols, they have vet to be incorporated into national leg- tion. In the region as a whole, the general lack of stake- islation to facilitate enforcement. At the national level, holder/community participation continues to slow the governments have also been reviewing policies and strate- advancement of sustainable water resources management. gies aimed at enhancing natural resource and environ- A number of countries in the region have embarked on mental management programmes. Countries in the region National Water Sector Reform programmes whose main are moving away from command-and-control measures thrust has been the amendment of policies, legislation inherited from the colonial period, which have been com- and management structures. However, the success of mon for decades, to policies that promote stakeholder innovative measures, such as the introduction of catch- interest and participation. However, it is still too early to ment committees in Zimbabwe and South Africa to facili- determine how these policies will change the current tate the sustainable management of water resources and management of water resources and the environment. the environment will be limited if issues of land tenure, Obstacles include a shortage of human resources and access to resources, stakeholder participation and others financial capacity. Chapter 10 reviews the water policy, are not adequately addressed (see Box 3.7). Community legal and institutional frameworks for water and environ- participation in water resources management is discussed mental management. in chapter 9. 3.5.7 Institutional deficiencies h > 4- a -- j Water cuts across a number of user sec- f - tors such as agriculture, industry, mining, M. L_ - _ environment, etc. and the management ,es; % of water is split among these sectors. v , , f i4. While in the past, water resources man- P-rl agement was concerned only with supply for consumption and economic activity, today the policies also take into account - managing the growing demand, improv- ing irrigation efficiency, monitoring and water distribution systems in urban and rural areas. The sustainability of water resources is exacerbated by sectoral and administrative priorities, which tend to compartmentalise management. The result is that water management generally * . .,l .,,..-, l.,, .fI j ;;n. i. .. .n l levels is essential to sustainable water remains inefficient and expensive. For resources fmanagement. Issues include land tenure and access to resoufrces. example, the construction of the Kariba Dam four decades ago was purely driven by the need for 3.5.8 Conflicts and tensions hydroelectricity. Other options such as irrigation and The growing strain on the quantity and quality of freshwa- tourism were not factored. While tourism has expanded in ter and its unequal distribution among users are con-  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS Z&imWo-Mshagashe commnunity-based Box 3.7 operation, several disputes remain unre- catchment rehabilitation and exploitation project solved. In particular, Mozambique has disputes over shared rivers with South The Zimuto/Mshagashe catchment rehabilitation project is an initiative of the Zimuto and Mshagashe communities, co-man- Africa and Zimhahwe. (Gleick 1998 aged by IUCN and Masvingo Rural District Council in While the Protocol on Shared Zimbabwe. The project was funded by the Royal Netherlands Watercourses has been signed bv all government as a pilot model for rehabilitation of catchments. It started in 1995 with the goal of introducing sustainable nat- countries in the region and ratified by ural resource utilization and developing institutional co-ordina- some, the operational procedures for tion and community participation in catchment rehabilitation . . strategies that are applicable to the rehabilitation and conser- co-ordiation, avoidig and resolving vation of the Save catchment. The main beneficiaries of this international disputes over water remain project were the grassroots communities of Zimuto Communal weak. Box 3.8 illustrates examples of Lands and Mshagashe Smallscale Commercial Farming Area. The major lessons from this project are: water conflicts that can take place at the * To identify and work at the lowest relevant level of basin level. organization of society - the village level. Higher levels such as wards, districts and provinces tend to cloud issues . and lose focus. Water-use conflicts in Tanzania Box 3.8 * It is possible to transform the theories of ecosystem management into tangible results on the ground. The Pangani and Rufiji River basins cover about * Local people must be involved in project planning as well 23 percent of Tanzania and contain all of the as implementation and progress monitoring, existing hydroelectric power production and much * It is also essential for local and central government of the irrigated agriculture in the country. Most authorities to identify with and assume ownership of field of the hydropower production potential and a sig- projects. nificant portion of the irrigation potential lies in One of the major constraints identified is the lack of capac- those basins. The surface and ground waters in ity at local level as well as in government structures, to com- the basin are also used for urban, rural, industri- petently articulate wetland issues. At the end of phase I, the al, livestock and wildlife water supply, fisheries, project was handed over to the communities who have taken shrimp production and habitat conservation. charge of the implementation of phase II The surface waters appear to have been over- apportioned and used inefficiently, with irrigation IUCN ROSA unpublished efficiencies of 15-20 percent. Current demands exceed supply. Low water levels in the 1990s in the Nyumba ya Mungu dam on the Pangani river and Mtera tributing to conflicts and tensions between sectors, com- dam on the Rufiji river severely constrained energy production munities and across national boundaries. Many conflicts at hydropower facilities on these rivers, resulting in nation-wide are found among the users of international river basins. As power shortages. Both basins are facing significant manage- ment challenges due to complex and interrelated factors. international rivers flow from one country to another, the These include rapidly increasing water demands from growing use or misuse of water in the upstream countries affects population and water use, inefficient use of water, recurring drought, growing scarcity of water and emerging conflicts its quantity and quality, impacting on downstream users. between sectoral uses of water in the two basins. The water Upstream nations can affect the flow of water by building use conflicts are between: largescale dams, with effects spilling over the borders. * groups of farmers, There are 15 international river basins shared by two or * farmers and pastoralists, more countries in the SADC region (chapter 2). 0 farmers and water managers, and 0 farmers and environmental interest groups. In a situation of increasing water demand, interna- tional rivers may become a ground for breeding disputes among the riparian states, threatening sustainability in a given country. Although efforts to formulate river basin A number of rivers, lakes and aquifers in southern agreements are gathering momentum, many of the river Africa are shared by two or more countries. Among these basins still do not have operational agreements and effec- are the Zambezi, which is shared by eight countries; tive river basin organisations. Due to increasing pressure Okavango by four; Cunene by two; Orange by four; on the available water resources, access to water has long Incomati by three; Sabi/Save bv two; and Ruvuma by three been a concern and focus of controversy in southern countries. Lakes Chilwa, Malawi/Nyasa, Tanganyika, and Africa. (Gleick 1998) Although recent SADC protocols Kariba are also shared by two or three countries. While have strengthened the framework for negotiations and co- considerable progress has been made in the development  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT and implementation of joint programmes to manage 3.6 NATIONAL. REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL shared rivers and lakes, Box 3.9 illustrates the type of con- INIMATFES FOR THE CONSERVATION AND flicts that can arise between neighbouring countries. MANAGEMENT OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS Potential for interstate conflict over water Box 3.9 Despite the important role played by aquatic ecosys- demahds by people and the environment tems in ecological and socio-economic terms, there are very few regional and national programmes tar- In 1997, Namibia announced its contingency plans to draw water from the Okavango river system in times of need, despite protests by geted at conserving and managing these critical Botswana and a number of environmental groups. Namibia is perenni- ecosystems. As far as the early 1980s the terms wet- ally threatened with drought and is constantly in need of water, despite land or aquatic ecosystem were not in the vocabu- strategic planning efforts such as efficient recycling of wastewater in the capital, Windhoek. larv of many in the region. Wetlands in particular Namibia's proposal to abstract 18 million cu m annually met strong were often seen as wastelands that should be objections from its neighbour and from groups such as the International Rivers Network, yet this amount is less than 0.2 percent drained for agriculture and for health reasons. Early of the waters of the Okavango. Although there did not appear to be a efforts towards wetland conservation and manage- conflict between protecting the Okavango delta ecosystem and meeting ment were found onlv in Zambia and South Africa, the development needs of Namibia, the argument was that even a rel- atively small reduction in the flow of the river would reduce the extent the first Ramsar contracting parties in the region. of the swamp area. Increased awareness on the importance of wetlands Writing on this subject in a recent issue of Conflict Trends (Accord, 3/2001), Mike Muller, the Director-General of Water Affairs and Forestry only gathered momentum after the SADC Wildlife in South Africa, notes that Okavango is a RAMSAR wetland, binding all sub-sector initiated a regional programme for wet- signatories including Botswana and Namibia to promote its conserva- lands conservation and management. Although the tion and "wise use". He adds, however, that the Convention does not define "how a bal- level of wetland degradation and loss has not been ance can be struck between the need to preserve a wetland, and the widely documented, there are a number of inter- need to meet the demands of poor communities (inside or outside the ventions at national, regional and international lev- country concerned) for basic water supplies and livelihoods. In addi- tion, the convention does not provide guidance as to how a relatively els to address issues pertaining to wetlands conser- poor developing country can grow." vation. Many of these were developed in the 1990s. Muller makes another point that goes to the heart of this study: "It would appear obvious that this is not a conflict over water. There Box 3.10 gives the rationale for the conservation of is a supply of water vastly greater than is needed to meet the econom- African freshwater ecosvstems. ic and social needs of the communities who share the common resource. What is taking place is a conflict over the protection of the environmental resource which the water sustains, and more specifical- Why should African Box 3.10 ly, the extent to which that resource may be impacted upon. Also con- freshWater ecosystem tributing to the tension is the question of who has the authority to conservation be supported? make a decision about the issue." This question, he concludes, has important implications for * There are sound economic and Botswana, Namibia and their neighbours in SADC, as well as for "the development reasons for addressing international water and environment community in the run-up to the freshwater ecosystems. Johannesburg Earth Summit in 2002." * The socio-economic and ecological value of freshwater ecosystems is Muller 2001 significant. * Freshwater ecosystems provide an important linkage to terrestrial Strategic planning in the nianagenment of ater resources and the 'ise use" of tater are ecosystems; they influence and are essential to Namibia, the and home of the Namib desert. influenced by terrestrial ecosystems. * Freshwater ecosystems are linked to marine ecosystems. * Management of freshwater ecosystems makes good conservation sense. Adapted from Shumway 1999  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS 3.6.1 Regional initiatives Under the SADC IFFW umbrella, the Ramsar contract- 3.6.1. 1 SADC Inland Fisheries, Forestry and ing parties in the region, working in collaboration with Wildlife (SADC IFFW) uwetlands conservation IUCN ROSA and the Ramsar Bureau, developed a regional and management programme on the Valuation of the Region's Critical One of the activities that has contributed immensely to Wetlands. The overarching goal of the wetlands valuation putting wetlands on the regional development and con- project is to demonstrate the true values of wetlands in servation agendas is the SADC Regional Wetlands order to promote their conservation and wise use through Programme, launched in 1990 with financial support from planned and managed sustainable resource utilisation." the Royal Norwegian Embassy. At its launch, the pro- gramme aimed to: 3.6.1.2 IUCN ROSA regional wtetlands programme survey the wetlands of the SADC region from a IUCN is one of the leading organisations in the field of biological, socio-economic and land-use wetlands conservation and management in Africa. perspective; Coordinated from its headquarters in Gland, Switzerland, develop a regional policy and programme of action IUCN is implementing a global programme on wetlands for conservation and multiple use of wetlands; and water resources. IUCN efforts in southern Africa date focus national, regional and international attention as far back as the mid-1980s when it facilitated the devel- on the importance of wetlands and their appropriate opment of the Bangweulu and Kafue Flats wetlands proj- use; and ects. IUCN involvement in regional wetlands initiatives foster national, regional and international started formally in 1990 when it was invited by SADC programmes for the conservation and appropriate IFFW to facilitate the implementation of the regional pro- use of wetlands in the SADC region. (Breen et al gramme on wetlands conservation. At the end of phase I 1997) of the SADC wetlands project, IUCN ROSA launched its The SADC 1990 wetlands survey and the subsequent regional programme on wetlands conservation and man- wetland initiatives by various member countries identified agement. The mission of this programme is: a number of issues and threats to the region's wetland to achieve significant improvement in the ecosystems. These included: conservation and sustainable use of freshwater and a lack of institutional capacity and finance to develop tidal wetlands of southern Africa. and implement wetlands conservation and wise-use Based on the SADC Wetlands Conservation Phase I programmes/projects; project, IUCN ROSA forged a partnership with the SADC sectoral approaches to wetlands management; and IFFW and the main focus of its programme is lack of clear wetlands policies and legislation. to enhance the capacities of SADC member states and The Gaborone conference on wetlands conservation IUCN members and partners in the region to expand in 1991 called for: popular wetlands awareness, identify threats to inventories and assessments; wetland habitats, and design and implement development of legislation and other administrative measures required for their conservation and mechanisms; sustainable use so that these habitats can make reorientation of policies and/or formulation of greater contribution to the conservation of biological wetland policies; diversity and improvement of standard of living in extensive training in wetlands ecology, conservation these areas. and management; expansion of wetlands awareness; In terms of specific efforts, the programme aims to: and expand popular wetlands awareness throughout the an improvement of technical and financial capacities region; in wetlands conservation and management. facilitate the inventory of all major wetland habitats Although this is a regional project the implementation from regional and national perspectives; of the activities is carried out by the member states with identify those that are threatened by adverse the support of the SADC IFFW and IUCN Regional Office change, and design measures required for their for Southern Africa (ROSA). conservation and sustainable use;  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT initiate and encourage the development of a regional Ramsar Bureau is supporting Botswana in its effort to wetlands policy and legislation, national wetlands formulate a national wetland policy and the management programmes and policies; for the Okavango delta, the world's largest Ramsar site. initiate and establish training in wetland conservation Working in collaboration with IUCN ROSA, Ramsar is and management, improve the knowledge and supporting a regional project on the valuation of wet- information base on wetland ecosystems, and land systems in the SADC region. enhance the quantity and quality of technical advice available to governments and non-governmental 3.6.2 National initiatives organisations; Although there are regional initiatives on wetlands conser- advance the socio-cultural and economic issues in vation and management. the specific actions are at the wetlands conservation and management; and country level. Under the SADC Wetlands Conservation stimulate greater commitment among governments Action Plan, all SADC member states were encouraged to and non-governmental organisations to ensure that develop national wetland programmes. Since the 1991 wetlands are conserved for the benefit of all human- Gaborone conference on wetlands conservation, a num- kind, and to improve coordination between them. ber of national wetland programmes have been developed Since the establishment of the programme, wetland and are being implemented. awareness in the region has increased. The programme facilitated the launch of national wetland programmes in 3.6.2.1 The World Wide Fundfor Nature (WWF) - Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi, and a number of specific Zambia wetlands project programmes were developed which are currently being Zambia being one of the wettest countries in the region implemented. These include the Zambezi Basin Wetlands was the pioneer in the field of wetlands conservation and Conservation and Resource Utilization project and the management. During the early 1980s, two wise-use proj- Community-based Catchment Rehabilitation in ects were developed for Lake Bangweulu and the Kafue Zimuto/Mshagashe in Masvingo, Zimbabwe. Flats, two of Zambia's major wetland ecosystems, with the support of IUCN and WWF. The main focus of these two 3.6.1.3 Wetlands International uwaterfowl census demonstration projects is to link floodplain wetland man- Wetlands International is also an important player in the agement and socio-economic development. The imple- region's wetlands conservation and management. mentation of these projects is directly supported by WWF Through its network of volunteers, the organisation is International through its Zambia office. These projects involved in waterfowl censuses that are carried out peri- began in 1985 with the following objectives: odically. In addition to the waterfowl census, Wetlands to maintain the productivity of wetlands of the Kafue International is working with national governments, espe- Flats and the Lake Bangweulu basin; cially South Africa and Zambia to protect important habi- to improve and broaden the benefits which local tats for waterfowl. people derive from these wetland resources; and to mobilise support among local people for the 3.6.1.4 Ramsar Convention initiatives conservation of living resources. (Jeffrey et al 1992) There are six contracting parties in southern Africa. As A major lesson from this project is that wetlands con- signatories to the convention, these countries are servation can only work effectively with the participation obliged to identify sites for listing as Ramsar sites. The of local communities who feel they own the resources Ramsar Bureau, based in Gland, Switzerland works very and that it is in their own interests to properly manage closely with the six contracting parties. The Bureau pro- the wetland ecosystems. It is essential to identify and vides advice, information and technical backstopping to work with the most appropriate institutions and institu- contracting parties. According to the convention obliga- tional arrangements so local participation is enhanced and tions, contracting parties are supposed to develop people realise tangible economic benefits from their con- national wetland policies and establish national commit- servation efforts. (Chooye 1993) Poverty, access to tees to spearhead the conservation and management resources and/or resource ownership, lack of education, plan of wetlands within the country. Currently the perception of project ownership and lack of co-ordination  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS among project implementation agencies were identified Natures Reserve. In this area, traditional harvesting meth- as some of the major constraints. (Chooye 1993) ods were investigated and found to be compatible with In addition to these efforts in Bangweulu and Kafue the wise-use concept. The success of the Kosi Bay case flats, Zambia is among the countries that have carried out study depended to a large extent on the blending of cor- a wetlands inventory and initiated the process of national rect policy with adequate, appropriate and accurate infor- policy formulation. Zambia already has an inventory of its mation as well as the will to carry out the policy for the protected and unprotected wetlands. (Chabwela 1992) long term good of the user groups and neighbours. (Kyle However, due to lack of resources and technical capacity, 1995) In addition to these efforts, a national project called the policy formulation process in Zambia has not pro- Wetland Fix: Assessment. Management and Restoration of gressed. South African Wetlands was launched in the early 1990s. This project is a good example of how the private sector 3.6.2.2 Botswana national wetlands policy can be involved in nature conservation efforts. The initia- Botswana is among the countries in southern Africa that tive is supported by Renfreight, South African Breweries, has made strides in formulating a National Wetlands Mazda Wildlife Fund, National Parks Board, WWF South Policy. A policv on its own does not mean that there will Africa and the Wildlife Societv. be proper utilisation and management of wetlands, but a policy provides the framework for actions that lead to 3.6.2.4 National uwetlands activities in Tanzania sound management of wetlands. As part of the policy for- Open water areas, including lakes and fringing swamps, mulation process, an inventory of Botswana's wetlands comprise 5.2 million hectares of wetland area. The largest was carried out. Under the Ramsar Convention, parties permanent and seasonal freshwater swamps are in the are obligated to have management plans for wetlands list- Rufiji/Ruaha river system with 796,000 ha, the Malagarasi- ed as Ramsar sites. A management plan for the 6,864,000 Movowosi system of 686,000 ha, and along the Ugalla, ha Okavango delta, the largest Ramsar site in the world, is Suiwe, Mara, Pangani, Wami and Ruvu rivers. currently being formulated. Efforts to formulate a national wetlands programme for Tanzania started in the early 1990s. A framework pro- 3.6.2.3 South African national gramme was developed and a number of initiatives are wetlands programmie underway. Among national projects worth noting is the South Africa is by far the most advanced country with Rufiji delta programme facilitated by the IUCN Regional regards to increased awareness, technical capacity and Office for East Africa. The objective of this project is to wetland conservation. Most of the wetlands of South promote the long term conservation and wise use of the Africa have been mapped and studied. The country has lower Rufiji wetlands, such that biodiversity is conserved, the largest number of Ramsar sites in the region and a critical ecological functions are maintained, renewable Ramsar national committee exists. The Department of natural resources are used sustainably and the livelihoods Environmental Affairs and Tourism also has a unit which of the area's inhabitants are secured and enhanced. The co-ordinates all work on wetlands in the country. South Usangu wetland located in the upstream part of Rufiji Africa's efforts at producing documented wetlands inven- basin is also being considered as a Ramsar site because of tories stretch to as far back as those by Noble and the diversity of birds. Tanzania has a number of other Hemens (1978). Worth noting is the latest Directory of important and large riverine wetlands and floodplains in South African Wetlands by Cowan and van Riet (1998) as the Western and Eastern Rift Valley. Tanzania is also in well as the draft catalogue of South African National the process of formulating its national policy on wetlands, Wetland Inventories (Van der Walt and Cowan 1998). The formulation of a national wetland policy is underway in 3.6.2.5 National efforts in otber countries South Africa. There are some wetland-related activities in progress in all Detailed management plans have been developed SADC member states. In Zimbabwe, Malawi and already for sites such as St. Lucia and others in South Mozambique, national wetland programmes were Africa. Approaches for the wise use of wetlands by indige- launched in 1991. However very little progress has been nous people have also been tested with the Kosi Bay made in streamlining these efforts. Zimbabwe's initiatives  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT are concentrated on dambo conservation and utilization as Parties to the convention are also obligated to name well as on catchment rehabilitation. In Malawi, the focus is at least one wetland for listing as a wetland of internation- on natural lakes and floodplains, while in Mozambique the al importance or Ramsar site. According to the Ramsar emphasis is on coastal zone management. In Namibia, the Convention Strategic Plan (1997 - 2002) operational objec- focus is on ephemeral wetlands. tive 2.1, the contracting parties are called upon to review _____.________ and, if necessary, amend national legislation or supra- national legislation, institutions and practices to ensure . . * l l . !-- ~~~~~~~~~~~the wise use of wetlands. Action 2.2.1 under the same operational objective specifically calls for greater efforts to develop national wetland policies. While it has already been noted that most of the river basins and wetlands associated with them are shared by 9 * t ! <_ two or more countries, where one or some of the coun- | . -- :: i - - tries sharing a wetland are parties to the Ramsar Convention while others are not, it implies that full bene- fits that would accrue from co-operation under the provi- sions of the Ramsar Convention cannot be realised. For example, of the riparian states of the Zambezi river basin, only Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, and Zambia are parties -p _ _ _ to the Ramsar Convention while Angola, Mozambique, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, are not. ; f >; . . b - It is recommended that all the countries of southern 6" .,.-3 Africa sign and ratify the Ramsar Convention so that it will be possible for joint actions and programmes under the Al SADC countries hatve uetland-related actitities butp,i~,,70, zledti, lz rangingfrom Convention. Signing a convention does not in itself mean dambo conservation and utilization to natural lakes. ephemeral wetlands and action. Zambia has been party to the convention since coastal zone mianagemient. 1991 but it does not have a national policy on wetlands as 3.6.3 International initiatives and mechanisms vet, while Botswana, which ratified the convention in 1997 3.6.3.1 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands has made significant strides towards formulating a nation- The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance al policy. especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) was adopted in 1971 in Iran. This is an intergovernmental 3.6.3.2 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) treaty that provides the framework for international co- The Convention on Biological Diversity is a global treaty operation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands that was opened for signature during the United Nations and related resources. The Convention entered into force Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. in 1975. By February 2000. there were 118 contracting The Convention entered into force on 29 December 1993. parties worldwide. The objectives of the convention are the conservation Six countries in southern Africa have ratified the con- of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its compo- vention: Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, Tanzania, South Africa nents and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits and Zambia. Parties to the convention are obliged to carry arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources, includ- out national inventories on wetlands, formulate national ing appropriate access to genetic resources and appropri- strategies and policies. Only Botswana, South Africa and ate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account Tanzania are in the process of formulation of a national all rights over those resources and technologies, and policy on wetlands. Zambia is about to start the same appropriate funding. process while the new South African Water Act is probably In layman's language, the convention is about conser- comprehensive enough that a national policy on wetlands vation, sustainable use of biological diversity and the fair might not add much to what the Act provides for. and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS genetic resources. The convention contains 42 articles the Okavango Basin Commission (OKACOM) covers the dealing with various aspects of biodiversitv conservation states that share the Okavango river basin. The Zambezi and management. River Authority is a two-country body involving only All the countries in southern Africa have signed and Zambia and Zimbabwe but discussions are underway to ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity and most set up a basin-wide authority to include all of the riparian of these countries are developing and /or implementing states. Bilateral and other similar agreements are at vari- national biodiversity action plans, which are part of the ous stages of implementation. (see Table 7.1 in Chenje obligations of the contracting parties. Wetlands conserva- and Johnson 1996) The effectiveness of the operation of tion, especiallv the conservation and protection of fresh- these agreements needs to be fully assessed. The recent water (aquatic) biodiversity is highlighted in all the floods in Mozambique and other parts of southern Africa national biodiversitv action plans and strategies. have highlighted the need for maximum co-operation in the management of the region's river basins. 3.6.3.3 SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses The most significant development towards achieving inte- 3.6.3.4 Protocol on W ildlife Conservation gration of the regional use and management of water and Lazv Enforcentent in the SADC region resources was the ratification in 1998 of the SADC It is under the Wildlife Acts in most countries in the Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems, which was fur- region that wetland systems are accorded anv significant ther reviewed in 1999/2000. The Revised Protocol on protection. The development and implementation of the Shared Watercourses was signed by SADC Heads of State Protocol on Wildlife Conservation will go a long way to or Government at their annual Summit in August 2000 in facilitate the conservation of wetlands in the region. The Windhoek, and comes into force upon ratification by objective of the protocol is to establish compatible two/thirds of Member States. approaches to: The Protocol states that the utilisation of a shared Manage and utilise wildlife sustainablv; watercourse system shall he open to each riparian state in Harmonize legal instruments governing wildlife use respect of watercourses within its territory and without and conservation; prejudice to its sovereign rights. The utilisation of water- Enforce wildlife laws within, between and among course systems mentioned in the protocol includes agri- SADC member states; cultural, domestic, industrial and navigational uses. Exchange information concerning wildlife. Aquatic ecosystems as users of water are not covered in management of human use of wildlife, and the protocol. However, the protocol urges riparian states enforcement of wildlife laws: and to respect and applv the existing rules of general and cus- Build national and regional capacitv in wildlife tomary international laws relating to the utilisation and management for sustainable use and conservation, management of shared watercourses. and in wildlife enforcement. Under the protocol, riparian states are encouraged to Most wetland ecosystems that are within National utilise a shared watercourse in an equitable manner. It Parks or protected areas in SADC countries are protected specifies the prevention of pollution, aquatic weed infes- bv national wildlife acts. Signing, ratification and imple- tations and environmental degradation, and commits gov- mentation of this proposed protocol will facilitate effec- ernments to enhance living standards and environmental tive wetlands conservation and management. considerations. The details of the protocol on shared watercourses are contained in chapter 10 which deals 3.6.3.5 Convention to Combat Desertification with institutional frameworks. (CCD) This protocol, under which member states commit The convention to Combat Desertification (CCD) has themselves to manage shared watercourses at river basin influence on the management and conservation of wet- level, is the most directly relevant to wetlands conserva- lands. Parties to the Convention are obligated to formu- tion, although wetlands are not specifically mentioned in late and implement action to slow down or halt the the protocol. It encourages the formation of River Basin process of desertification and minimise the consequences Commissions and River Basin Authorities. For example, thereof. Desertification has negative impacts on water  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT resources availability and on the hydrology of wetland sys- Water resources management objectives should tems. Desertification can be a consequence or a cause of address the biodiversitv and ecological health of catchment degradation, already identified as one of the aquatic ecosvstems as management priorities. threats to wetlands in southern Africa. Water allocations for aquatic ecosystems should have Regional and national actions being undertaken clear status in national and regional policv and law in through the Convention to Combat Desertification will relation to water allocations for offstream and bring positive results for wetlands conservation and man- instream use. agement. The SADC Environment and Land Management National and regional environmental, biodiversity, Sector (ELMS) is coordinating regional efforts under this water and agricultural policies should all be convention with technical input from the Desert Research harmonised to ensure adequate protection of aquatic Foundation of Namibia. All southern African countries ecosystems and ecological resources such as fish, have signed and ratified the convention. peat, reeds, etc. Relevant regional protocols and national legislation 3.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR WATER POLICY should be amended to specifically protect water allocations for aquatic ecosystems. For water resources management purposes. water The values of aquatic ecosystem goods and services resources should be defined as including all should be recognised in national policy, and valuation components of the ecosystem (habitat, water, of goods and services should be included as a vegetation, biota and processes) which are contained mandatory step in Environmental Impact Assesssments within the outer edges of riparian or fringing zones (EIA) and in water allocation and development and within groundwater bodies. decisions. National water policy and law should recognise aquatic ecosystems as the resource base from which water is derived. a - - N I.< -i ' P _- ' < s _ - ~~~ * | , ^'*f) / A - . . e; ,_ 1 * -@ s ;ge w ' ' -A * 41 -' 8750 w , -; -, -. ,1 / ' ,-''X - 4-' Us\ Guwarezi river. on the borc/er ofAlozambique anid ZiMbabwve. W'ater resources include all comiiponienits of the aquatic ecosystem, anid the ecoslstem is the resource base from uhich water is derived  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS Annex to Chapter 3 COUNTRY WETLANDS OF CONCERN THREATS VALUES* KNOWLEDGE Botswana Makgadikgadi Pans (1) 1 (1) Veldt fires, mining, (1) Wildlife (h) (1) Makgadikgadi Pans CChobe-Linyati (3) 1 over-grazing, uncontrolled Grazing (h) No comprehensive knowledge. IOkavango Delta (3) tourism Tourism (h) (3) Chobe-Linyati (3) Fires, over-utilisation Mining (m) No comprehensive knowledge. (hunting, grazing, (3) Wildlife (h) (3) Okavango Delta deforestation, irrigation, Fisheries (h) Limited knowledge on specific water extraction, fishing) Agriculture (h) issues (eg medicinal, plants, Grazing (h) birds). Water extraction (h) No knowledge on cultural Tourism (h) and socio-economic issues. Veldt protection (h) Lesotho Katse Dam (1) (1) Siltation, pollution, (1) Revenue from water (1) LHDA studies on the Drakensberg-Maluti (2) population growth sales to South Africa (vh) Katse dam. Senqu River (3) (2) Over-grazing, siltation, (2) Bird sanctuary (vh) Comprehensive mining, fire, land tenure (3) River sources (vh) management plans (3) Land tenure, siltation, Hydrology for dams in the pollution, population catchment. (2) Studies within LHDA area. No detailed valuation on small catchments. (3) Limited information on hydrology. No valuation done. Malawi Lake Chilwa (1) (1) Lake Chilwa (1) Lake Chilwa (1) Lake Chilwa Lake Malawi/Nyasa (1) Over-fishing, Fishing (vh) Limited biological and Elephant and over-hunting, siltation, Water fowl habitat (vh) ecological knowledge. Ndindi Marsh (2) population growth, pollution, Transportation (h) Very limited knowledge dam construction, Wildlife (I) on hydrological, economic irrigation, fires Agriculture (I) and social issues. (1) Lake Malawi/Nyasa (1) Lake Malawi/Nyasa (1) Lake Malawi/Nyasa Over-fishing, pollution, Fishing (vh) Biological, ecological and deforestation, population Transportation (vh) economic knowledge exists growth Tourism (vh) but is limited. (2) Over-fishing, fires, Hydropower (vh) (2) Elephant and Ndindi Marsh agriculture, over-grazing Water supply (vh) Limited knowledge on economic (2) Dry season and biodiversity issues. Agriculture (vh) Fishing (I) Grazing (h) Water fowl habitat (m) Wildlife harvest (m) Mozambique Lake Niassa (1) (1) Over-fishing, (1) Fisheries (vh) (1) Only social valuation exists. Limpopo Floodplain (4) deforestation, fires Agriculture (vh) (4) Limpopo Floodplain Zambezi Delta (4) (4) Limpopo Floodplain Tourism (h) Forestry (h) Gap in the economic valuation. Deforestation, over-fishing, (4) Limpopo Floodplain (4) Zambezi Delta erosion Fisheries (vh) Gap in the biodiversity (4) Zambezi Delta Agriculture (vh) valuation. Deforestation, over-fishing, Tourism (h) over-hunting, population Forestry (h) growth (4) Zambezi Delta Fisheries (vh) Wildlife (vh) Water fowl habitat (h) Namibia Oshanas (2) (2) Population growth, (2) Water supply (vh) Response is applicable to Orange River (3) over-fishing, deforestation, Fisheries (h) Wood (h) all three wetlands. Respondent Walvis Lagoon (5) fires (3) Water supply (vh) unsure of any social cultural (3) Alien species, Wood (h) valuation done. Biological deforestation, Recreation (h) knowledge is fair to good river regulation, fire (5) Tourism (vh) depending on the system. (5) Siltation, pollution Recreation (h) Economic valuation, very Salt mining (h) little which is wetland specific.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT COUNTRY WETLANDS OF CONCERN THREATS VALUES' KNOWLEDGE South Africa St. Lucia (1) (1) Dune mining (I) Biodiversity (vh) (I) Methods not developed to Naumo (2) (2) Land invasion, over-fishing, Water supply (h) valuate wetland types. Blesbokspru,t (3) i agriculture, irrigation j (2) Fish stock (vh) (2) Few studies on economic Lange Lagoon (4) (3) Mining, sewage works Tournsm (vh) valuation. (4) Pollution, harbour Water supply (h) (3) No $ value of biodiversita. development (3) VWater supply (h) | (4) Little attention to social Agriculture (in) values. (4) Tour,sm (n) 1 (5) No integration of salues suct' as tourism, fish stock, water supply. Small wetlands do not get ______-! -~_______ I ~ I _____ attention. Zambia Bangweulu Swamps (1) (1) Population growth, (1) Fishing (vh) (1) Very limited biological Kafue Flats (3) over-fishing, over-hunting, Tourism (h) knowledge, biological value. Barotse Plain (3) deforestation (3) Kafue Flats (3) Kafue Flats (3) Kafue Flats Fishing (vh) Very limited biological and Over-fishing, over-hunting, Tourism (vh) socio-economic knowledge. alien species, water extraction Hydro-power (vh) (3) Barotse Plain (3) Barotse Plain Irrigation (h) Limited biological knowledge. Over-fishing, over-hunting, Agriculture (m) fire, deforestation | (3) Barotse Plain Fishing (vh) Tourism (m) Cultural heritage (h) Water supply (I) Zimbabwe Mana Pools (1) (1) Over-grazing, irrigation (1) Hydro-power (1) Fisheries diversity, Dambos (2) (2) Siltation, poor catchment Water supply bio-diversity, economic value Save Valley (3) Tdmanagement, mining Crocodile farming limits on knowledge. (3) Drainage, dam (2) Reeds harvesting (2) Limited knowledge on construction, over-utilisation Research biodiversity and social cultural Educational issues. Transport (3) Limited knowledge on (3) Tourism ibio-diversity, community Fishing use and flow patterns. Wildlife Irrigation *Values: (vh) very high (h) high (m) medium (I) low  THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS REFERENCES Allan, D,G., Seaman, M. T. and Kaletja, B. 1995. The endorheic pans of South Africa. In G.1. Cowan (ed) Wetlands of South Africa. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism: Pretoria Bethune, S. 1998. Wetlands and water resources management in the Zambezi basin. A workshop paper presentation Breen, C. M., Quinn, N.W. and Mander, JJ. 1997. W'etlands conservation and management iI southen Africa: (.,.' -,.. ,, .d opportunities. ILICN: Gland Chabwela, H.N. 1994. Status of wetlands of Zambia: Management and conservation issues. Unpublished report for the Environment Council of Zambia. Ministry of Environmental and Natural Resources: Lusaka Chabwela H.N. 1991. Wetlands: A consenration programme for southern Africa. I and 11 (1992). SADC and IUCN-ROSA: Maseru/Harare Chenje, M. (ed) 2000. State of the environment 7.ambezi Basin 2000. SADC, ZRA, IUCN, SARDC - CEP: Maseru/Lusaka/Harare Chenje, M. and Johnson, P. (eds) 1996. Water in southern Africa. SADC, IUCN, SARDC - CEP: Maseru/Harare Chenje, M. and Johnson, P. (eds) 1994. State of the environment in southern Africa. SADC, IUCN, SARDC - CEP: Maseru/Harare Chooye, P.M. 1992. The Zambian wetlands project: A Zambia experience. In Kamukala, G. M. and S. Crafter, Wetlands F :, . .,f a senminar on . ..I/'.,i ! TI, ,:,,,.1 il. rogoro, 1991. IUCN Wetlands Programme: Harare Cowan, G.I. (ed) 1995. r,I,, .. .. f South Africa. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism: Pretoria Cowan G.I. and van Riet, W. 199 .1 . -f South African wetlands. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism: Pretoria Cowardin, L.M., Carter, V., Golet, F.C. and LaRoe, E.T. 1979. (O.i ,i... u. . of wetlands and deepu'ater habitats of the United States. US Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-79/31. Washington DC Cumming, D. 1999. Study on the development of transboundarv natural resource management areas in southern Africa - Environmental context: Natural resources, land use and conservation. Biodiversity Support Program: Washington DC Dini J., Cowan,.G.I. and Goodman, P. 1999. Proposed wetland classification system for South Africa. In DWAF, Resource directed measures for protection of water resources. Version 1.0 Volume 4 Wetland ecosystems. DWAF: Pretoria Dugan, Pj. 1990. Wetland consenation: A retvieu' of current issues and required action. IUCN: Montreux Gleick, P. H. 1998. The uworld's water: The biennial report onfreshuater resources, 1998-199. Island Press: Washington DC Goudie, A.S. and Thomas, D.S. 1985. Pans in southern Africa with particular reference to South Africa and Zimbabwe, Zeitschrift fiirGeomorphologieNF 29: 1-19 Government of Malawi 1998. State of the envlironment reportfor Mlalatvi 1998. Environmental Affairs Department: Lilongwe Hirji, R. and Ibrekk, H.O. 2001. Water resources and emironmental managemient. World Bank environment strategy paper 2. WXorld Bank: Washington DC Humphrevs, W. Western Australian Museum Service: Perth IUCN 1994. lodh,ic.,lis knouwledge systenis and conservation in southern Africa. Africa 2000 Network and IUCN: Harare IUCN ROSA. Unpublished, undated document on the Zimuto-Mshagashe communitv-based catchment rehabilitation and exploitation project in Zimbabwe. IlUCN: Harare Jefferv, R. C., Chabwela, H.N., Howard, G. and Dugan, PJ. (eds) !' i . 1 , the wetlands of the Kafue Flats and ,. Basin: Fr.i, t of the WWF-Zanibia project uorkshop. IUCN Wetlands Programme, IUCN: Harare Kyle, R. 1995. WVise use of wetlands by rural indigenous people - The Kosi Bay Nature Reserve: A case study. In G. 1. Cowan (ed) 1995, Wetlands ' . ; Africa. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism: Pretora Mafuta C., Chenje, M., Sherman, R., and Karuma, J. 1999. Environmental causes of conflict in the Southern African Development Communitv (SADC). Unpublished study for BICC and CCR: Bonn/Cape Town  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Magadza, C. 1995. Some special problems in water resources management in southern Africa. Keynote adddress to the 6th Intemational Conference on the Conservation and Management of Lakes, Kasimigaura, University of Tsukuba Masundire H. M. and Matiza, T. 1995. Some environmental aspects of developments in the Zambezi Basin ecosystem. In T. Matiza, S. Crafter and P. Dale (eds) Water resource use in the Zambezi Basin. IUCN: Gland Masundire, H, M. 1994. Effects of dam building on riverine wetlands. In T. Matiza and S. Crafter (eds) Wetlands ecology and priorities for conservation in Zimbabwve. IUCN: Gland Matiza, T. and Chabwela, H.N. (eds) 1991. Wetlands consenration conference for southern Africa: Proceedings of the SADCC confer- ence in Gaborone on 3-5 June 1991. IUCN: Gland Morant, P.D. 1983. Wetland classification: Toward an approach for southern Africa.J Limnol Soc. 5tb, 9 (8) Muller, M. 2001. Water Wars. (on,flwi Trends, Durban, Issue 312001 Noble R. G. and Hemens, J. 1978. Inland water ecosystems in South Africa: A review of research needs. South Africa National Scientific Programmes Report 34. CSIR: Pretoria PallettJ. (ed) 1997.i, !', water , ". ,' ' DesertResearchFoundationofNamibia:Windhoek. SADCC 1991. Sustaining otur commoni future. SADCC ELMS: Maseru Saleem H. Ali 1996. Water and dianmonds, the lost paradox of resource scarcity and environmental 1 .,.. .. e . in southern Africa. Yale University Shumwav, CA. 1999. Forgotten waters: Freshuater and marinle ecosystems in Africa. Boston University Skelton, P. 1993. A complete guide to.. i. i. . of Soutbern Africa. Southern Book Publishers: Johannesburg Stevn, GJ. Zoology Department, Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg. Personal communication Timberlake J. 2000. Biodiversity of the Zambezi Basin wetlands. Vol 1 Main Report, Zambezi Society, Harare Turpie, J.. Smith, B., Emerton, L. and Barnes, J. 1998. Economic value of the Zambezi Basin wetlands. Phase I Report, unpublished. ZBWCRUP and NETCAB programmes, IUCN: Harare UN FAO 2000. The state of worldfisheries and aquaculture 2000. FAO: Rome UN FAO 1995. Water resources of the African counltries: A review. FAO: Rome UN FAO 1995. Yearbook - Fisheries statistics, catches anid landings. Vol. 76: 1993. FAO: Rome Van der Walt, M. M. and Cowan, G.I. (eds) 1998. Proceedings of the Southern African Sub-F:. ,i F Meeting. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism: Pretoria  D .lartin,APG sA~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A-E t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o .. -_ ';__a| _. ^ .X l l _I f,XIa< ' ';" ar,f1 . I~~~~~~~_-e,  CONTENTS 4.1 INTRODUCTION 87 4.7 THE VALUE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS AND COSTS OF THEIR DEGRADATION 97 4.2 THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF WATER USE 88 4.7.1 Direct consumptive use values 4.2.1 Water as an input into economic of aquatic ecosystems 97 production and livelihoods 88 4.7.2 Direct non-consumptive use 4.2.1,1 Agriculture 88 value of aquatic ecosystems 98 4.2.1.2 Industry 88 4.7.2.1 Navigation 98 4.2.1.3 Domestic 89 4.7 2 2 Recreational value 98 4.2.2 Water as a conduit for waste disposal 89 4.7.3 Indirect use values of aquatic ecosystems 98 4.7.3.1 Maintenance of water qualitv 98 4.3 THE ECONOMIC TRADE-OFFS 89 4.7 3.2 SedinIent trapping 100 4.4 THE CAUSES OF AQUATIC 4.73.3 Maintenance offloodplains, ECOSYSTEM DEGRADATION 90 alluvial fans, deltas and beaches 100 4.5 VALUING ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE 90 4.7.3.4 Flood regulation and coastal protection 101 4. 5 .1 Valuation techniques 90 4.7.3.5 Groundwater recharge 101 4.5.2 MarketVvaluationtecap es 92 i47.3.6 Exports to adjacent ecosvstems 102 4.5.2 Market value approaches 92 74 Opinado-uevls10 4.5.2.1 Change in production method 92 4.5.2.2 Defensive expenditures method 92 4.8 ACCOUNTING FOR ENVIRONMENTAL 4.5.2.3 Lossofearningsmethod 92 DEGRADATION IN DECISION MAKING 102 4.5.2.4 Replacement cost method 92 4.8.1 Project Assessment 102 4. S3 Surrogate market approaches 92 4.8.2 Natural resource accounting 105 4.5.3.1 Travel-cost method 92 4.5.3.2 Hedonic pricing method 92 4.9 ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS TO REGULATE WATER USE 106 4.5.4 Simulated market approaches 92 4.9.1 Supply-side measures 106 4.5.4.1 Contingent valuation methods 92 4.9.2 Demand-side measures 107 4.5.5 Choice of valuation techniques 93 REFERENCES 109 4.6 IMPACTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION ON WATER SUPPLY 93 4.6.1 The costs of catchment erosion 93 4.6.2 Changes in catchment runoff due to deforestation, commercial afforestation and invasive alien plants 95 4.6.3 Reduction in water quality due to pollution and eutrophication 96 ACKNOWLEDXEMENTS The authors would like to thank Lucv Emerton of tUCN's Nature and Economy Programme for her detailed comments and for the use of several case studies from East Africa. We also thank Rafik Hirji, Charles Breen. Claudia Sadoff, Tracey Hart and Smita Misra for their helpful suggestions and comments on the draft manuscript.  VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 4.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter provides the economic rationale for tak- ing a broader view of efficiency and sustainability, which Increasing pressure on scarce water resources throughout incorporates sound environmental management. The the world has led to a global trend to develop policies and goal of efficiencv should take the costs of environmental mechanisms that encourage the efficient, equitable and degradation into account, and the goal of sustainabilitv sustainable use of water resources. should be to sustain desirahle levels of production of all The efficiency goal concentrates on maximising goods and services over the long term: including those economic returns to resource use, or achieving the provided by natural svstems. Of course, meeting these greatest possible net benefit. goals will involve certain trade-offs. The , ii i dl, goal recognises the limits to natural Economic production achieved by means of the resources in the light of population growth and abstraction and degradation of water resources, aquatic economic development, and aims to use resources in ecosvstems and catchment areas has to he traded off such a wav as not to compromise the economic against the benefits from maintenance of healthy ecosys- opportunities of future generations. tems and biodiversitv. Similarlv, the costs of controlling The goal of equity is to ensure that the economic alien invasives and managing activities within catchment benefits obtained from water resources are areas will need to he justified in terms of the resultant distributed fairly. benefits. Thus, in order for society or governments to The latter is largely a socio-political issue, and will take cognisance of the benefits of environmental manage- not be addressed in detail in this chapter. However, ment, it will be necessary to uncderstand the full economic the issues of economic efficiency and sustainability of implications of the degradation of water resources and natural resource use are inextricably linked to environ- aquatic ecosystems and to account for them as the oppor- mental management, whiclh is the focus of this chap- tunity costs of damaging economic activities and manage- ter, ment approaches. i,,.h1, i il,1, the opportunity cost Traditional economic approaches have had a rather implications of water supplv and allocation is thus central narrow view of the economic issues surrounding the use to making informed decisions on development and alloca- and management of wvater resources. In the past, maximis- tion trade-offs. ing economic efficiency has meant the maximisation of This chapter begins by describing the direct use val- net benefits that contribute directly to standard measures ues of water, the ways in which these uses and other of economic performance, such as Gross Domestic forms of catchment activities and management impact on Product (GDP). Sustainabilitv has been perceived in aquatic environments, ancd the types of trade-offs that terms of sustaining the benefits from economic activities arise. Tvpes of degradation and valuation methods are associated with the direct use of water resources, rather briefly introcluced. This is followed by a description of the than sustaining a full range of benefits, including ecologi- costs of catchment mismanagement to water develop- cal services and biodiversity. ment projects, and considers the non-water economic val-  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ues of aquatic ecosystems that are threatened hy such economic benefits yielded by the investments in supply projects and bv environmental mismanagement. Finally: infrastructure. the two sets of measures that are required to achieve effi- cient, sustainable and equitahle use of water resources, in 4.2.1.1 Agriculture order to maximise the net benefits to society are exam- Agriculture is bv far the greatest user of water in most of ined, and these include: the SADC countries. In South Africa. 69 percent of all the incorporation of environmental costs and water consumption is used for irrigation and watering of benefits, and distributional issues, in economic livestock (Davies and Day 1998), and irrigation accounts decision-making; and for over three-quarters of groundwater used. The value of the application of economic instruments to manage water in this regard may be considered as the value added water demand and supply, to the productivity of land bv water supplv, taking into These measures shouldc be seen as mutually support- account anv government subsidies. ive components of the integrated management of aquatic The small area of irrigated agricultural land in South resources, to be combined with broader . ll l i,i I l, condi- Africa (one percent of national land area) produces 30 tions such as the formulation of appropriate policies, reg- percent of the value of agricultural production (Chenje ulations, tenure and institutions, and environmental edu- and Johnson 1996), thus producing relatively high returns cation, to agricultural land. However, the agricultural sector (including forestry and -,i, i contributes only five per- 4.2 THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF WATER USE cent to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in South Africa, suggesting that the returns to agricultural use of water are All of the SADC economies are heavily dependent on the relativelv low compared to the industrial sector, which is supply of water. Water is used in both the input and out- to be expected. put phases of economic processes. Water provides a Similarly, in . il'i,irrigation uses almost twice as direct input into economic production in sectors such as much water as livestock (44 percent vs 23 percent of agriculture, electricitv and domestic consumption, and is water consumption, respectively), but its returns to water used to transport and absorb many of the waste outputs are much lower at N$0.20 vs '. per cubic metre. of economic production. (Heyns et al 1998) While relatively little irrigation water Assigning an accurate economic value to water in agri- goes toward producing high value export crops, the culture, industry or hydro electric power (HEP) proctuc- remainder is often used to grow low value crops which tion is a complex and difficult task, and is highly site spe- can be uneconomical, particularly when the opportunity cific, varying according to its use, location and time. cost of the water is high and/or when these crops are sub- (Young 1996) The benefits accruing to the economy from sidised. these uses are all net of the considerable costs of infra- In wetter countries, agricultural consumption of water structure, including dams and reservoirs, pumping sta- is somewhat lower. For example, only 26 percent of tions, water transfer schemes, r,, n. - systems and Zambia's water supply is used in the agricultural sector, treatment plants, the costs of relocation of people friom yet this sector contributes 19 percent to GDP. This does inundation areas, as well as other inputs into procluction. not necessarilv implv that Zambia is a more efficient user of agricultural water, however, as these figures simplv 4.2.1 Water as an input into relate levels of economic output to levels of water use economic production and livelihoods deliveredl through the infrastructure svstem. The value of water is most readily appreciated as an input into economic production, both through consumptive 4.2.1.2. Industry use, via direct abstraction, and non-consumptive use, via Industrv accounts for about 11 percent of water consump- the modification of water flows for the generation of tion in South Africa and Namibia. (Davies and Dav 1998, hydro-electric power. Thus dams, boreholes and other Heyns et al 1998) Manufacturing industries such as food infrastructure facilitate the transfer of water into econom- and beverages, pulp and paper and petrochemicals are ic processes of which the outputs are measurable as the particularlyN reliant on water. Although some forms of  VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT production utilise vast quantities of water, the returns to offer direct returns to GDP. However, clean drinking water use in this sector are ,- . : ,1, high. In South water and adequate sanitation confers substantial health Africa, manufacturing accounts for almost one-quarter of benefits in the avoidance of diseases such as diarrhoea, GDP. and is thus vital to economic performance. In South Industrial output and development also depend on Africa, the annual expenditure on the treatment of diar- power supplI. Hvdroelectric power accounts for 65 per- rhoea related to inadequate clean water and sanitation cent of the commercial energy supply to SADC countries has been estimated as Ri million. (PDG 1997) Currentlv, (Chenje andJohnson 1996), although South Africa relies more than half of the population of the SADC region still mostlyT on other sources of energy, with hydropower con- lacks access to reliable supplies of clean water and sanita- tributing onlv 0.2 percent to electricitv supply. (Davies tion (see Tables 2.10 and 2.11 in chapter 2). Several stud- and Day 1998) The Cahora Bassa, Inga and Kariba ies have elicited people's 11<1lt - . . to pav for a regular schemes are the largest in the region, with a capacitv of and sanitary suppl of water in developing countries (eg 2,07S MW, 1, 771 MW and 1,266 MW, respectively. (Table Fredriksson and Persson 1989), demonstrating the high 2.9 in chapter 2) HEP is one of the cheapest sources of economic value of this service. energy, utilising water pressure to rotate turbines before returning the water to its source river. Although this 4.2.2 Water as a conduit for waste disposal makes it a non-consumptive use of water, it is important Polluting outputs are generated because economic produc- to note that this use is effectively consumptive, in as tion cannot he 100 percent efficient in its conversion of much as HEP schemes impact on the supply of water to inputs to outputs, and thus generallv emits some types of downstream ecosvstems, and large schemes can lead to waste products. Aquatic ecosystems provide a benefit to significant evaporative losses. Moreover, HEP dams hold economic production in that they provide a cheap and easy vast amounts of water in dead storage, which cannot be means of clisposing of many of these wastes, although this abstracted for other purposes. Lake Kariba's dead storage ecosystem service is seldom considered or quantified in amounts to 114 cu km, equivalent to nearly 20 percent of economic terms. Furthermore, when waste disposal into the region's annual runoff (Chenje andJohnson 1994) aquatic ecosystems exceeds i.r i 'I1ii ii '. capacitv, the resultant environmental damages are similarly' unaccounted 4.2.1.3 Domestic for. These environmental damages. resulting from the Domestic and municipal use of water for drinking, cook- reduction of water quantitv and quality, are known as ing. washing, cleaning and gardening accounts for about 'externalities" in the economic procluction process. eight percent of water consumption in South Africa and The environmental externalities, both positive and 12 percent in Botswana. Domestic use of water does not negative, of modification of river flows and aquatic ecosys- tems by economic production processes, rarely feature in economic assessments, and are discussed in the following I -z s b ^ _ J w. sections. 4.3 THE ECONOMIC TRADE-OFFS At current population growth rates, almost half of the population of the SADC region will experience chronic water shortages by 2025 (see Maps 1.1, 1.2 in chapter 1. Table 2.1 in chapter 2). In the drier SADC countries, many farms reling on groundwater supplies are already running short. An increased supplv of water and power will be vital to economic development and poverty relief, CleanZ waterfor domiestic uise does nzot contribite directlh to and new water supply and HEP projects are thus consid- GDP, bitt ... inidirect returns . .: suzbstanztial health ered a priority for development within the region. (SADC beniefits to the comnmiunitY. 1998) However, such devclopments carry environmental  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT costs which impact the prices faced bv different consumers. Thus the onus is negatively on the on governments, regional institutions, business and socie- econom,v and ty to recognise all of the costs and benefits of develop- need to be taken ment and management decisions, and to ensure that the into account. overall utility to society UA is maximised. * . + __ Similarly, environ- The main factor hindering this process is that the ________ - ,mental manage- economic costs of environmental degradation, even if x. -. ment tends to be recognised, are seldom known in quantitative terms. The _. - t | -' g*neglected because following sections describe some of the environmental of its apparent net costs of development and poor management that nega- costs, whereas tively affect economic svstems reliant on water supplv and Alshot hagef of the SADC population couldface chronic 25ater such management aquatic ecosvstems. Quantification of these costs is a rela- shortages bv 290295. leads to greater tively new area of research, particularlv in the SADC security of water supply for future economic develop- region, but will be vital to clarifying trade-offs in decision- ment. making with respect to investments in water supply and The general problem can be illustrated as follows, HEP developments and investment in environmental man- The utility (or benefit) derived from a catchment system agement. can be considered as a function of both the economic activities that indirectly make use of it, and the goods and i.4 THE CAUSES OF AQUATIC services emanating from the system: ECOSYSTEM DEGRADATION UA = U(X1, X . . .Xn; Ql Q2 .. Qm), Aquatic ecosystems are degraded directly due to econom- ic activities which require the supply of water and where UA is the utilitv derived from catchment system A, hydropower and which return polluted flows to aquatic (XI, X... .Xn) are the economic activities which impact on environments. Other productive activities, such as agri- the ecosystem, and (Ql, Q2 . Qm) are the goods and culture, livestock, forestry and deforestation in catchment services provided by the ecosystem. There is a complex areas may also lead to the degradation of aquatic ecosys- matrix of interactions between these variables. An tems and water supplv if not properly managed. In addi- increase in economic activity (XI, X.. .X,,) mav decrease tion, aquatic ecosystems may be degraded by activities the quality or quantity of aquatic ecosystem goods and that occur within them, such as floodplain agriculture, or services (Ql. Q2. Qm) For example, if XI represents the the exploitation of natural resources. While the latter magnitude of sugar cane production, the water abstrac- activities realise some of the values of aquatic ecosystems, tion and pollution associated with this production may they also impact on the ecosystems. Finally, the invasion impact on a certain wetland function, say Qi. Similarly, an of catchment areas and aquatic ecosystems by alien plants increase in one type of economic activity XI, may and animals may lead to devastating consequences, if left decrease the output of a second economic activity, either uncontrolled. through direct competition for water, or due to the These activities and their impacts are summarised in change in function Q, which affects the productivity of Table 4.1, and are treated in greater detail in subsequent X. In this example, the costs are internalised, in that the chapters. cost of loss of Q, due to an increase in X1 is borne by the user. In other words, the user would only choose to 4.5 VALUING ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE increase XI if the benefit of doing so is greater than the loss of Qi. In reality, different users may gain utility from 4.5.1 Valuation techniques different components of this function, and will thus make Environmental valuation techniques have been developed decisions that are independent of the costs to users rely- in order to quantify the costs and benefits of environmen- ing on other components. This occurs because many of tal changes for proper consideration in decision-making. the costs to other users are external, and not reflected in This is a relativelv new field in developing countries and  VALUING THE ENVIRONiMENT Human activity [mpact on aquatic ecosystems Reduction in values/services Afforestation, deforestation Alters runoff patterns, inhioits Decreased water quantity and quality for other and poor land use in natural recharge users catchment areas Erosion leads to silt deposition Decreased economic life of water supply in aquatic ecosystems schemes Reduction in biodiversity and resource stocks Alien invasion of Alters runoff patterns, inhibits Decreased water quantity and quality for other catchment areas natural recharge users Change in water chemistry Decreased economic life of water supply Erosion leading to silt schemes deposition in aquatic ecosystems Reduction in biodiversity and resource stocks Polluting economic activity Release of inorganic and organic Decreased water quality for all uses pollutants changes chemistry and Eutrophication, with concomitant negative nutrient status of aquatic effects on biodiversity and resource stocks ecosystems Loss of aesthetic and recreational appeal Decreased waste assimilative capacity for downstream economic activity Water supply schemes Change in timing of flows Reduction in biodiversity and change in stocks and hydropower schemes Reduction in quantity of water of resources in inundation areas and to downstream ecosystems downstream aquatic ecosystems Reduction in downstream Change in ecosystem functioning and sediment loads sediment dynamics Changes in temperature and Creation of low flow conditions suitable for chemical characteristics of water pests and pathogens Creation of barriers to movement Loss or gain of aesthetic and recreational appeal Increased seismic activity Reduction in water quantity and quality available to downstream users Agricultural and other Loss of habitat Loss of infrastructure and arable land land use within Release of inorganic Reduction in biodiversity and resource stocks aquatic ecosystems and organic pollutants Decreased water quality for other users into aquatic ecosystems Exploitation of aquatic Reduction in biodiversity and resource stocks resources Alien invasion of Siltation of aquatic ecosystems Reduction in biodiversity and indigenous aquatic ecosystems Change in water chemistry resource stocks Decreased water quality for other users has only recently started to be applied within the SADC The formulation of prices, charges and other region. Valuation can be used in the following aspects of economic instruments which reflect environmental sustainable water resource management: costs. The p 1,, rI o InI 1i l1" of costs and benefits of catchment This section serves to introduce the reader to the management and conservation programmes; main types of valuation techniques that have been devel- The quantification of environmental costs and oped. rather than providing an exhaustive account of the benefits for incorporation in the evaluation of details of such ii, -I, 1 1 A wealth of literature exists hvdroelectric and water supply projects: on the subject. Valuation techniques can be divided up As inputs into the natural resource accounting into those relying on conventional market information, process when valuing natural resource stocks and those that make use of implicit or surrogate markets and environmental damage costs; and those that construct artificial, or simulated, markets.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES 4.5.2 Market value approaches lated in order to derive recreational demand curves from 4.5.2.1 Cbange in producton method which total recreational value can be estimated. Productive use of water resources and aquatic ecosystems Although relatively straightforward in theory, the trav- (eg irrigation schemes, fisheries) may be positively or neg- el-cost method is often complicated by several factors. atively affected by environmental change (eg instream The most confounding problem is that of journeys to flow, pollution level). This change is measured as the multiple destinations, in which case it becomes difficult to market value of the loss or gain in output. This approach isolate the value of the site in question from that of other either requires information on the levels of production destinations on the journey. Another difficulty is account- before and after the change. or information on produc- ing for substitute sites. A visitor may travel to visit a site tion levels during one environmental state and an under- which they particularly enjoy, whereas another who has standing of the relationship between the state of the envi- less enthusiasm for the site may travel the same distance ronment and production. simply because there is no other available recreational site near home. The travel cost method may also underesti- 4.5.2.2 Defensive expendttures metbod mate recreational value in cases where people access When environmental damage leads to defensive expendi- recreational areas by foot or bicycle. tures in order to reduce the effects of this damage, these expenditures can be taken as a proxy for the value of the 4.5.3.2 Hedonk pricng met"od environmental service that is being replaced by the This technique is based on the premise that goods and defence measures, such as flood control dykes, or expen- services are made up of bundles of characteristics each of diture on health services. which makes a quantifiable distinct contribution to overall price. Observed prices and the levels of various character- 4.5.2.3 Loss of earnings metbod istics, environmental and others, contained in each good This technique is most commonly used to measure the or service provide a measure of the implicit value that loss in human output due to illness or premature death consumers place on each of the characteristics that make from, for example, water pollution. Average earnings are up the good or service, including the unpriced environ- established and multiplied by the productive time lost. mental characteristic. (Dixon et al 1996) Hedonic pricing Dose-response functions that measure the links between generally applies to property prices and wage differentials. dose lE l il, P and response (health impact) are also In the case of property prices, for example, the price of a usually necessary for this technique. house near a heavily polluted river will be less than a simi- lar house next to a healthy river by an amount that 4.5.2.4 Replacement cost met"od reflects the cost of the pollution. Hedonic pricing is use- This technique attaches value by estimating the costs of ful in an urban context, but cannot be applied very easily restoring a damaged environment to its original state. For in areas where land is under communal tenure. In the example, it is possible to estimate the costs of restoring a case of wages, for example, the premium that workers are wetland damaged by pollution. paid in jobs with health risks (where fair compensation exists) can be used to estimate their implicit values for 4.5.3 Surrogate market approaches sickness or premature death. 4.5.3.1 Travelost metbod This method is usually used to measure the recreational 4.5.4 Simulated market approaches benefits of natural resources in the absence of markets (eg 4.5.4.1 Contingent valuation metbods entrance fees), or when low fees do not reflect people's Contingent valuation methods can be used to derive val- true ill,, , to pay to use these resources. The cost of ues for almost any environmental change and are the only travelling to a site is taken as a proxy for this willingness to technique that can be used to derive intangible values. pay. The method involves a survey of users to gauge their Contingent valuation involves the direct questioning of costs and time spent in reaching a site along with an people to determine how they would react to environ- assessment of their socio-economic characteristics such as mental changes. This is done through the use of a care- income levels. Survey results are then statistically manipu- fully designed questionnaire which ascertains respon-  VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT dents' 11',''. to pav to gain or prevent a loss of some methods to cross-check results. Although valuation stucl- level of an environmental good or service or their willing- ies should seek to avoid underestimation or omission of ness to accept compensation to tolerate a loss. certain values, it is also important to avoid double-count- , .., H' . to par can be elicited bv means of open- ing, where different techniques are used to measure mul- ended questions, referendum or dichotomous choice tiple values. Time and cost constraints, and the availabili- (yes/no) type questions, bidding games, trade-off games, ty of information also affect the choice of technique. For ranking techniques, costless-choice options, or the priori- example market value techniques are straightforward ty evaluator technique. The method usually has to be tai- where adequate data exists, but may be extremely costly lored to suit each unique valuation situation. and time-consuming where it does not. Travel-cost and Questionnaire results are then analysed using economet- contingent valuation techniques are generally fairly expen- ric techniques to derive overall values. sive to carry out. Contingent valuation is the only method with which to estimate option and non-use values, and it has also fre- 4.6 IMPACTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL cluentlv been applied to the measurement of recreational DEGRADATION ON WATER SUPPLY use value. Contingent valuation methods can also be applied to the valuation of direct and indirect goods and Environmental degradation resulting from poor manage- services associated with natural systems where the quantifi- ment practices and inappropriate investment decisions cation of these outputs is difficult, and are also particularly has a profound effect on the quantity and quality of water useful in the valuation of domestic water supply schemes. available for use in human economic systems, as Because it relies on direct questioning, rather than described below. observing people's actual behaviour, contingent valuation is open to a number of biases. Indeed, much of the aca- 4.6.1 The costs of catchment erosion demic literature on contingent valuation has paid attention The major causes of soil erosion in the SADC region are to these biases and to finding ways of minimising them. overgrazing, mismanagement of arable land and deforesta- These biases include "strategic bias" whereby respondents tion. Overgrazing is considered to be responsible for over- or under-state their true willingness to pav because more than half the soil degradation in southern Africa, they believe their response mar influence decision-making. with cultivation responsible for most of the remainder. "Embedding bias" varies when people do not see the These losses are of considerable cost to the economy in question in the context of all their wants, needs and budg- terms of the productivity of catchment areas in them- etary constraints. "Interviewer bias", 'information bias", selves, but they also form a major source of degradation "starting point bias" and "hypothetical bias" tend to steer of water resources. the thinking of the respondents, and decisions are also Soil erosion carries enormous on-site costs. In l l l:i, I by the choice of payment vehicle. A set of Zimbabwe, it is estimated that the cost of soil erosion, in guidelines has been produced (Arrow et al 1993) which terms of loss of productivity, varies between US$20 and helps practitioners minimise the biases in contingent valu- US$50 per ha per year on arable lands, and US$10 to ation. Nevertheless, the use of contingent valuation in US$80 per ha per year on grazing lands, with soil erosion valuation studies remains somewhat controversial. costs on arable land amounting to 16 percent of agricul- tural GDP. (Norse and Saigal 1993) These on-site costs 4.5.5 Choice of valuation techniques are internalised to some degree in terms of reduced pro- A variety of techniques are available for the valuation of duction. creating the incentives for farmers to reduce environmental assets or changes in environmental condi- these impacts. Once soil and excessive runoff leave the tions, with different methods being suitable depending on farm, however, they are external costs that are borne by the situation and type of value being measured. In gener- downstream users. While manr studies show that soil al, market value approaches are more straightforward and conservation measures would be justified in terms of miti- reliable than surrogate and simulated market approaches. gating the on-site losses alone, relatively few studies have Where more than one technique can he used to estimate gone further to estimate the off-site costs of soil erosion values, it is often considered good practice to use these (Biot et al 1995), especially in Africa.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES iMANAGEMENT Over half of Africa's eroded soils are transported by clogging the openings in the soil. This has had sufficiently water (Norse and Saigal 1993), thus ending up in aquatic severe consequences to motivate the building of costly ecosystems. Largely as a result of poor land-management dam infrastructure in order to increase groundwater infil- practices, manv southern African rivers carry high sedi- tration. In the United States, the total annual off-site dam- ment loads, and it is estimated that about 120 million age from soil erosion has been estimated as $4 to $15 bil- tonnes of silt go into South African rivers each year. It is lion per vear. (Ribaudo et al 1989) often difficult to separate accelerated erosion from natural The costs of sedimentation can be measured in terms erosion, however. Grohs (1994) attributes 50 percent of of, silt loads to erosion from agricultural lands in Zimbabwe. change in productivity (eg due to.reduction in Chapter 7 contains more details on the distribution and irrigable land because of reduced dam capacity), magnitude of erosion and watershed degradation. replacement costs in terms of replacing worn equip- The most important off-site impacts of soil erosion ment or replacing the live storage lost annually, or are (Aylward 1998, Enters 1998): preventative expenditures that have to be incurred, sedimentation effects on dams, leading to loss of HEP such as incorporating dead storage in dams to generation and loss of water supply to economic anticipate the accumulation of sediments, or production, or increased prevention costs such as constructing flood prevention structures. dredging; (Grohs 1994, and Box 4,1) increase in operation and maintenance costs incurred Similar problems of siltation due to poor land-use by sedimentation of drainage ditches and irrigation practices have been recorded in a number of developing canals; countries, and have led to the implementation of major the degradation of potable water, or increased costs conservation programmes elsewhere, with demonstrable of water treatment: benefits. (Box 4.2) accelerated runoff leading to localised flooding; Problems such as the above, where the economic life reduced hvdrological cycling and recharge of ground of a dam is found to be shorter than planned, frequently water; and arise because sedimentation rates estimated in the pre- in-stream problems of water quality and quantity, lead- project stage are lower than estimates made in the early ing to loss in production fli l ,l,loss of recre- operational stages. (Enters 1998) This is because potential ational benefits, and loss of navigation opportunities. future land-use changes are either underestimated or not These effects are discussed in the following section. included in feasibility studies of dam projects, and invari- All of these effects have negative impacts on the econo- ably the project area becomes more attractive, resulting in mv. For example, siltation can wear away power-generating increased land clearing. equipment, and can cut the useful life of a dam by 25 percent, with Off-site costs of agricultural erosion Box 4.1 some major dams silting up in in Zirnibabwe and South Africa less than 20 v'ears, representing a Grohs (1994) estimated the economic impacts of sedimentation due to substantial cost to investors. agricultural soil erosion on smallscale irrigation schemes, in terms of (Chenje andJohnson 1996) Thus, loss of irrigation capacity, costs of replacing the live storage lost annu- in many southern African coon- ally, and costs of constructing dead storage to anticipate sediment accumulation. The annual loss of productivity was estimated to be tries, erosion imposes defensive Z$590 000 (US$59,000), due to agricultural income foregone and expenditures downstream: reser- dredging costs of the irrigation scheme. The annual replacement costs and preventative expenditures, which take capital costs into account, voirs, hdroelectric dams, irriga- were much higher on average, ranging between Z$0.8 - 8.8 million tion systems, and urban drainage (US$80,000 - 880,000) and Z$1 - 12.5 million (US$100,000 - 1.25 systems all require maintenance million), respectively. In South Africa, dams in high erosion areas lose 10 percent of their due to catchment erosion. capacity per decade. The cost of constructing new dams to replace (Converv 1995) In Namibia, silta- storage capacity lost to siltation is estimated at between R100 million - tion has been found to impede 200 million per year (US$36 - 72 million). recharge of the Omdel aquifer by Grohs 199*  VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT Valuation and cost-benefit analysis Box 4.2 yet also produce high amounts of a watershed conservation programme in Ecuador of soil erosion during harvesting, largely because of the lack of In the first five years of its operation, the Poza Honda watershed reservoir in Ecuador displayed accelerated sedimentation and understorey vegetation cover. eutrophication due to intensive land use in critical areas. After five These plantations, which usually years, it was established that 20 percent of the volume of the reser- replace low-biomass vegetation voir was filled with sediment and that sedimentation was occurring at four percent per annum (10 times the anticipated rate) shortening types, intercept considerable the projected life of the reservoir to 25 years. quantities of water which would A cost-benefit analysis was conducted for a watershed conserva- q o w tion programme. The proposed programme consisted of land-use otherwise run off into river sys- changes, conservation of habitats, management, etc. all aimed at tems and dams, a loss which is halving sedimentation rates. The benefit was the extension of the productive life of the reservoir from 25 to 50 years helping to main- usually unaccounted for i eco- tain the agricultural potential of the watershed. The summarised nomic terms, In South Africa, costs of the conservation programme were for reforestation, terrac- plantation forests have signifi- ing, grazing control, forest management and general administration. The with conservation option yielded a net benefit of 456.45 mil- cantly reduced available ground- lion sucres and a benefit/cost ratio of 1.43/1. The without conserva- water and streamflow by as much tion option on the other hand showed a negative net benefit of as 1.29 CU km per vear. (Chenje 311.92 million sucres and a benefit cost ratio of 0.67/1. (Fleming ar 1979) and Johnson 1994) Although a relatively high degree of uncertainty was indicated for The invasion of catchments the costs of the conservation programme, the benefits were far enough in excess of the costs to suggest the success of the project. and streams by alien trees has a The study illustrated the substantial gains generated by a proper similar effect. The invasion of holistic management programme to accompany dam construction. riverine systems by alien trees, mainly pines and acacias, is wide- 4.6.2 Changes in catchment runoff due to spread throughout southern Africa, and in the fynbos deforestation, commercial afforestation and areas of the western Cape, whole catchment areas can be invasive alien plants invaded by trees. The effect of these alien trees on water Natural forests and woodlands play an important role in supplies is dramatic: South Africa loses seven percent of the hydrological cycle, not only in preventing excessive run-off, or 3,300m cu m of water annually to alien vegeta- run-off which leads to erosion, but because their root sys- tion, with losses of up to 30 percent of runoff in heavily tems aid Fli, ir .1 of water into the soil and water table, invaded catchment areas. (Versveld et al 1998) and evapotranspiration affects local microclimatic condi- tions, Deforestation thus has the potential effect of decreasing groundwater recharge and increasing ariditv. Clearing vegetation (eg for agriculture) thus increases runoff and decreases ill, - rates, lowering the water table, Compaction by stock also decreases infiltration rates and encourages higher runoff, Soil moisture is lost due to runoff being more concentrated in periods of high rainfall. Notwithstanding the resultant costs in terms of _ . . : lost productivity and biodiversity within catchment areas, the advantage of higher run-off to aquatic ecosystems and water supplv schemes (see Aylward 1998) is offset, and can he overshadowed, bv the high costs in terms of ero- -. sion and sedimentation, described above. It does not always follow that afforestation of catch- - ments is beneficial to water resources. Commercial plan- _ tations of fast-growing alien trees such as pines and euca- imiposed forest t egetation such as this altersgroioidutater levels and ', . . , lypts have the opposite effect in terms of water run-off, the climate. .., ... ...-, ,. . . u atersheds.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT The result of these run-off losses is that supplies from tile mills, chemical plants, pulp-and-paper plants, slaugh- existing water schemes are diminished and will be out- ter houses and tanneries. (see chapter 6) These wastes stripped by demands sooner than would be the case if the accumulate to a point where they can become a serious catchments were free of aliens. Thus the decrease in health hazard. In Zimbabwe, for example, the Mukuvisi runoff translates into an increased expense in terms of the river, which runs into Harare's drinking water supply, con- supply of new infrastructure, as well as the additional tains high amounts of nutrients, sulphate, calcium, mag- costs associated with such infrastructure. The clearing of nesium, fluoride, aluminium and iron, largely from indus- alien trees is costly, but it has been demonstrated that the trial dumps along the river banks. (Chenje and Johnson economic returns from doing so outweigh the financial 1996) Similarly, water supplies near Lusaka are polluted and environmental costs. (Higgins el al 1997, Marais 1998, by Zambia's copper mines, which discharge waste into the Turpie and Hevdenrvch 1999) Kafue river. Aquatic weeds, which have invaded many aquatic Nutrients from agricultural fertilisers leach into ecosvstems throughout southern Africa, also threaten groundwater and run off into rivers, lakes and reservoirs. water supplies. (see chapter 8) These weeds, mostly from Thev cause eutrophication, stimulating algal blooms that South America, include Kariba weed Salvinia molesta, render water undrinkable without further treatment, as Water hyacinth Eichbonia crassipes, Parrot's feather well as promoting aquatic weed growth. a quaticu?t, and Red water fern Azollafil- Disposal of domestic wastewater is a particularly severe iculoides. They are characterised by prolific growth rates, problem in many urban areas where there is high density and tens of millions of rands have been spent on their living, but sanitation is also a problem in rural areas. eradication in South Africa alone. (Davies and Day 1998) Cholera and other water-associated illnesses, such as diar- With insufficient effort to control the problem throughout rhoea, are often prevalent in areas where water is contami- the SADC region, these weeds continue to proliferate, nated with untreated human waste and sewage. Indeed, covering vast areas of rivers, wetlands and lakes. Apart water-related diseases account for over 80 percent of all from their negative impacts on ecosvstem functioning and diseases in developing countries. (Heyns etil 1998) biodiversitv, these weeds can have a. p4-. whii effect on 1 1lurn water supplies can thus have significant water supplies. Some aquatic weeds have extremely high impacts on economies (Box 4.3), either through the loss evapotranspiration rates, so that more water is lost from a water body infested with weeds than Costs of pollution in the Box 4.3 one without weeds. Water hvacinth can Sebou river basin, Morocco increase evaporative water losses from dams The Sebou river in Morocco accounts for 30 percent of and waterbodies by as much as 3.5 times national water resources. However, urban, agricultural (Davies and Dav 1998), representing an enor- and industrial activities in the densely populated river basin have resulted in severe levels of pollution that mous economic loss, in terms of the water have rendered water unsuitable for human consumption. available for economic production. In fact several water treatment plants have had to shut down because the water was too polluted to be treated. Routine water treatment costs are already three times 4.6.3 Reduction in water quality higher than anywhere else in the country. The incidence due to pollution and eutrophication of waterborne disease is particularly high, and fish popu- lations are all but extinct. The costs of water pollution Water quality degradation is one of the most were estimated as the direct economic losses associated serious of all environmental problems because with water treatment costs, health costs, and fisheries it can affect human health and economic activi- costs over the next 25 years. Water treatment costs will amount to some US$350 million. Health costs due to ties as well as biotic communities. With popu- diarrhea, cholera and typhoid amount were estimated as lation growth and economic development, sur- $97 million. Fisheries costs will be in the region of near- ly US$8 million. This estimate is considered to be an face and groundwater quality is increasingly understatement of the true social cost of water pollution being degraded by industrial and agricultural in the Sebou basin, as it does not capture losses of aes- activities, and by domestic sewage. thetic and recreational benefits, impacts on biodiversity or the true value of pain and suffering and lost lives. Major industrial polluters include thermal electric power stations, fertiliser factories, tex- Sadoff 1996  VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT of human productivity and increased healthcare expendi- Figure 4.1 ture as a result of increased illness, or through increased preventative expenditure, mainlv in cleaning water to acceptahle standards for domestic and other consump- tion. In South Africa, it has been shown that poor water ,,1,Irhasa mi. r impact on the cost of treating water. For example. the cost of water treatment at Hazelmere, KwaZulu-Natal, increases from R6/cu m to RI 11I/cu m with decreasing water quality. (Graham et at 1998) Abiotic water quality factors, including turhidity, have more of an impact than the cost of treating water -l with increased algal concentrations. Rand Water, which is South Africa's largest bulk supplier of water, recently esti- u use of resources: such as ues;nluig mated the increased treatment costs that it will have to incur hecause of diffused sources of pollution at R 111 mil- Domestic use Water quality Pharamceutical Cultural value industrial input Water Rlow Agricultural Aesthetic value lion in extra capital costs over the next two years, and Imgating crops Water storage Industrial Heritage value Watenng stock Water Leisure Bequest value R4.5 million annually for operating costs. Hydro-power purification Water use ... etc ... Wild plants Water recharge ... etc VALUE OF ~~~~~~~~~~~Wild animals Flood control -VALUJE OF AQ[IATIC E(OSY STEMS Fishing Storm ." l COSTS OF THEIR DEGRPDATION Transport protection Recreation Nutrient ... etc .. retention Resource economics generally recognises the categorisa- Micro-climate tion of values of natural resources into direct consumptive stabilisation use values, direct non-consumptive use values, indirect ... etc values, option value and existence value (eg Munasinghe 1992). This orclering also represents a ,;',,.-. il, decreas- particularly direct consumptive use of water. In most ing degree of '- i, ,w,I,i-,r", and hence 'measurabilitv" of cases, the consumptive, and to some extent, non-con- value. Direct use values are straightforward, being the sumptive, use of water impacts on all other values includ- henefits obtained from the use of water for procluction, ing other direct use values of aquatic ecosystems. This harvesting fish and other natural resources, power genera- section examines the different values of aquatic ecosys- tion, recreation, etc. Indirect use values are obtained tems apart from the value of water itself, and how these from ecosystem services, such as the absorption of values are diminished by the damaging economic activi- wastes. Option values are sometimes termed "future use ties and management approaches listed in Table 4.1. values" and represent the value of retaining the option to use resources in future, while existence values are derived 4.7.1 Direct consumptive-use from a complex array of motives and ethics to form the values of aquatic ecosystems value of knowing that a resource exists. All of these val- Aquatic ecosystems contain stocks of biotic resources that ues are expressed in terms of society's "willingness to yield annual flows of products or goods, which in turn pay" to retain resources in a desired state. Figure 4.1 provide direct consumptive-use value to a variety of users. shows the various direct and indirect values of water- Thus these values arise from the harvest of a number of based ecosystems. Although it is not always easv to assign resources that are found in rivers and riparian habitats, values to these separate categories, this provides a useful lakes, dams, wetlands and estuaries. In particular, they framework or starting point from which to examine the include plant products, such as reeds, sedges, grasses, value of economic goods and services provided by natural and mangrove wood, and animals, such as invertebrates, resources. fish, and birds. In the SADC region, these values include Aquatic ecosystems derive their most- w,d ,i. value the subsistence, or livelihood, values of natural resource from the direct use of water and other aquatic resources, use as well as commercial use. The estimation of the use  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES iMANAGEMENT value of aquatic resources is still in its infancy, but has state of disrepair due to low maintenance and flooding. been attempted for a few aquatic ecosystems in the For example, since the collapse of the main railway and region. Box 4.4 gives an example of the value of aquatic due to the poor state of the road, the lower Shire river pro- resources harvested in the Barotse wetland system in vides an important conduit for trade, especially informal western Zambia. trade, between Malawi and Mozambique, and commercial The change in water quantity and quality brought about enterprises also make use of these transport routes. by water supply schemes, pollution, catchment degradation Navigation in Lake Victoria facilitates transport of people and invasive plants affect the biomass of many resources and goods between Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Such that are utilised by local communities or commercial enter- navigation would be valued by the cost savings by not hav- prises. These changes can be estimated on the basis of ing to rely on longer and more arduous transport routes understanding of the biological response to changed water and maintenance of infrastructure. No attempt has been conditions, using the change-in-production technique. made to value this service within the region, however. Lack of control of aquatic weeds also poses a serious threat to productive aquatic resources. Aquatic weeds are 4. 7.2.2 Recreational value encouraged by low flows associated with dam schemes, Aquatic ecosystems are major sources of recreational and are also particularly problematic in lake systems. value. (Box 4.7) This is enhanced when aquatic ecosvs- Exotic plant species negatively affect fisheries by reduc- tems enjoy some form of protected area status. In many tion of biomass. By contrast, some exotic fish species SADC countries tourism is reliant on major aquatic introduced into aquatic ecosystems in Africa increase the ecosystems such as the Okavango delta, the Rufiji, Mara, income generated by fisheries, but sometimes with con- Zambezi and Chobe rivers, land estuaries and the Lake siderable ecological and social costs. (Box 4.5) Manyara groundwater. These ecosystems have immense The construction of water supply schemes may lead recreational value and in some countries such as South to the inundation of large tracts of productive land, Africa, high economic and real estate value. It should be whether for subsistence economies or commercial pro- noted that water impoundments also yield important duction. (Box 4.6) However, in manv cases, especially recreational value, and in some cases, these benefits could extensive shallow systems, these dams may themselves outweigh the recreational value of the area to be inundat- become highlv productive fisherv resources. ed. (Leiman 1995) 4.7.2 Direct non-consumptive 4.7.3 Indirect use values of aquatic ecosystems use value of aquatic ecosystems Most indirect use values derive from ecosystem services Non-consumptive use of water and aquatic ecosvstems that plav an essential role in maintaining the basic func- can be divided into several categories: the use of water tions of nature. An indirect use of water itself is the main- flow for generation of hydroelectric power, use of water tenance of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems which give for transport routes, and the use of aquatic ecosvstems rise to all of the values discussed in this section. Here we for recreational, cultural, spiritual, scientific and educa- consider the indirect use value of these systems as a tional purposes. whole. Positive and/or negative impacts on recreation, amenity and tourism can be associated with the water 4. 7.3.1 Maintenance of water quality resource development and/or degraded ecological func- Aquatic environments plav an important role in the nutrient tioning. While present recreational benefits can be meas- cycle upon which ecosystems depend. In this way they are ured using techniques such as the travel-cost method, the able to absorb pollution from human activities including effects of a proposed change can be estimated on the sewage, stormwater wastes, chemical wastes from industrial basis of market surveys. and agricultural processes, etc. (Box 4.8) Note however, that the value of this service only extends as far as the 4. 7.2.1 Navigation amount of pollutants assimilated. Thus it is not viable to Major rivers in the SADC region provide important trans- ascribe the value as simply the costs that would be incurred port routes, especially where roads and rail systems are in a to treat the full amount of waste entering a system.  VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT Using market prices to estimate the value of Box 4.4 wetland resource-use in Barotseland Turpie et al (1999) conducted a detailed survey of 138 households in the Barotse wetland, Zambia, to ascertain the range and quantity of natural resources harvested annually within the wetland. Market prices were obtained from the survey and from focus group discussions, and the quantity and price of inputs were ascertained for the production of each resource. Wetland resources accounted for 40 percent of the total income (including non-cash income) accruing to households. Total value of natural wetland resources (US$ 000 per year) Fish Reeds Papyrus Grass Palm Animals Clay TOTAL Gross economic value 5947 193 308 272 12 12 66 6810 Net economic value 4258 131 139 221 3 10 52 4814 Gross cash income 1452 5 39 8 1 0.3 0.5 1506 Gross subsistence value 3504 156 217 219 11 12 65 4184 Introduction of the Nile perch Box 4.5 into Lake Victoria Productivity losses on land due to Box 4.6 be inundated by the Maguga dam, Swaziland Following the introduction of Nile perch into Lake Victoria, the fishery saw a massive increase in fish The Maguga dam, to be constructed on the Komati river, production, which has increased to four times that in in Swaziland, will inundate an area of over 1,000 ha of the 1960s and 1970s, and represents about 25 per- communal land. The woodland and riparian areas to be cent of the annual total catch from all of Africa's fish- inundated contain healthy stocks of natural resources that eries. (Pabari 1999) However, this apparent benefit are harvested by over 60 homesteads in and around the is put into perspective on considering the impacts on inundation area. A household survey revealed that 169 biodiversity and socio-economic systems. The intro- types of plants, animals and other natural resources were duction of Nile perch has been at the cost of the harvested from the inundation area yielding a total annu- extinction of numerous (possibly 200-300) indige- al value of R1.3 million. nous and endemic fish species, many of which were the source of local artisinal fisheries. The develop- TurpieandAlberts 1998 ment of a commercial industry for the introduced species, including large commercial factories, has created 2,400 jobs, but has also led to the displace- ment of 15,000 jobs, including thousands of women The recreational value of Box 4.7 who were previously engaged in fish processing. Lake Nakuru, Kenya (Pabari 1999) Now, over-fishing and environmental degradation Lake Nakuru National Park is an important international threatens the new industry with a severe shortage of tourist destination. Although fees are charged to enter the Nile perch since early 2001 when the catch by small park, these underestimate the total value that tourists fishermen dropped from 400 tonnes to 100 tonnes place on the wetland and its component species, especially per day. A dozen fish processing plants in Mwanza flamingos. A travel cost survey of visitors elicited informa- and Musoma, which export nearly 400 tonnes of tion about length of stay, travel costs, place of origin and fresh fillets weekly to Europe and Asia, are threat- visitation rates, distinguishing between resident and non- ened with closure. The plants were established in the resident tourists. A contingent valuation survey asked vis- early 1990s after shortages in the Kenyan part of the itors how large their personal total costs of travel were, lake forced some investors to move their operations. how much they would be willing to increase their expendi- These exports earned the Tanzanian government Tsh tures to visit the park, how much they would contribute to 4.2 billion (US$4.7 million) in taxes in the 2000/2001 a fund to clean up and control the urban pollution which fiscal year. Some 32,000 fishermen and another threatens the park, and how much they would contribute three million people in Mara, Mwanza and Kagera to a project to conserve flamingos (all measures of willing- regions of Tanzania who depend on fishing-related ness to pay); and the minimum reduction in trip costs that economic activities are affected. Experts have recom- they would be willing to accept should there be no flamin- mended the introduction of seasonal fishing in order gos (a measure of willingness to accept compensation). to restock the fish population. The Direcor of the The results of these surveys demonstrated that the annual Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute, Prof. J. recreational value of wildlife viewing in Lake Nakuru Bwathondi, attributed the shortage to overfishing, National Park was between US$ 7.5 - 15 million, of which illegal fishing and environmental degradation. over a third was accounted for by flamingos. Mgamba 2001 Navrud and Mungatana 1994  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT The role of Nakivubo wetland in Box 4.8 diseases introduced by construction workers, although procestng urban and industrial wastes in Kampala these costs have not been quantified. However, several precedents exist which illustrate the extent of health costs In Uganda, the Nakivubo wetland, covering 6 sq kin, stretcheswhcmabipoebyadylnedamsee, from the central industrial district of Kampala and passes which mav be imposed bv badlv planned dam schemes, through dense residential and commercial areas, and enters such as Senegal's Manantali and Diama dams. (Pottinger Lake Victoria at Murchison bay. The wetland is threatened by 1997) urban and industrial development. However, Emerton et al (1999) showed that such development would not necessarily Livestock can also be affected. In South Africa, the make good economic sense, because of the wetland's important suppression of the natural flood regime due to dam con- role in assuring urban water quality in Kampala. Both the out- . . . O flow of the only sewage treatment plant in the city, at Bugolobi, struction on the Orange rver has led to an icrease In the and - far more importantly, because over 90 percent of incidence of blackflies, which are capable of causing major Kampala's population have no access to a piped sewage supply livestock losses. It now costs more than US$300.000 a - the main drainage channel for the city, enter the top end of the wetland. These wastewaters equate to the raw sewage year to control these pests. (WCD 1999) from nearly half a million households, and are augmented by untreated domestic and industrial effluents that are discharged 4.7.3.2 Sediment trapping directly into Nakivubo. It is estimated that Nakivubo currently processes almost half Aquatic ecosystems, particularly wetlands, are important the nitrogen and a quarter of the phosphorus that enters it, is for the trapping of sediments that would otherwise silt up effective in removing bacteria and microbes, and has the poten- tial, if properly managed, to improve the quality of water enter- dams and other infrastructure. The problem of sedimen- ing Murchison bay still further. These functions are extremely tation has been highlighted in the previous section, In important, as the purified water flowing out of the wetland enters Murchison Bay only about 3 kilometres from the intake many cases, sediment transport ito water supply to Gaba waterworks, which supplies all of the city's piped water. schemes is far less than the amount of sediment actually Nakivubo provides a much cheaper way of dealing with lost from terrestrial catchment areas. The amount of sedi- Kampala's wastewater than other, artificial options. The infra- structure required to achieve a similar level of wastewater ment delivery is influenced by the size of the drainage treatment would incur costs of over US$ 1 million a year in basin, and substantial quantities of sediment can be terms of extending sewage treatment facilities at Bugolobi, or dplain nearly US$ 2 million a year in improving water treatment facili- trapped i aquatic ecosystems, particularly in flo ties at Gaba. wetlands. (Enters 1998) The Utengule swamp upstream of the Mtera dam, the main regulatory structure on the Rufiji river in Tanzania is an important sediment sink filtering When water quality is reduced by excessive organic the water entering the Mtera reservoir. and inorganic pollution, additional costs are incurrecl by water treatment plants in providing water to the agricul- 4. 7.3.3 Maintenance offloodplains, tural, industrial and domestic sectors. alluvialfans, deltas and beaches Water quality can also be impaired by reductions in Erosion, sedimentation and f,. ,, il, are normal processes river flow, creating suitable environments for pests and within catchment areas and aquatic ecosystems. These pathogens. These result in the increased incidence of dis- processes are responsible for the maintenance of flood- eases and diarrhoea, which can have serious economic plains, alluvial fans, deltas, and beaches, many of which impacts in terms of decrease in human productivity. are beneficial for lowland economies, being the sites of expenditure on health care and suffering associated with intensive and high value agriculture and fisheries. diseases. The loss of earnings technique is most com- Floodplain agriculture is often more productive as a result monly used to measure the loss in human output due to of soil enrichment hv the additions of fertile deposits to illness or premature death from, for example. water pollu- floodplains during floods (see Box 4.9). In addition, these tion or waterborne disease. Average earnings are estab- areas often constitute attractive tourism destinations. lished and multiplied by the productive time lost. Dose- Altered flow and flooding regimes as well as ,,. ,II ii wr response function which measure the links between dose can significantly reduce agricultural productivity in aquatic (pollution) and response (health impact) are also usually ecosystems. necessarv for this technique. In the case of the Maguga On the Orange river, the establishment of two large dam, it is predicted that there will be significant increases dams led to a drop in the sediment load carried down- in the incidence of bilharzia as well as sexually transmitted stream from 35n million tons to less than 20 million tons.  VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT Using the effect-on-production approach to value Box 4.9 Avertive expenditures, Box 4.10 floodplain agriculture in the eastern Caprivi wetlands, Namibia marine and coastal ecosystem protection services in Seychelles The eastern Caprivi wetlands rely on annual flooding from the Zambezi river for their replenishment. Over 3,000 households live in and around this Beach protection, storm and flood con- 170,000 ha floodplain, where they take advantage of more productive soils trol provided by wetland marshes, and livestock grazing. Crop production within the floodplain is worth some mangroves and coral reefs in US$900,000 per year, of which a significant portion is attributable to the Seychelles often used avertive expen- maintenance of the natural flooding regime. Cattle production is four times diture techniques. (Emerton 1997) higher in the wetlands than in nearby uplands, which means that $840,000 The cost of averting the effects of the of the total production value of $1.125 million is attributable to the mainte- loss of these marine and coastal nance of the wetland. ecosystem functions were assessed by looking at expenditures on the con- Turpie etal 1999 struction and maintenance of mitiga- tive groynes and flood barriers. The resulting value of some 4 million (Chenie and Johnson 1996) Similar effects have occurred an important role in ero- rupees a year, or 282 rupees per kilo- on the lower Zambezi, following the construction of the sion protection. An exam- metre, presents a minimum estimate 00 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~of the indirect value of selected marine Cahora Bassa dam, with noticeable (although unquanti- ple of the value of this pro- and coastal biodiversity services. fied) effects on floodplain agriculture. Following the con- tective service is given in struction of the Aswan dam in Egvpt. which traps the rich Box 4.I1). sediments of the Nile river, annual losses of nitrogen to downstream 1...i. ere valued at t ' V''"'' per 4.7.3.5 Groundwtater recharge year. (DLxon et al 1989) An important function of aquatic ecosystems, particularly W'ater exchange between estuaries and marine svs- wetlands, is the recharge of groundwater aquifers. tems is a complex balance between freshwater inflows Wetlands act like porous sponges, allowing seepage of ancl tidal -1. and in manv cases is important for the i i,. l into I, 'iK i . This form of aquifer recharge is supply of sand to nearby beaches which have important probably more important than any other, such as the infil- recreational value. Disruption of freshuwater inflows can tration of rainfall into terrestrial habitats. Adams and disrupt this sediment transport. requiring the costly Hollis (1989, cited in Barbier 1993) showed a clear rela- r estoration of beaches. Thus this function can be valued tionship between thc loss of floodplain inundation bv in terms of the beach replacement costs that would have ll,, and the rate of groundwhater recharge. Since a to he incurredl if the function was to be lost. reduction of flooding by the Kano river project imple- In South Africa. substantial decreases in the annual mented in 1983, groundwater recharge by the Haclejia- runoff reacibing estuaries due to dam construction has led Jama'are wetlands in Nigeria has fallen by an estimatecl to the mouths of a number of estuaries closing for signifi- 5.000 cu km. cantlv longer periods of time. In order to mitigate the Box 4.11 illustrates an example of the economic loss- environmental damages associated with such closures, es associatecl with reduction in groundxwater recharge in mouths have to be artificially; breached at regular intervals northern Nigeria. and at a substantial cost to the countrv. Valuing groundwater recharge through agricultural Box 4.11 4.7.3.4 Flood regulation and coastal pro- production in the Hadejia-Ngura wetlands in northern Nigeria tection Acharya and Barbier (2000) have estimated, using a production function Wetlands, in particular, play a vital function in approach to value groundwater recharge function of the Hadejia-Nguru wetlands of northern Nigeria, with the Madachi fadama (6.600 ha) as a the regulation of floods, acting as "sponges" to case study. absorb floodwaters which would otherwise spill Farmers cultivate vegetables and wheat using water from the shallow over as potentially damaging floods downstream. groundwater aquifer, and the value of that water is 36,300 naira (US$413) per hectare. The total loss for the pilot area associated with Hydrological nmodelling can be used to demon- the lm change in naturally recharged groundwater levels is estimated as strate the level to which flood damage would be 5,477,938 naira (US$62,249). This represents a loss of 7.56 percent of increased if wetlands and i. 11 ' h- . were annual income for vegetable farmers and 77 percent of annual income for wheat farmers. allowed to be degraded. Coastal wetlands play  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Loss of groundwater recharge, exacerbated by exces- _ sive pumping of coastal aquifers though borehole use can also draw seawater into freshwater aquifers. Reduction of river flows has allowed saline intrusion up estuaries and abandonment of some settlements in Mozambique. Little is known about the extent and effect of saline water intru- sion, but it can have potentially devastating effects on - coastal water supplies. 4.7.3.6 Exports to adjacent ecosystems ,, . This includes exports such as nutrients, and juvenile Existence value includles the value of; . .". , unique recruitment to adjacent systems (eg marine), which form resource such as Victoria Falls can be ei/oied bt'fituregener- inputs into other economic activities, eg seaweed harvest- ations. ing and offshore fisheries. This category thus includes the swaps, such as the $4.5 million paid in 1989 for the Kafue ,nursery function" of estuaries and mangroves. Decreases flats and Bangweulu wetlands in Zambia. (Pearce 1993) in the quantity and quality of water reaching estuarine and Existence and option values are difficult to separate and mangrove systems may significantly alter these systems, are usually measured by means of contingent valuation thereby reducing their nursery function to offshore fish- methods. (Box 4.13) eries. One of the best local examples of this is the effect that the Cahora Bassa dam has in Mozambique. (Box 4.12) 4.8 ACCOUNTING FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IN DECISION-MAKING 4.7.4 Option and non-use values Option value is the value of retaining the option to use 4.8.1 Project Assessment resources (such as genetic resources in future), and is Water projects, such as irrigation schemes or hydropower expressed in terms of a society's willingness to pay to projects, are generally evaluated by conducting financial retain this option. In the same vein, people also express a and economic cost-benefit analyses (CBA) and environ- value for the existence of natural resources, irrespective mental impact assessments (EIA). CBA is a rigorous, sys- of whether they actually use them. Existence value tematic approach which measures the costs and benefits includes the value of knowing that a resource can be associated with a project, expressing them as overall net enjoyed by future generations (sometimes referred to as gains, usually in terms of net present value (NPV), or rates bequest value). Large, biodiversity-rich and unique of return. In reality, projects are often decided on politi- ecosystems, such as Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe, probably cal grounds, and these analyses are then conducted in have high existence value from a global perspective as order to justify the decision. EIA has largely functioned as well as a local one. These values are often realised in the a means of identifying ways in which impacts can be miti- form of donations to conservation agencies, or in the gated and compensations can be paid, rather than as an amounts paid by international society in debt-for-nature- integral part of the decision process. Effct on production of offshore fisheries Box 4.12 by the Cahora Bassa dam in Mozambique Shrimp fisheries (mostly for Penaeus indicus and Metapenaeus monceros) play an important role in the economy of Mozambique. Most of this resource is located on the Sofala bank, off the central Mozambican coast, and is dependent on freshwater runoff from the Zambezi to stimulate recruitment and provide nutrients to coastal waters. The juveniles develop in mangrove swamps. Shrimp pro- duction is positively correlated with the annual Zambezi river discharge. In the 20 years that this discharge has been severely reduced by the Cahora Bassa dam, catch rates have declined from around 90kg per h to 30 kg per h, closely following the declining trend in annual runoff. (Hoguane 1997) The fishery is now worth US$10 - 30 million less per year than it could be if this ecosystem function was restored. (Beilfuss 1999)  VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT National existence value of Box 4.13 issues can be combined with CBA into a more holistic, Zambia's wetland biodiversity comprehensive and consultative assessment process. (Penman 1999) Contingent valuation methods were used to . . ascertain how much Zambians are willing to CBA should take place before the decision on pay to conserve wetland biodiversity in their whether to go ahead with a project is made, and ideally, country. The following hypothetical scenario the -, *'y, steps need to be incorporated into the deci- was posed: Suppose the government took ownership sion process (based on Penman 1999): of the major wetland areas and auctioned the 1. Identification of national and project rights to develop these areas on a unit area basis, but a conservation agency would also objectives and criteria for project assessment, be allowed to purchase rights. Respondents in consultation with stakeholders were asked how much they would be willing In order to provide the basis on which to evaluate a to donate to this agency as a one-off payment in order to contribute towards the conserva- project, it is important to define short and long-term poli- tion agency's bid. Respondents then advised cv objectives as well as the specific objectives of the proj- on how they would like their donation split among four major wetland areas. Total values ect. The criteria for acceptig a project should iclude: were as follows: economic efficiency, preferably that it is the least-cost Barotse wetlands US$ 4 229 000 means of meeting the stated economic objectives; Luangwa wetlands US$ 3 996 000 Kafue wetlands US$ 4 329 000 financial viability; Bangweulu wetlands US$ 4 163 000 contribution to broad social goals such as poverty TOTAL US$16 650 000 a e This is a minimum estimate of value, as it alleviation, equitable distribution of costs and only includes the value to Zambians employed benefits, and environmental goals such as in the formal sector, and does not consider minimisation of environmental damage and global existence value. biodiversity loss. Turpie et al 1999 In general, objectives should adhere to the Pareto principle (that a project should only go ahead if no stake- holders are left worse off) as closely as possible. This approach has many shortcomings. First, analyses 2. Identification of alternative scenarios for are usually carried out using a limited set of parameters, analysis, including a no-development scenario without taking all environmental and social costs and ben- The incorporation of several scenarios into a project efits into account. Second, CBA applied in developing analysis is essential to the evaluation process, as it allows countries often uses relatively high discount rates, effec- trade-offs to be better understood by affected parties, and tivelv giving little weight to long term or irreversible envi- provides greater opportunity to find the optimal solution ronmental damage. Third, CBA does not usually consider in terms of defined goals. An analvsis of alternatives is also how the costs and benefits are distributed among the vari- an important component of an Environment Assessment. ous stakeholders affected by the project, and CBA is No-development scenarios are vital as basis for the meas- strongly criticised on the grounds of being non-participa- ure of change under alternate scenarios. tive in nature. Thus resulting decisions may not always be 3. Incorporation of full costs and benefits optimal in terms of efficiency, sustainability, or equity into CBA goals. These problems are generally more serious in Cost-benefit analysis is the main economic analytical tool terms of the analysis of private sector projects than gov- used in decision-making at a project and programme level. ernment projects, because of their emphasis on financial, Whereas environmental impact assessment plays an impor- rather than economic analyses, unless effective and appro- tant role in project planning, particularly in terms of the miti- priate measures exist which ensure that societal values are gation of potential damages, it is only recently that practition- taken into account. Given these shortcomings, and the ers have begun to argue for the quantification of these realisation of the extent of the environmental and eco- impacts in economic tenms, to be included in cost-benefit nomic impacts that can be associated with water projects, analysis. With the development and improvement of eco- it is now recognised that it will be necessary to devise nomic valuation methodology, and its increasing use in the means bv which environmental impacts and distributional developing world, the formal inclusion of environmental and  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABIIITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT social costs and benefits of projects should now be explicitly monetary terms using accepted economic valuation included in the cost-benefit appraisal of projects and pro- techniques, and these values should be incorporated gramomes. into CBA in addition to the conventional measures However, because economic valuation of environ- which are l ,, included. Environmental valuation is a mental and social impacts is dependent on their adequate controversial issue, due to the limitations of available quantification in physical terms, this will require the techniques (see Georgiou et al 1997, Vatn and Bromley development of more rigorous and quantitative ETA meth- 1994, Gowdy 1997), particularly as applied to the devel- ods, in conjunction with a scenario-based approach. In oping world. However, as these techniques continue to addition to the p ofl h i-i of environmental impacts, improve and capacity is increased in the SADC region, EIA will need to include studies of affected communities valuation should play an increasinglv important role in and their dependence on the affected systems. The fol- integrating environmental concerns into economic deci- lowing need to be included in the EIA, as illustrated in the sion-making. Nevertheless, because of the formidable Lesotho Highlands Water Project, one of the pioneering problems of obtaining reliable clata, particularly historical projects in the region: data against which to measure change, many of the Assessment of existing physical conditions, aspects of various trade-offs cannot be quantitatively biodiversitv and resource stocks, by means of measured, and precise analysis of all benefits and costs scientific study; cannot be assured. In the absence of quantitative data, Assessment of existing social condlitions, health, use and for the measurement of future and non-use values, and appreciation of natural resources, by means of contingent valuation can be an effective measurement appropriate survey instruments; and tool. However, many critics doubt the reliability of this Assessment of biophysical and social impacts of each method, which relies upon extreme care being taken in scenario, given as direction and degree of change in the design and conduct of the stLdy, which in turn relies quantitative as well as qualitative terms, on the basis on a healthv budget. (Young 1996) Where physical of modelling and relevant expert opinion, quantification is poor or monetary valuation cannot Physical and social impacts shoulcl be expressed in meet acceptable levels of accuracy these impacts should srL~~~~~~~ I a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SX '" ... .---ti '' ~ ~ I. Katse Dam, Lesotho H1(qblands WTater -, techniques continue to improve auid capacity,i is increased in the SADC regioo., emvi0007 mzental studies aire increasoiglr.- .. .duecision-makiogq CO)ceI1imii' downosream Managqement  VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT not be incorporated into CBA, but should be presented 4.8.2 Natural resource accounting to stakeholders and decision-makers in qualitative terms Economic performance is conventionally measured in (see step 5). In l is ,i with uncertaintv, particularly in terms of national accounting systems, yielding statistics the realm of environmental impacts and discount rates, such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP), ancd Net it is critical to incorporate sensitivity analysis into CBA to Domestic Product (NDP). These statistics, in turn, inform test the robustness of results. government decisions and policy-makers. They do not 4. Detailed distributional analysis however, take into account the degradation or depletion Detailed analysis should be undertaken to determine of natural resources that occur in generating income. how a project's costs and .l,to. will be spread among Whereas the depreciation of capital is accounted for in affected groups, particularly the rural poor. This tvpe of calculating NDP, the depletion and damage of natural approach is far preferable to a social CBA, in which distri- resources used in the production of economic wealth, btitional weights are assigned to costs and benefits in such as forests, fisheries, aquifers and aquatic resources, order to more heavily weight values that affect lower are not accounted for. Conventional national accounting income groups. It is far more objective and transparent svstems thus give a distorted picture of the state of the to i ., l, - , costs and benefits accruing to different economy, and give no indication of the unsustainable use groups than to combine weighted values in a single corn- of resources. Similarlv, the health anci productivity costs putation of net benefits. of pollution are ignored in conventional accounts except 5. Multi-criteria decision analysis when they result in medical treatment costs or expendi- Even with the development of widely accepted valua- tures to mitigate against them. (Dixon et al 1996) In tion methods, the valuation of environmental impacts is response to this realisation, southern African countries ,, l :I with uncertainty due to imperfect knowledge of and several northern hemisphere countries are develop- the response of many components of aquatic ecosystems ing new systems of Integrated Environmental and to environmental change. This uncertaintyr imparts diffi- Economic Accounts, which will attempt to account for the culty in the interpretation of cost-benefit data. Multi-cri- state of natural resource stocks, and give an indication of teria decision analvsis is increasinglIN being used as a deci- the sustainability of national economies, In this system, sion-making tool which can cope with uncertainty and resource depletion (eg timber, oil, mineral, soil and which can more explicitly addresses issues of equity. groundwater depletion) and the monetary value of envi- ji ,.,i1 et al 1997) Stakeholders are then presented ronmental damage (eg water and air pollution) is subtract- with the range of possible costs and benefits of proposed ed from NDP. projects, and through a ranking and scoring process, can It is essential that policy- and decision-makers pay reach acceptable compromises. Impacts which are diffi- heed to these adjusted accounts in order to steer environ- cult or ... I to quantify can also be presented to mental and water resource management onto a more sus- the stakeholclers in qualitative terms. However, the tainable clevelopment path. greater the accuracv of information, and the better the representation of stakeholder groups, the greater the chance that this process will lead to the sociallv optimal solution. It is important to note that the use of these five steps in project assessment will require strengthening of the legal and institutional framework for conducting assess- ments. In addition, it must be realised that improved (l , ,,i.o.ll r, J i, 1I require additional resources in terms of time and monev. especiallv for initial projects. Detailed monitoring of the physical, ecological and human health impacts of existing schemes will also assist the predictive Nvew' sistems of lntegrated Einviromnental anid Economic Accowsits are bein1g power of EIA and reduce the resources required for sub- developed to accountfor the state olnatural resource stocks: depletionl of sequent project analyses. resources such as timbe1 is subtr'acted fomn Vet Domestic Product tNDP).  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 4.9 ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS ducer or consumer who is giving rise to them. Instead, TO REGULATE WATER USE they appear as externalities - they accrue to the rest of society. For example, farmers in catchment areas benefit User demands on water resources are increasing through- from the crops grown under unsustainable land-use prac- out the SADC region as a result of increasing population tices while downstream populations bear costs associated and economic growth. In order to meet the quantities and with sedimentation and siltation. Likewise, industries can quality of water demanded by increasing numbers of users, save on costs bv failing to treat their wastes and effluents the conventional response has been an increase in the con- before disposing of them into lakes and rivers while adja- struction of water supply, hydropower and purification cent domestic water consumers and fishermen suffer loss- schemes. However, the water resources necessary to meet es to their health and income. Under these conditions, increasing demand are often limited, particularly in parts of people will continue to degrade aquatic environments, southern Africa where rainfall is relatively low or unpre- because there is no private cost of doing so. Economic dictable. The costs of supply also tend to increase after tools aim to institute full-cost pricing - they make sure cheaper water sources have been exhausted. There is thus that the full economic costs of the degradation of the envi- a need to balance demand and supplv and close the gap ronment, or the full economic benefits of its sustainable between them. Demand and supplv can be regulated by management, are reflected in the private costs, prices and means of 'command-and-control" approaches, or bv means profits that consumers and producers face. of economic incentive instruments. In general, the former Market failure is due in part to the absence of well- approach is starting to give way to the latter, as the latter defined, secure and transferable rights over land and tends to be the most cost-effective way of achieving man- resources. The primary beneficiaries of resources (includ- agement goals. A variety of economic tools and measures ing water) yielded by ecosystems are usuallv the individu- can be applied to water use and management, to improve als or groups who have recognised rights to own, manage, their efficiency and sustainabilitv. use and trade in them. If communities have no secure rights over catchment lands and aquatic ecosystems, pro- 4.9.1 Supply-side measures ducers and consumers do not have to bear the on-site Supply-side measures for efficient, optimal and sustain- implications of their degradation. Well-defined property able water use and management are primarily concerned rights, on the other hand, ensure that these on-site costs with safeguarding the catchments and other ecosystems are internalised, and provide incentives for better man- which are vital to water supply, such as forests, moun- agement. tains, wetlands, rivers and lakes, as well as improving the It is more difficult to internalise off-site costs of envi- efficiencv of water supply services. These measures can ronmental degradation, such as sedimentation or pollu- improve water supply from existing schemes, and meeting tion. One way of doing this is to implement systems of growing demands should not rely exclusively upon charges, or to use fiscal instruments such as taxes or sub- increased investment in supply infrastructure. In addition sidies. Governments use fiscal instruments to raise and to environmental management, engineering improve- spend budgetary revenues by raising or lowering the rela- ments and more efficient technologies should be consid- tive prices of different products, thus aiming to discour- ered a priority. Unaccounted-for water, or leakages, are age or encourage their consumption and production. often higher than 20 percent, with as much as 48 - 50 per- They can be used to correct or counterbalance distorted cent leakages in Tanzania urban supply centres and 60 prices and markets for the resources yielded by catch- percent leakage occurring in Mozambican urban supply ments and aquatic ecosystems. Thus, the relative price of systems. (Macy 1999) Introduction of water recvcling environment-degrading products and technologies can be plants can yield considerable savings, particularly in the raised to reflect the costs of the damage they cause and more arid countries. Namibia recycles 10-25 percent of discourage people from using them, and decrease the rel- its effluent, and Botswana plans to achieve 100 percent ative price of environment-conserving products and industrial reuse by 2010. (Macy 1999) encourage people to use them. When economic activities degrade aquatic ecosystems, Pollution can be abated by means of charges or taxes these impacts are not reflected as private costs to the pro- levied on polluters per unit of polluting output, or  VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT through the introduction of tradable pollution permits. ures. It has been demonstrated that industrial use of Both of these measures create the incentive to pollute water can be - i,- wi reduced. Similarly, huge less, although tradable permits are more efficient in con- wastage is incurred in irrigation schemes, where simple trolling the overall level of pollution and create the incen- water saving methods could reduce this demand at little tive to introduce pollution abatement measures: firms cost. In South Africa it is estimated that irrigated agricul- that face the lowest costs of abatement will tend to abate, ture would be able to achieve the same levels of produc- and sell permits, while others will seek to obtain permits. tion with 25 percent less water. Pollution abatement can also be subsidised, but this is an The primary reason for excessive water demand is inefficient solution, creating further market distortions, the under-pricing of water, and excessive demand and risks attracting more firms to the polluting industry, encourages the degradation of aquatic environments. Similarly, damaging catchment activities, such as (Winpennv 1994) The effect of low prices is that users or l, l can be taxed to the extent that will reflect have no incentive to use water wisely or efficiently, or to the marginal damage caused to aquatic ecosystems, in treat it as a scarce economic good. There is a y.a'. ni order to discourage excessive plantation. On the other cost to supplying water - which includes, as well as the hand, limits to the amount of catchment areas that can be physical costs of its storage, purification and distribution, afforested might be more effective in ensuring an ade- its opportunity costs and the costs associated with man- quate water supply. aging catchments and other water-dependent ecosys- In theory, agricultural activities which cause erosion tens. These costs are rarely reflected in the prices that can be treated in a similar way to industrial polluters in users pay for water. Marginal cost pricing aims to base order to achieve the socially optimal level of degradation, the price of the last unit of water on the full costs of its for example. through the taxation of outputs, or the allo- provision - this ensures that users facing such prices will cation of transferable soil loss permits. (Sanders et al base their consumption decisions on the real economic 1995) Alternatively, tax breaks or subsidies can be applied costs of provision, and thus reach a socially optimal level to encourage soil conservation measures by commercial of consumption. (Dinar et a! 1997) Although sounding farmers or foresters, but in the case where the catchments theoretical in economic terms, marginal cost pricing is are degraded by subsistence users, funding local labour to rarelv used in reality, because it is so difficult to applI. build soil conservation devices may be the most feasible (Winpenny 1994) In practice, average cost pricing is mechanism. more commonly applied to water as a second-best solu- Problems caused by invasion of alien species are tion. more difficult to overcome using economic incentive Stepped pricing is generally an efficient way of achiev- measures, especially where these occur on public and ing cost recovery for water without i, i ll . 1 1 l,, the communally owned areas. In South Africa, this problem poor, provided that water outlets are not shared among has been tackled to some extent bv means of govern- families. Basic needs are supplied at low cost, and ment investment in an alien vegetation clearing pro- bevond that, users face stepped increases in price with gramme which creates employment on a large scale: the increasing quantities used. Such pricing systems have 'Working for Water Project. Thus poverty relief is being already been initiated in some SADC countries. addressed at the same time as reducing environmental Appropriate water pricing is difficult to implement in problems which affect society at large. Similar pro- areas where water supplv is unreliable, however, and this grammes could be ilqpi. i to the problem of invasive problem has to be tackled first. Nevertheless, appropriate aquatic plants, potentially providing similar social benefits pricing systems, if implemented on a local area basis. can to the unemployed. be introduced in areas where supply is reliable. The greater Hermanus water conservation programme in 4.9.2 Demand-side measures South Africa (Box 4.15) illustrates the level of water saving Demand-side management focuses on ensuring the effi- that can be achieved by water demand management. cient use of existing supplies. Much of the water supplied Water demand management involves providing incentives to domestic, industrial and agricultural use is wasted due for the use of water-saving devices and creating aware- to a lack of incentive to apply water conservation meas- ness, as well as adjusting water prices.  ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABI.ITY IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT The greater Hermanus water conservation programme Box 4.14 Hermanus is a coastal town near Cape Town in South Africa with a population of approximately 25,000 which swells to three times that in the holiday season. In 1995 it was realised that future water supply options for the town would be prohibitively expensive and that high levels of wastage were occurring. The town municipality, with help from the national Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, decided to implement a water conservation programme that would include tariff changes, alien vegetation clearance, education and public awareness, the introduction of water-saving devices and practices, stricter regulations and informative billing (ie users are shown their month-by-month consumption graphically and in comparison to the average for an area). In terms of tariffs, an eleven-point escalating block rate system was introduced based on charging for the marginal price of water, while ensuring equity. The new system meant more than doubling tariffs in the last two blocks while reducing tariffs in the first block to subsidise use for basic needs. During the first sum- mer season of the conservation programme, a 32 percent reduction in water use was achieved at which stage only the tariff changes, alien clearance, education and awareness and informative billing had been implemented. - (DI'AF 1997) -~ *. .... _ - - . 9 _-- __,_._,_j;.,,_-_._.  VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT REFERENCES Acharva, G. and Barbier, E.B. 2000, Valuing groundwater recharge through agricultural production in the Hadejia-Nguru wetlands in northern Nigeria. 1. .l,,'./Econonmics 22: 247-259 Arrow, K., Solow, R., Portnev, P.R., Learner, E.E., Radnar, R. and Schuman, H. 1992. Report of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) panel on contingent valuation. Washington DC Avlward, B.A. 1998. Economic valuation of the downstream hydrological effects of land use change: Large hydroelectric reservoirs. Ph.D. Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy Barbier, E.B. 1993. Valuing tropical wetland benefits: Economic methodologies and applications. 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World Bank: Washington DC  _D 1 -rin, _.A;,P 3 . , , ; F - ' { ' ' - ' ' ' ' - ' - - ,G %#' v I~~~~~~~~~~~~* S ---~~~~ ~ - x_-------- a - '4'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 UN -:-r& , _ § S > ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' *'-."r l T t $3 -. ,  CONTENTS 5.1 INTRODUCTION 113 5.1.1 Environmental flows: definition and assessment 11i 5.2 THE NEED FOR WATER TO MAINTAIN RIVERS 115 5.2.1 Ecological relevance of different kinds of flow 115 5.2.2 Purpose of Environmental Flow Assessments 115 5.3 EFFECTS OF THE REGULATION OF RIVERS IN SADC 117 5.3.1 Extent to which rivers in SADC are regulated 117 5.3 2 Consequences of regulation of rivers in SADC 117 5.4 ENVIRONMENTAL FLOWS AS A RESPONSE TO IMPACTS OF RIVER REGULATION 118 5.4.1 Legislated requirements for allocation of water for the environment 118 5.4.2 Specific cases of environmental flow allocation 119 5.4.3 The relationship between an Environmental Impact Assessment and an Environmental Flow Assessment 120 5.5 THE SCOPE AND DETAIL OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL FLOW ASSESSMENT 121 5.6 ENVIRONMENTAL FLOW ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGIES CURRENTLY AVAILABLE 127 5.6.1 Methods for rivers 127 5.6.2 Methods for wetlands and estuaries 128 5.6.3 Methods for groundwater 128 5.7 IMPLICATIONS FOR A SOUND WATER POLICY 128 5.8 CHALLENGES FACING SADC WITH RESPECT TO ENVIRONMENTAL FLOW REQUIREMENTS 129 5.8.1 Political will, public participation, legislation and management strategies 129 5.8.2 Harmonisation of policies throughout SADC 129 5.8.3 Awareness and training, and recognition of community-based knowledge 129 5.8.4 The need for data on SADC rivers 130 5.8.5 Inherent unpredictability of complex systems 131 5.8.6 The influence of climate change on runoff 131 5.8.7 The need for monitoring 131 5.8.8 Dam location, design and operation